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NATIONAL
NCHRP REPORT 615
COOPERATIVE
HIGHWAY
RESEARCH
PROGRAM
Evaluation of the Use and
Effectiveness of
Wildlife Crossings
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TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD 2008 EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE*
OFFICERS
CHAIR: Debra L. Miller, Secretary, Kansas DOT, Topeka
VICE CHAIR: Adib K. Kanafani, Cahill Professor of Civil Engineering, University of California, Berkeley
EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR: Robert E. Skinner, Jr., Transportation Research Board
MEMBERS
J. Barry Barker, Executive Director, Transit Authority of River City, Louisville, KY
Allen D. Biehler, Secretary, Pennsylvania DOT, Harrisburg
John D. Bowe, President, Americas Region, APL Limited, Oakland, CA
Larry L. Brown, Sr., Executive Director, Mississippi DOT, Jackson
Deborah H. Butler, Executive Vice President, Planning, and CIO, Norfolk Southern Corporation, Norfolk, VA
William A.V. Clark, Professor, Department of Geography, University of California, Los Angeles
David S. Ekern, Commissioner, Virginia DOT, Richmond
Nicholas J. Garber, Henry L. Kinnier Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville
Jeffrey W. Hamiel, Executive Director, Metropolitan Airports Commission, Minneapolis, MN
Edward A. (Ned) Helme, President, Center for Clean Air Policy, Washington, DC
Will Kempton, Director, California DOT, Sacramento
Susan Martinovich, Director, Nevada DOT, Carson City
Michael D. Meyer, Professor, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta
Michael R. Morris, Director of Transportation, North Central Texas Council of Governments, Arlington
Neil J. Pedersen, Administrator, Maryland State Highway Administration, Baltimore
Pete K. Rahn, Director, Missouri DOT, Jefferson City
Sandra Rosenbloom, Professor of Planning, University of Arizona, Tucson
Tracy L. Rosser, Vice President, Corporate Traffic, Wal-Mart Stores, Inc., Bentonville, AR
Rosa Clausell Rountree, Executive Director, Georgia State Road and Tollway Authority, Atlanta
Henry G. (Gerry) Schwartz, Jr., Chairman (retired), Jacobs/Sverdrup Civil, Inc., St. Louis, MO
C. Michael Walton, Ernest H. Cockrell Centennial Chair in Engineering, University of Texas, Austin
Linda S. Watson, CEO, LYNXCentral Florida Regional Transportation Authority, Orlando
Steve Williams, Chairman and CEO, Maverick Transportation, Inc., Little Rock, AR
EX OFFICIO MEMBERS
Thad Allen (Adm., U.S. Coast Guard), Commandant, U.S. Coast Guard, Washington, DC
Joseph H. Boardman, Federal Railroad Administrator, U.S.DOT
Rebecca M. Brewster, President and COO, American Transportation Research Institute, Smyrna, GA
Paul R. Brubaker, Research and Innovative Technology Administrator, U.S.DOT
George Bugliarello, Chancellor, Polytechnic University of New York, Brooklyn, and Foreign Secretary, National Academy of Engineering,
Washington, DC
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John C. Horsley, Executive Director, American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC
Carl T. Johnson, Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administrator, U.S.DOT
J. Edward Johnson, Director, Applied Science Directorate, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, John C. Stennis Space Center, MS
William W. Millar, President, American Public Transportation Association, Washington, DC
Nicole R. Nason, National Highway Traffic Safety Administrator, U.S.DOT
James Ray, Acting Administrator, Federal Highway Administration, U.S.DOT
James S. Simpson, Federal Transit Administrator, U.S.DOT
Robert A. Sturgell, Acting Administrator, Federal Aviation Administration, U.S.DOT
Robert L. Van Antwerp (Lt. Gen., U.S. Army), Chief of Engineers and Commanding General, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Washington, DC
*Membership as of May 2008.
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NATIONAL COOPERATIVE HIGHWAY RESEARCH PROGRAM
NCHRP REPORT 615
Evaluation of the Use and
Effectiveness of
Wildlife Crossings
John A. Bissonette
Patricia C. Cramer
U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY--UTAH COOPERATIVE FISH AND WILDLIFE RESEARCH UNIT
UTAH STATE UNIVERSITY
Logan, UT
Subject Areas
Planning and Administration · Energy and Environment · Highway and Facility Design · Maintenance
Research sponsored by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
in cooperation with the Federal Highway Administration
TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD
WASHINGTON, D.C.
2008
www.TRB.org
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NATIONAL COOPERATIVE HIGHWAY NCHRP REPORT 615
RESEARCH PROGRAM
Systematic, well-designed research provides the most effective Project 25-27
approach to the solution of many problems facing highway ISSN 0077-5614
administrators and engineers. Often, highway problems are of local ISBN 978-0-309-11740-1
interest and can best be studied by highway departments individually Library of Congress Control Number 2008905372
or in cooperation with their state universities and others. However, the © 2008 Transportation Research Board
accelerating growth of highway transportation develops increasingly
complex problems of wide interest to highway authorities. These
problems are best studied through a coordinated program of COPYRIGHT PERMISSION
cooperative research.
Authors herein are responsible for the authenticity of their materials and for obtaining
In recognition of these needs, the highway administrators of the written permissions from publishers or persons who own the copyright to any previously
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials published or copyrighted material used herein.
initiated in 1962 an objective national highway research program Cooperative Research Programs (CRP) grants permission to reproduce material in this
employing modern scientific techniques. This program is supported on publication for classroom and not-for-profit purposes. Permission is given with the
understanding that none of the material will be used to imply TRB, AASHTO, FAA, FHWA,
a continuing basis by funds from participating member states of the
FMCSA, FTA, or Transit Development Corporation endorsement of a particular product,
Association and it receives the full cooperation and support of the method, or practice. It is expected that those reproducing the material in this document for
Federal Highway Administration, United States Department of educational and not-for-profit uses will give appropriate acknowledgment of the source of
any reprinted or reproduced material. For other uses of the material, request permission
Transportation.
from CRP.
The Transportation Research Board of the National Academies was
requested by the Association to administer the research program
because of the Board's recognized objectivity and understanding of
NOTICE
modern research practices. The Board is uniquely suited for this
purpose as it maintains an extensive committee structure from which The project that is the subject of this report was a part of the National Cooperative Highway
Research Program conducted by the Transportation Research Board with the approval of
authorities on any highway transportation subject may be drawn; it the Governing Board of the National Research Council. Such approval reflects the
possesses avenues of communications and cooperation with federal, Governing Board's judgment that the program concerned is of national importance and
state and local governmental agencies, universities, and industry; its appropriate with respect to both the purposes and resources of the National Research
Council.
relationship to the National Research Council is an insurance of
The members of the technical committee selected to monitor this project and to review this
objectivity; it maintains a full-time research correlation staff of
report were chosen for recognized scholarly competence and with due consideration for the
specialists in highway transportation matters to bring the findings of balance of disciplines appropriate to the project. The opinions and conclusions expressed
research directly to those who are in a position to use them. or implied are those of the research agency that performed the research, and, while they have
been accepted as appropriate by the technical committee, they are not necessarily those of
The program is developed on the basis of research needs identified
the Transportation Research Board, the National Research Council, the American
by chief administrators of the highway and transportation departments Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, or the Federal Highway
and by committees of AASHTO. Each year, specific areas of research Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation.
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Committee and the Governing Board of the National Research Council.
Highway and Transportation Officials. Research projects to fulfill these
needs are defined by the Board, and qualified research agencies are The Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, the National Research
Council, the Federal Highway Administration, the American Association of State Highway
selected from those that have submitted proposals. Administration and and Transportation Officials, and the individual states participating in the National
surveillance of research contracts are the responsibilities of the National Cooperative Highway Research Program do not endorse products or manufacturers. Trade
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object of this report.
The needs for highway research are many, and the National
Cooperative Highway Research Program can make significant
contributions to the solution of highway transportation problems of
mutual concern to many responsible groups. The program, however, is
intended to complement rather than to substitute for or duplicate other
highway research programs.
Published reports of the
NATIONAL COOPERATIVE HIGHWAY RESEARCH PROGRAM
are available from:
Transportation Research Board
Business Office
500 Fifth Street, NW
Washington, DC 20001
and can be ordered through the Internet at:
http://www.national-academies.org/trb/bookstore
Printed in the United States of America
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COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAMS
CRP STAFF FOR NCHRP REPORT 615
Christopher W. Jenks, Director, Cooperative Research Programs
Crawford F. Jencks, Deputy Director, Cooperative Research Programs
Christopher J. Hedges, Senior Program Officer
Eileen P. Delaney, Director of Publications
Natalie Barnes, Editor
NCHRP PROJECT 25-27 PANEL
Field of Transportation Planning--Area of Impact Analysis
J. M. Yowell, Versailles, KY (Chair)
Kyle Williams, New York State DOT, Albany, NY
Jason E. Alcott, Minnesota DOT, St. Paul, MN
Brendan K. Chan, Ottawa, ON
Kelly O. Cohen, California DOT, Sacramento, CA
Michael W. Hubbard, Missouri Department of Conservation, Jefferson City, MO
Jerald M. Powell, Lyons, CO
Jodi R. Sivak, Gloucester, MA
Mary E. Gray, FHWA Liaison
Christine Gerencher, TRB Liaison
Cover photograph: Wolverine Overpass in Banff National Park, Alberta, Canada
(© K. Gunson, used with permission).
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AUTHOR ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The research reported herein was conducted under NCHRP Project 25-27 by the U.S. Geological Sur-
vey (USGS) Utah Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, Department of Wildland Resources, Col-
lege of Natural Resources at Utah State University (USU); Department of Civil Engineering, Ryerson Uni-
versity; Engineering Professional Development Department, University of Wisconsin; Texas A&M
University; Sylvan Consulting Ltd., Invermere British Columbia, and Western Transportation Institute at
Montana State University.
Utah State University was awarded the prime contract for this study. The work undertaken at the Uni-
versity of Wisconsin, Texas A&M University, Ryerson University, Sylvan Consulting Ltd., and Montana
State University was performed under separate subcontracts with Utah State University. Principal inves-
tigator for the effort is John A. Bissonette, Leader of the USGS Utah Cooperative Fish and Wildlife
Research Unit at Utah State University and Professor in the Department of Wildland Resources.
The work was done under the general supervision of Professor Bissonette with his Research Associate
Dr. Patricia Cramer and his students Silvia Rosa and Carrie O'Brien at USU. Paul Jones, Jamey Anderson,
Brian Jennings, Karen Wolfe, and Bill Adair at USU provided important technical help. The work at Ryer-
son University was done under the supervision of Dr. Bhagwant Persaud with the assistance of Craig Lyon,
Research Associate. The work at the University of Wisconsin and later at Texas A&M University was done
under the supervision of Dr. Keith Knapp with the assistance of Ethan Shaw Schowalter-Hay. The work
done by Sylvan Consulting, Ltd. was accomplished by Nancy Newhouse and Trevor Kinley. Work per-
formed at the Western Transportation Institute at Montana State University was done by Dr. Anthony
Clevenger with the assistance of Amanda Hardy and Kari Gunson. Sandra Jacobson, Wildlife Biologist,
U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Redwood Sciences Lab, Pacific Southwest Research Sta-
tion, and Ingrid Brakop, Coordinator (former), Material Damage Loss Prevention, Insurance Corpora-
tion of British Columbia, provided significant input to the evaluation of Task 3, and Ms. Jacobson pro-
vided critical help with the Interactive Decision Guide.
Lead authors for report sections are as follows:
· Sections 2.2 and 2.3: Patricia C. Cramer and John A. Bissonette
· Section 3.1: Keith Knapp, Bhagwant Persaud, Craig Lyon,
and Ethan Shaw Schowalter-Hay
· Sections 3.2 and 3.3,
and Appendix E: Anthony P. Clevenger, Amanda Hardy, and Kari Gunson
· Section 3.4: John A. Bissonette, Silvia Rosa, and Carrie O'Brien (Utah); Nancy Newhouse
and Trevor Kinley (British Columbia)
· Sections 3.5 and 3.6: John A. Bissonette
We appreciate the access to the Kootenay River Ranch property provided by D. Hillary and T. Ennis of
the Nature Conservancy of Canada. Research for the British Columbia segment of the study on the influ-
ence of roads on small mammals (Section 3.4) was conducted under permit CB05-9954 issued by the British
Columbia Ministry of Water, Land and Air Protection. Dr. H. Schwantje of the British Columbia Ministry
of Water, Land and Air Protection was helpful in obtaining a provincial research permit. We thank C. Kassar,
D. Ferreria, R. Klafki, T. McAllister, and H. Page for help with field work and species identification.
Many thanks to Bill Adair for his help with the hierarchical monothetic agglomerative clustering analy-
sis discussed in Section 3.5.
The following list provides the affiliations of all authors who contributed to this report:
Utah State University, U.S. Geological Survey-- Montana State University
Utah Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit Anthony P. Clevenger
John A. Bissonette Amanda Hardy
Patricia C. Cramer Kari Gunson
Silvia Rosa
Carrie O'Brien University of WisconsinMadison
Paul Jones Keith K. Knapp
Jamey Anderson Ethan Shaw Schowalter-Hay
Brian Jennings
Karen G. Wolfe
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Ryerson University U.S. Forest Service
Bhagwant Persaud Sandra Jacobson
Craig Lyon
Insurance Corporation of British Columbia
Sylvan Consulting, Ltd. Ingrid Brakop
Nancy Newhouse
Trevor Kinley
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FOREWORD
By Christopher J. Hedges
Staff Officer
Transportation Research Board
This report documents the development of an interactive, web-based decision guide pro-
tocol for the selection, configuration, and location of wildlife crossings. For the first time,
transportation planners and designers and wildlife ecologists have access to clearly written,
structured guidelines to help reduce loss of property and life due to wildlifevehicle colli-
sions, while protecting wildlife and their habitat. The guidelines were based on goals and
needs identified and prioritized by transportation professionals from across North America,
and developed using the results of five parallel scientific studies.
Every year, the costs of personal injuries and property damage resulting from wildlife
vehicle collisions are considerable and increasing. Various means have been employed to
mitigate these collisions, with varying degrees of success. In recent years, highway agencies
have also placed a growing emphasis on protecting the environment. While many smaller
species of animals do not pose a threat to vehicles through collisions, they experience sig-
nificant habitat loss and fragmentation as a result of roadway alignments. Transportation
corridors limit the natural movement of wildlife, affecting individual species and eco-
systems. There has been considerable research on the provision of wildlife crossings, but
there is a lack of data on their effectiveness and on the methods most effective for reducing
wildlifevehicle collisions and increasing landscape permeability for species in specific land-
scapes. It also appears that crossings may work well for one species but not for others. An
international scan on wildlife habitat connectivity documented various strategies and
designs used in Europe to improve the connectivity of wildlife habitats. Developing success-
ful designs, methods, and strategies to make roadways more permeable to wildlife is but one
aspect of managing highways to avoid or minimize affects to the natural environment and
maintaining safety for motorists. This study was undertaken to provide state DOTs with
guidance on the use and effectiveness of wildlife crossings to mitigate habitat fragmentation
and reduce the number of animalvehicle collisions on our roadways.
Under NCHRP Project 25-27, a research team led by John Bissonette and Patricia Cramer
of Utah State University developed guidelines for the selection, configuration, location,
monitoring, evaluation, and maintenance of wildlife crossings. The research was split into
two phases. In the first phase, the team reviewed research and current practices, and con-
ducted a survey of more than 400 respondents on existing wildlife crossings across the
United States and Canada. In the second phase, a number of research studies were con-
ducted: an analysis of wildlifevehicle collision data, a study on the accuracy of spatial
modeling tools used to predict the influence of roadway geometry on wildlifevehicle col-
lisions, modeling of collision hotspots, a study on the influence of roads on small mammals,
and an analysis of the spacing of crossings needed to restore fragmented habitat and migra-
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tion patterns. Based on the results, the research team developed an interactive web-based
decision guide protocol offering guidance on the selection, configuration, and location of
crossing types, along with suggestions for their monitoring, evaluation, and maintenance.
The decision tool is outlined in the report and can be found on the web at www.wildlifeand
roads.org and on the AASHTO website (environment.transportation.org/environmental_
issues/wildlife_roads/decision_guide/manual).
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CONTENTS
1 Summary
10 Chapter 1 Introduction and Research Approach
10 Introduction
12 Research Approach
13 Structure of the Report
15 Chapter 2 Phase 1 Summary
15 2.1 Literature Search and Database
15 2.2 The State of the Practice and Science of Wildlife Crossings
in North America
15 Introduction
16 Research Approach: Methods and Data
16 Findings and Results
16 Interpretation, Appraisal, and Applications
20 Conclusions and Suggested Research
21 2.3 Priorities in Research and Practice
21 Introduction
21 Research Approach: Methods and Data
23 Findings and Results
27 Interpretation, Appraisal, and Applications
28 Conclusions and Suggested Research
30 Chapter 3 Phase 2 Segments
30 3.1 Safety Data Analysis Aspects
30 Introduction
31 Research Approach: Methods and Data
35 Findings and Results
44 Interpretation, Appraisal, and Applications
50 Conclusions and Suggested Research
53 3.2 Limiting Effects of Roadkill Reporting Data Due to Spatial Inaccuracy
53 Introduction
53 Research Approach: Methods and Data
57 Findings and Results
59 Interpretation, Appraisal, and Applications
62 Conclusions and Suggested Research
62 3.3 Hotspots Modeling
62 Introduction
63 Research Approach: Methods and Data
64 Findings and Results
74 Interpretation, Appraisal, and Applications
75 Conclusions
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76 3.4 Influence of Roads on Small Mammals
76 Introduction
77 Research Approach: Methods and Data
80 Findings and Results
85 Interpretation, Appraisal, and Applications
86 Conclusions
86 3.5 Restoring Habitat Networks with Allometrically Scaled Wildlife Crossings
86 Introduction
87 Research Approach: Methods and Data
90 Findings and Results
93 Interpretation, Appraisal, and Applications
94 Conclusions
96 3.6 Interpretation of Research Results
98 Chapter 4 Decision Guide
110 References
118 Appendix A Priority Tables and Plan of Action
132 Appendix B Application of Safety Performance Functions
in Other States or Time Periods
135 Appendix C Theoretical Background of Network Screening
for Proportion Method
137 Appendix D Illustrating Regression to the Mean
139 Appendix E A Literature Review of Field Studies
and Spatial Analyses for Hotspot Identification
of WildlifeVehicle Collisions
157 Appendix F Distance Sampling
159 Appendix G Allometric Scaling
