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TRANSIT
TCRP REPORT 128
COOPERATIVE
RESEARCH
PROGRAM
Sponsored by
the Federal
Transit Administration
Effects of TOD on Housing,
Parking, and Travel
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TCRP OVERSIGHT AND PROJECT TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD 2008 EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE*
SELECTION COMMITTEE*
CHAIR OFFICERS
Robert I. Brownstein
AECOM Consult, Inc. CHAIR: Debra L. Miller, Secretary, Kansas DOT, Topeka
VICE CHAIR: Adib K. Kanafani, Cahill Professor of Civil Engineering, University of California, Berkeley
MEMBERS EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR: Robert E. Skinner, Jr., Transportation Research Board
Ann August
Santee Wateree Regional Transportation Authority
John Bartosiewicz
MEMBERS
McDonald Transit Associates J. Barry Barker, Executive Director, Transit Authority of River City, Louisville, KY
Michael Blaylock Allen D. Biehler, Secretary, Pennsylvania DOT, Harrisburg
Jacksonville Transportation Authority
Linda J. Bohlinger
John D. Bowe, President, Americas Region, APL Limited, Oakland, CA
HNTB Corp. Larry L. Brown, Sr., Executive Director, Mississippi DOT, Jackson
Raul Bravo Deborah H. Butler, Executive Vice President, Planning, and CIO, Norfolk Southern Corporation,
Raul V. Bravo & Associates Norfolk, VA
Peter Cannito William A.V. Clark, Professor, Department of Geography, University of California, Los Angeles
Metropolitan Transportation Authority--Metro
North Railroad
David S. Ekern, Commissioner, Virginia DOT, Richmond
Gregory Cook Nicholas J. Garber, Henry L. Kinnier Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Virginia,
Veolia Transportation Charlottesville
Terry Garcia Crews Jeffrey W. Hamiel, Executive Director, Metropolitan Airports Commission, Minneapolis, MN
StarTran Edward A. (Ned) Helme, President, Center for Clean Air Policy, Washington, DC
Nathaniel P. Ford, Jr.
SF Municipal Transportation Agency
Will Kempton, Director, California DOT, Sacramento
Kim R. Green Susan Martinovich, Director, Nevada DOT, Carson City
GFI GENFARE Michael D. Meyer, Professor, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of
Jill A. Hough Technology, Atlanta
North Dakota State University Michael R. Morris, Director of Transportation, North Central Texas Council of Governments, Arlington
Angela Iannuzziello
ENTRA Consultants
Neil J. Pedersen, Administrator, Maryland State Highway Administration, Baltimore
John Inglish Pete K. Rahn, Director, Missouri DOT, Jefferson City
Utah Transit Authority Sandra Rosenbloom, Professor of Planning, University of Arizona, Tucson
Jeanne W. Krieg Tracy L. Rosser, Vice President, Corporate Traffic, Wal-Mart Stores, Inc., Bentonville, AR
Eastern Contra Costa Transit Authority Rosa Clausell Rountree, Executive Director, Georgia State Road and Tollway Authority, Atlanta
David A. Lee
Connecticut Transit
Henry G. (Gerry) Schwartz, Jr., Chairman (retired), Jacobs/Sverdrup Civil, Inc., St. Louis, MO
Clarence W. Marsella C. Michael Walton, Ernest H. Cockrell Centennial Chair in Engineering, University of Texas, Austin
Denver Regional Transportation District Linda S. Watson, CEO, LYNXCentral Florida Regional Transportation Authority, Orlando
Gary W. McNeil Steve Williams, Chairman and CEO, Maverick Transportation, Inc., Little Rock, AR
GO Transit
Michael P. Melaniphy EX OFFICIO MEMBERS
Motor Coach Industries
Frank Otero Thad Allen (Adm., U.S. Coast Guard), Commandant, U.S. Coast Guard, Washington, DC
PACO Technologies Joseph H. Boardman, Federal Railroad Administrator, U.S.DOT
Keith Parker Rebecca M. Brewster, President and COO, American Transportation Research Institute, Smyrna, GA
Charlotte Area Transit System
Michael Scanlon Paul R. Brubaker, Research and Innovative Technology Administrator, U.S.DOT
San Mateo County Transit District George Bugliarello, Chancellor, Polytechnic University of New York, Brooklyn, and Foreign Secretary,
Beverly Scott National Academy of Engineering, Washington, DC
Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority Sean T. Connaughton, Maritime Administrator, U.S.DOT
James S. Simpson LeRoy Gishi, Chief, Division of Transportation, Bureau of Indian Affairs, U.S. Department of the
FTA
James Stem Interior, Washington, DC
United Transportation Union Edward R. Hamberger, President and CEO, Association of American Railroads, Washington, DC
Frank Tobey John H. Hill, Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administrator, U.S.DOT
First Transit John C. Horsley, Executive Director, American Association of State Highway and Transportation
EX OFFICIO MEMBERS Officials, Washington, DC
William W. Millar Carl T. Johnson, Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administrator, U.S.DOT
APTA J. Edward Johnson, Director, Applied Science Directorate, National Aeronautics and Space
Robert E. Skinner, Jr. Administration, John C. Stennis Space Center, MS
TRB William W. Millar, President, American Public Transportation Association, Washington, DC
John C. Horsley
AASHTO Nicole R. Nason, National Highway Traffic Safety Administrator, U.S.DOT
James D. Ray James Ray, Acting Administrator, Federal Highway Administration, U.S.DOT
FHWA James S. Simpson, Federal Transit Administrator, U.S.DOT
Robert A. Sturgell, Acting Administrator, Federal Aviation Administration, U.S.DOT
TDC EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR
Louis Sanders Robert L. Van Antwerp (Lt. Gen., U.S. Army), Chief of Engineers and Commanding General,
APTA U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Washington, DC
SECRETARY
Christopher W. Jenks
TRB
*Membership as of June 2008. *Membership as of May 2008.
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TRANSIT COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM
TCRP REPORT 128
Effects of TOD on Housing,
Parking, and Travel
G. B. Arrington
PB PLACEMAKING
Portland, OR
Robert Cervero
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA AT BERKELEY
Berkeley, CA
Subject Areas
Planning and Administration · Public Transit · Rail
Research sponsored by the Federal Transit Administration in cooperation with the Transit Development Corporation
TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD
WASHINGTON, D.C.
2008
www.TRB.org
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TRANSIT COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM TCRP REPORT 128
The nation's growth and the need to meet mobility, environmental, Project H-27A
and energy objectives place demands on public transit systems. Current ISSN 1073-4872
systems, some of which are old and in need of upgrading, must expand ISBN: 978-0-309-11748-7
service area, increase service frequency, and improve efficiency to serve Library of Congress Control Number 2008907872
these demands. Research is necessary to solve operating problems, to © 2008 Transportation Research Board
adapt appropriate new technologies from other industries, and to intro-
duce innovations into the transit industry. The Transit Cooperative
Research Program (TCRP) serves as one of the principal means by
which the transit industry can develop innovative near-term solutions COPYRIGHT PERMISSION
to meet demands placed on it. Authors herein are responsible for the authenticity of their materials and for obtaining
written permissions from publishers or persons who own the copyright to any previously
The need for TCRP was originally identified in TRB Special Report
published or copyrighted material used herein.
213--Research for Public Transit: New Directions, published in 1987
Cooperative Research Programs (CRP) grants permission to reproduce material in this
and based on a study sponsored by the Urban Mass Transportation
publication for classroom and not-for-profit purposes. Permission is given with the
Administration--now the Federal Transit Administration (FTA). A understanding that none of the material will be used to imply TRB, AASHTO, FAA, FHWA,
report by the American Public Transportation Association (APTA), FMCSA, FTA, or Transit Development Corporation endorsement of a particular product,
Transportation 2000, also recognized the need for local, problem- method, or practice. It is expected that those reproducing the material in this document for
educational and not-for-profit uses will give appropriate acknowledgment of the source of
solving research. TCRP, modeled after the longstanding and success- any reprinted or reproduced material. For other uses of the material, request permission
ful National Cooperative Highway Research Program, undertakes from CRP.
research and other technical activities in response to the needs of tran-
sit service providers. The scope of TCRP includes a variety of transit
research fields including planning, service configuration, equipment,
NOTICE
facilities, operations, human resources, maintenance, policy, and
The project that is the subject of this report was a part of the Transit Cooperative Research
administrative practices.
Program conducted by the Transportation Research Board with the approval of the
TCRP was established under FTA sponsorship in July 1992. Pro- Governing Board of the National Research Council. Such approval reflects the Governing
posed by the U.S. Department of Transportation, TCRP was autho- Board's judgment that the project concerned is appropriate with respect to both the
rized as part of the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act purposes and resources of the National Research Council.
of 1991 (ISTEA). On May 13, 1992, a memorandum agreement out- The members of the technical advisory panel selected to monitor this project and to review
lining TCRP operating procedures was executed by the three cooper- this report were chosen for recognized scholarly competence and with due consideration
for the balance of disciplines appropriate to the project. The opinions and conclusions
ating organizations: FTA, the National Academies, acting through the expressed or implied are those of the research agency that performed the research, and
Transportation Research Board (TRB); and the Transit Development while they have been accepted as appropriate by the technical panel, they are not
Corporation, Inc. (TDC), a nonprofit educational and research orga- necessarily those of the Transportation Research Board, the National Research Council,
nization established by APTA. TDC is responsible for forming the the Transit Development Corporation, or the Federal Transit Administration of the U.S.
Department of Transportation.
independent governing board, designated as the TCRP Oversight and
Project Selection (TOPS) Committee. Each report is reviewed and accepted for publication by the technical panel according to
procedures established and monitored by the Transportation Research Board Executive
Research problem statements for TCRP are solicited periodically but Committee and the Governing Board of the National Research Council.
may be submitted to TRB by anyone at any time. It is the responsibility
The Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, the National Research
of the TOPS Committee to formulate the research program by identi- Council, the Transit Development Corporation, and the Federal Transit Administration
fying the highest priority projects. As part of the evaluation, the TOPS (sponsor of the Transit Cooperative Research Program) do not endorse products or
Committee defines funding levels and expected products. manufacturers. Trade or manufacturers' names appear herein solely because they are
considered essential to the clarity and completeness of the project reporting.
Once selected, each project is assigned to an expert panel, appointed
by the Transportation Research Board. The panels prepare project state-
ments (requests for proposals), select contractors, and provide techni-
cal guidance and counsel throughout the life of the project. The process
for developing research problem statements and selecting research
agencies has been used by TRB in managing cooperative research pro-
grams since 1962. As in other TRB activities, TCRP project panels serve
voluntarily without compensation.
Because research cannot have the desired impact if products fail to
reach the intended audience, special emphasis is placed on dissemi-
Published reports of the
nating TCRP results to the intended end users of the research: tran-
sit agencies, service providers, and suppliers. TRB provides a series TRANSIT COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM
of research reports, syntheses of transit practice, and other support- are available from:
ing material developed by TCRP research. APTA will arrange for Transportation Research Board
workshops, training aids, field visits, and other activities to ensure Business Office
that results are implemented by urban and rural transit industry 500 Fifth Street, NW
Washington, DC 20001
practitioners.
The TCRP provides a forum where transit agencies can cooperatively and can be ordered through the Internet at
address common operational problems. The TCRP results support and http://www.national-academies.org/trb/bookstore
complement other ongoing transit research and training programs. Printed in the United States of America
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COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAMS
CRP STAFF FOR TCRP REPORT 128
Christopher W. Jenks, Director, Cooperative Research Programs
Crawford F. Jencks, Deputy Director, Cooperative Research Programs
Gwen Chisholm Smith, Senior Program Officer
Eileen P. Delaney, Director of Publications
Margaret B. Hagood, Editor
TCRP PROJECT H-27A PANEL
Field of Service Policy and Planning
Richard G. Bickel, AICP, Delaware Valley Regional Planning Commission, Philadelphia, PA (Chair)
Edward A. Beimborn, University of WisconsinMilwaukee, Milwaukee, WI
Todd Hemingson, Capital Metropolitan Transportation Authority, Austin, TX
Jack Kanarek, New Jersey Transit Corporation, Newark, NJ
Jack Limber, San Diego, CA
Anastasia Loukaitous-Sideris, University of CaliforniaLos Angeles, Los Angeles, CA
Jeff Ordway, San Francisco Bay Area Rapid Transit District, Oakland, CA
Jeffrey L. Spencer, California DOT, Sacramento, CA
Effie Stallsmith, FTA Liaison
Richard Weaver, APTA Liaison
Peter Shaw, TRB Liaison
AUTHOR ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The research reported was performed under TCRP Project H-27A, lead by G. B. Arrington and Robert
Cervero.
Other authors of this report are Todd Borkowitz, Kimi Iboshi Sloop, Emily Hull, Jennifer Rosales, PB
PlaceMaking, Portland, Oregon; Shelley Poticha and Jeff Wood, Center for Transit Oriented Develop-
ment, Oakland, California; and Robert Dunphy and Carl Koelbel, Urban Land Institute, Washington, D.C.
Cover art: Illustration by Dan deAngeli.
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FOREWORD
By Gwen Chisholm Smith
Staff Officer
Transportation Research Board
TCRP Report 128: Effects of TOD on Housing, Parking, and Travel provides original data on
TOD residential trip generation and parking, the behavior and motivation of TOD residents,
employees, and employers in their mode choice. The report also identifies best practices to pro-
mote, maintain, and improve TOD-related transit ridership.
This report will be helpful to project, land-use, and transportation planners; transit agencies;
the development community; and federal, state, and local decision makers considering transit-
oriented development.
This research builds on prior work done under TCRP Project H-27, which is published
as TCRP Research Results Digest 52: Transit-Oriented Development and Joint Development in
the United States: A Literature Review and as TCRP Report 102: Transit-Oriented Develop-
ment in the United States: Experiences, Challenges, and Prospects.
A related publication to this report, TCRP Research Results Digest 52: Transit-Oriented
Development and Joint Development in the United States: A Literature Review, reviews perti-
nent literature and research findings related to TOD and joint development. It contains a
bibliography annotated by subject area.
TCRP Report 102 is a national assessment of TOD issues, barriers, and successes. TCRP
102 included 10 case studies from a variety of geographic and development settings. Report
102 indicated that increased ridership is the principal goal of transit agencies in supporting
TODs. However, increased ridership as a result of TOD is a complex outcome involving
behavioral, locational, and situational factors. The ties between livable communities and
transit ridership remained largely unaddressed.
TCRP Report 128 addresses the following fundamental questions: (1) What are the demo-
graphic profiles of TOD residents and employers; (2) What motivates residents or employ-
ers to locate in TODs; (3) What are the travel characteristics (e.g., frequency of travel by dif-
ferent modes) of people who live or work in a TOD; (4) What was the travel pattern of the
TOD resident prior to moving to the TOD; (5) What levels of transit connectivity to desired
origins and destinations are required to promote transit ridership at TODs; (6)What moti-
vates or impedes transit ridership in a TOD; (7)Which strategies have been effective in
increasing transit ridership at TODs; (8) What steps should transit agencies take in support-
ing TODs to maximize transit ridership; and (9) What TOD land-use and design features
(e.g., mixed land-use, traffic calming, bus bulbs, short blocks, street furniture) have had an
effect on travel patterns, transit ridership, or the decision to locate in a TOD?
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CONTENTS
1 Summary
1 Literature Review
4 TOD Housing Transportation Performance
6 Section 1 Literature Review
6 TOD Travel Characteristics
12 Transit System and Land Use Influences
19 TOD Ridership Strategies
22 TOD Resident/Tenant Characteristics
29 Section 2 Does TOD Housing Reduce Automobile Trips?
29 Study Projects
31 Study Methods
32 Data Compilation
36 Comparison of Vehicle Trip Generation Rates
40 How Do Rates Vary?
45 Multiple Regression Predictions of TOD Housing Trip Generation Rates
47 Applying the Research: Four TOD Housing Case Studies
51 Implications of Applying New Standards for TOD Housing
54 Conclusion and Recommendations
57 References
