Summarizing and Interpreting Aircraft Gaseous and Particulate Emissions Data (2008)

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35 Aksit, I. M. and J. B. Moss, “Model fuels to reproduce the sooting behavior of aviation kerosene.” Fuel. 84. Jan-Feb 2005. Researchers designed model fuels which exhibited similar sooting behavior to that of aviation kerosene. Aristotle University. PARTICULATES. Characterisation of Exhaust Particulate Emissions from Road Vehicles. Deliver- able 8: Measurement of Non-exhaust Particulate Matter, Laboratory of Applied Thermodynamics. 2004. http://lat. eng.auth.gr/particulates/downloads.htm This report is part of the 3-year PARTICULATES project, launched in April 2000, which aimed to collect and analyze PM in a scientific and technical manner. This portion of the report focused on non-exhaust PM, including: tire wear, brake wear, clutch wear, road surface wear, corrosion of vehicle body/components, and corrosion of street furniture/ signs/etc. Barbosa, S., et al., Air Monitoring Study at Los Angeles In- ternational Airport. South Coast Air Quality Management District. Oct 1999. AQMD conducted a study to address concerns about the pollutant levels to which LAX staff may be exposed; although PM10 24-hour measurement levels at LAX exceeded the South Coast Air Basin averages on most sampling days, these levels were still below federal ambient PM10 standards for 24 hours. Barbosa, S., et al., Air Monitoring Study of Felton and Lloyd Schools. South Coast Air Quality Management District. Sep 2001. Studied VOC, carbonyls, carbon (organic and elemental), and metals; school is in the prevailing wind trajectory of Los Angeles International Airport (LAX); no impact of air- port was discernible. Boulter, P. G., A Review of Emission Factors and Models for Road Vehicle Non-Exhaust Particle Matter. Published Project Report PPR065. TRL Limited. 2005. http://www. airquality.co.uk/archive/reports/reports.php?action category&section_id8 A detailed report conducted by TRL Limited investigating non-exhaust PM from road traffic. The goal is to improve prediction methods for emissions and air pollution. The report is broken down into five phases: a literature review, emission model development and application, initial air quality model development and application, further air quality model de- velopment and discussion of abatement options. Broughton, M., “Check in for carbon trading.” Engineer (London). 293(16). Jan 15-28, 2007. Editorial arguing the attention and criticism which Avia- tion gets for polluting is disproportionate to its percentage contribution to total emissions. Bruno, T. J. and B. L. Smith, “Improvement in the measure- ment of distillation curves. 2. Application to aerospace/ aviation fuels RP-1 and S-8.” Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research. 45(12). Jun 7, 2006. Demonstrated new measurement method and applied it to two common types of fuel. Camp Dresser & McKee, Inc. LAX Master Plan—Technical Report Deposition Monitoring. Mar 1998. Data collected at the six monitoring stations tend to elimi- nate the airport as the major deposition source for the areas di- rectly adjacent to the airport; the deposition rate data implicates A P P E N D I X C Bibliography for the Literature Survey

freeway traffic for high daytime concentrations; copper com- position data indicates that a small fraction of the total deposi- tion seen in the daytime is potentially from aircraft braking. Chan, C. Y., et al., “Characteristics of vertical profiles and sources of PM2.5, PM10, and carbonaceous species in Beijing.” Atmospheric Environment. 39(28). Sep 2005. Fugitive dust from construction adds to the particulate matter problems of Beijing but gives no clear values as to the role of construction compared to other emission sources. Construction PM tends to be larger than PM2.5. Eden, R., et al., Air Monitoring Study in the Area of Los Angeles International Airport. South Coast Air Quality Management District. Apr 2000. Key compounds detected in the study are associated with mobile sources; all key compounds are lower at residential sites than at Aviation and Felton School sites, which are influ- enced by emissions from major highways; fallout samples depict greater abundance of larger-than-PM10-sized combusted oil soot particles than is observed at most other locations in the South Coast Basin. Gerilla, G. P., K. Teknomo, and K. Hokao, “An environmen- tal assessment of wood and steel reinforced concrete hous- ing construction.” Building and Environment. July 2007. Article provides a comparison of the life-cycle costs of wooden housing to steel reinforced concrete. The work com- pared the life-time emissions for construction through useful life of both types of construction using a hybrid input-output model to capture the PM emissions. This research did not attempt to measure PM (or any emissions) directly and used a model to capture the emissions of the components of each method of construction. Goldman, A., “Soot and Odor,” KM Chng Environmental Inc. Airport Air Quality; Approaches, Basics & Challenges. Institute of Transportation Studies. University of California, Berkeley. 2005. Summary of soot studies at several airports concluded that studies to date have shown that deposits have been made up of fungus, minerals and soil, particles from wood burning, particles from automobile and diesel truck exhausts, or gen- eral urban contamination. While there may be a very small contribution from aircraft exhaust in the deposits in the neighborhoods, the deposits are almost entirely made up of non-aircraft-related components. Granell, J., C. Ho, et al. Analysis of MOBILE 6.2’s PM Emis- sion Factor Estimating Function. 13th International Emission Inventory Conference. June 8-10, 2004. http://www.epa. gov/ttn/chief/conference/ei13/ This paper summarizes the difference between the EPA’s older PART5 model, released in 1995, and their new MOBILE6.2 model, released in 2004. Both models are used to estimate exhaust, brake wear, and tire wear particulate matter emissions. Green, J. E., “Civil aviation and the environment—the next frontier for the aerodynamicist.” Aeronautical Journal. 110(1110). 2006. In addition to the work being done to reduce emissions through optimization of engines, progress towards a cleaner fleet could be done through the improvement of the aerody- namic properties of aircraft. This is mostly done through op- timizing the aircraft for fuel efficiency. Green, J. E., “Future aircraft—greener by design?” Meteor- ologische Zeitschrift. Aug 2005. This paper considers what might be achieved within the next 50 years by advances in aircraft and engine technology and by a shift in design priority from minimizing costs to minimizing environmental impact of air travel. In U.K. Air Travel—Greener by Design initiative is the response of the civil aviation community to this environmental challenge. There are substantial research programs in Europe and the United States aimed at low NOx combustor technology (mostly focused on emissions near the airports). Trade Off: Increased pressure ration → Low fuel burn and high NOx. This constitutes a tradeoff between NOx emissions and CO2 emissions (which vary with fuel burn). The evidence to date suggests that success is more likely at the medium pressure ra- tios of small engines than at the high pressure ratios of the large engines typical of long-range aircraft. Hoffnagle, G., Community Impact of Aircraft Particle Emis- sions. TRC Environmental Corp. Fall 1996. Chemical mass balance analysis of particles collected with deposition plates on Logan Airport (BOS) and in commu- nities surrounding the airport; airport sources examined in- cluded engine swipes and tire wear/brake wear; materials from examined sources represented up to 8.5% of fallout col- lected on airport site; materials from community sites repre- sented less than 0.3% of fallout. Karcher, B., “Aviation-produced aerosols and contrails.” Surveys in geophysics. 20(2). 1999. Review of “current” (1998) knowledge about aerosols and contrails. 36

Kinsey, J., K. Linna, W. Squier, G. Muleski, and C. Cowherd Jr., “Characterization of the fugitive particulate emissions from construction mud/dirt carryout.” Journal of the Air and Waste Management Association. 54(11). Nov 2004. Cars driving over the mud/dirt carryout from construction can be a source of construction-related PM as cars re-suspend particles from this dirt. The measurements of PM10 are within the EPA current emission factors, but PM2.5 was found to be lower than expected. In these test areas, the PM2.5 emis- sions are overshadowed by car exhaust rather than the mud carryout. K. M. Chng Environmental Inc. Summary of Two Logan Soot Studies. Fall 1996. There were no ongoing chronic soot impacts from airport- related activity either for departing or arriving aircraft or from other Logan activity; there were no indications of raw jet fuel in the soot samples analyzed; the contribution of inorganic particles from brake wear and tire wear drop off rapidly and are not observed in the nearby communities. Kugele, A., F. Jelinek, and R. Gaffal, Aircraft Particulate Matter Emission Estimation Through All Phases of Flight. Eurocontrol Experimental Centre. EEC/SEE/2005/0014, 2005. A study of PM emitted by aircraft broken down into three “work packages”: literature review, review and development of a method to estimate PM emissions from aircraft through all phases of flight, implementation of the method into an MS–Access-based module linked to EUROCONTROL’s AEM III. Langley, I. D., et al., “Using NOx and CO monitoring data to indicate fine aerosol number concentrations and emissions factors in three U.K. conurbations.” Atmospheric Environ- ment, 39(28). Sep 2005. The authors’ work determined that NOx and CO is heavily correlated with PM emissions through a series of equations. These equations can be adjusted to reflect the uniqueness of the NOx and CO monitoring situations. Using these correla- tions, the authors suggested potential road transport PM emissions factors though the PM factors may need to be eval- uated and changed to consider seasonal variations. Lee, D. S., et al., “Aviation emissions: Present-day and future.” Meterologische Zeitschrift. 11. 2002. Paper compared two different methods of estimating emis- sions. The methods concentrated on measuring emissions based on fuel consumption. Method one: ANCAT/EC2 1991/92 inventory construc- tion → ANCAT/EC2 2015 inventory forecast. Construc- tion: Aircraft movements database, a representation of the global fleet in terms of aircraft and engines, a fuel flow model, calculation of emissions at altitude from fuel flow, and landing and takeoff emissions data. Forecast: Global air fleet forecast by the U.K. Department of Trade and Industry. Use past development trends to forecast future engines/ aircraft. Applied trends in fuel efficiency. Emission perfor- mance of the forecast fleet was determined by the response to an assumed regulatory scenario: Results: Drop in NPX emissions. Method two: The FESG 2050 Aircraft Emission Scenarios. Compared their original results to the results found by other researchers using this technique. Method one and two have comparable results. Lee, J. J., S. P. Lukachko, I. A. Waitz, and A. Schafer, Histor- ical and Future Trends in Aircraft Performance, Cost, and Emissions. 2000. Emissions per aircraft reduced by 3.3%; air traffic is in- creasing by 5.5%. E in MJ/RPK (mega joules/revenue passen- ger kilometer) is forecast to decline by 1.2%–2.2% a year in the future. Legret, M. and C. Pagotto, “Evaluation of pollutant loading in the runoff waters from a major rural highway.” The Sci- ence of Total Environment. 235:143–150. 1999. This study examined the pollutants found in runoff water from a 275-m (902-ft) motorway during a 1-year study, con- sisting of approximately 50 rain events. Included in this study is a comparison of estimation of pollutant emission from vehicle traffic, which includes tire and brake emission estimates. Metcalfe, J. L., G. W. Fischer, et al., Auckland Air Emissions Inventory: 2004. Auckland Regional Council. Technical Pub- lication 292. 2006. http://www.arc.govt.nz/arc/publications/ technical-publications/arc-technical-publications.cfm. This report estimates the emissions in the Auckland area from four major sources: transportation, domestic, industry, and biogenic. The study puts an emphasis on ambient air pol- lutants: PM10, NOx, CO, VOCs. Metts, T. A., S. A. Batterman, G. I. Fernandes, and P. Kalliokoski, “Ozone removal by diesel particulate matter.” Atmospheric Environment. 39(18). Jun 2005. Examined the ozone removal capacity of fresh diesel soot particles. Diesel soot is expected to remove only a small por- tion of O3 from urban/tropospheric and indoor air. 37

Muleski, G., C. Cowherd Jr., and J. Kinsey, “Particulate emissions from construction activities.” Journal of the Air and Waste Management Association. 55(6). June 2005. The emissions factors for heavy construction have re- mained unchanged since their publication in 1975. Using construction sites in Kansas, the authors measured the PM (PM10 and PM2.5) emissions of construction activities. The work focused on earthmoving machines as their use consti- tutes 70% to 90% of the PM emissions associated with con- struction. PM10 measurements were significantly higher than AP-42 would have estimated and the effects of mud carryout were lower than expected. There was less PM2.5 than expected. The dirt path of the loaded and empty earthmover is the por- tion of construction with the highest PM emissions. A lower portion of the emissions are based in the diesel exhaust when compared to loading and unloading. National Environmental Technology Centre (Netcen), Gatwick 2010 Baseline Emission Inventory (Public Access Version). Reference: AEAT/ENV/R/1791/Issue 1. 2006. http:// www.gatwickairport.com/portal/page/LGW%5EAbout BAAGatwick%5EPublications/ This report provides a forecast of atmospheric emissions from London Gatwick airport in 2010, the year the European Union will begin to limit values for NO2 for its member states. This study is similar to the 2002/03 emission inventory except results are forecast predictions. National Environmental Technology Centre (Netcen), Gatwick Emission Inventory 2002/3 (Public Access Version). Reference: AEAT/ENV/R/1569/Issue 2. 2006. http://www. gatwickairport.com/portal/page/LGW%5EAboutBAA Gatwick%5EPublications/ This report provides the methodology and data used to generate an inventory of emissions at London Gatwick air- port for the period spanning June 1, 2002 to May 31, 2003. This study focuses primarily on NOx and PM10 emission from the following sources: aircraft in the landing and takeoff phase, airside vehicles/plant, road vehicles on landside airport roads (and surrounding network), car parks and taxi queues, heating plant, and fire-training ground. Rakopoulos, C. D., D. T. Hountalas, and D. C. Rakopoulos. “Comparative environmental evaluation of JP-8 and diesel fuels burned in direct injection (DI) or indirect injection (IDI) diesel engines and in a laboratory furnace.” Energy & Fuels. 18(5). 2004. In recent years, NATO and U.S. military forces have decided to implement a single fuel (JP-8) for all land-based military aircraft, vehicles, and equipment during war and peace times. Substituting JP-8 for diesel oil No-2. Primary goal of paper is to contrast emissions of two emissions that were comparable for both fuels. Ruijgrok, G. J. J., Elements of Aircraft Pollution. IOS Press. 2005. Book about aircraft pollution. Attention has been concen- trated on emissions at ground level near the airport (CO and unburned hydrocarbons which appear to be dominating at low thrust setting) with great success. Considerable efforts to lower emissions were made by changing the combustion process. Sanders, P., N. Xu, T. Dalka, and M. Maricq, “Airborne brake wear debris: Size distributions, composition, and a comparison of dynamometer and vehicle tests.” Environ- mental Science and Technology. 37:4060–4069. 2003. This paper summarizes the findings of two experiments on brake emissions. Three experiments were conducted: one using a brake dynamometer, another using a wind tunnel, and another on a test track. This study expands on a previous study conducted by the same authors by providing data on particle size distributions, analyzing the brake wear debris composition, and comparing the dynamometer results to the wind tunnel and test track results. South Coast Air Quality Management District. Inglewood Particulate Fallout Study Under and Near the Flight Path to Los Angeles International Airport. Sep 2000. Combusted oil soot particles were not present in abun- dance in the majority of samples collected during the study, but no conclusions can be drawn from this finding due to the limited sampling period; the composition of the fallout is consistent with that typically found in other areas of the Basin; there is no discernible pattern of either carbon mass or total fallout mass under LAX’s flight path that would indicate a predominant influence from aircraft fallout; the concentra- tion and growth of gasoline- and diesel-powered vehicle traf- fic in and around the airport is a concern from an emissions impact perspective. Stolzenbach, K. D., et al., Measuring and Modeling of At- mospheric Deposition on Santa Monica Bay and the Santa Monica Bay Watershed. Institute of the Environment. University of California, Los Angeles, and K. Schiff, et al., Southern California Coastal Water Research Project. Sep 2001. Annual rate of atmospheric transport and deposition of trace metals to Santa Monica Bay is significant; most of the 38

mass of metals deposited by dry deposition on Santa Monica Bay and its watershed originates as relatively large (>10 mi- crons) aerosols from area sources (off-road vehicles and small businesses); for metals the most important sources of emis- sions to the atmosphere are nonpermitted area sources. Suarez, et al., Fine Particulate Matter (PM2.5) Monitoring During the Ft. Lauderdale-Hollywood International Airport Air Runway Overlay Project. Broward County Environmen- tal Protection. Department, Air Quality Division. Ambient Monitoring Section. Aug 31–Oct 21, 2004. Concentrations of PM2.5 experienced at sampling site under the temporary flight path were higher than at sampling site under the normal flight path (unused during overlay project); however, the differences were consistent during nor- mal operations, which suggests that the differences are not de- pendent on the increased air traffic caused by the resurfacing of the primary runway at FLL; changes in concentrations at the two sites mimicked each other, which may be indicative of the material contained in the air mass over the broader area. Unal, A., et al., “Airport related emissions and impacts on air quality: Application to the Atlanta International Air- port.” Atmospheric Environment. 39(32). 2005. The emissions estimation focused on PM2.5 using FOA1.0 for each mode of aircraft operation. The authors also speci- ated the PM emissions into elemental carbon (66%), organic carbon (29%), sulfate (4.6%), and nitrate (0.32%). They de- termined that the ground support equipment (GSE) was more influential in local air quality than the aircraft even though the GSE emitted less pollution. The approximation method used in the research affected the results dramatically. By using FOA1.0 in a mode-specific manner and spatially dis- tributing the emissions, the final conclusion was that aircraft are not the driver for PM problems in the Atlanta area. The study evaluated traffic for select days in August 2000. United Kingdom, Department for Transport, Project for the Sustainable Development of Heathrow—Air Quality Technical Report. June 2007. http://www.dft.gov.uk/pgr/ aviation/environmentalissues/ secheatrowsustain/ A collection of findings from technical panels set up by the Department for Transport in 2004 to find ways to improve the air quality around Heathrow Airport. The three technical panels were assigned to investigate dispersion modeling (Panel 1), monitoring of air pollution (Panel 2) and emission source data (Panel 3). Venkatesan, M. I., Analysis of Hydrocarbons and Trace Met- als in Environmental Samples in Support of Los Angeles International Airport 2015 Master Plan Expansion Project EIS/EIR. Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics. University of California at Los Angeles and Boyle, K.E., Department of Organismic Biology, Ecology, and Evolu- tion. University of California at Los Angeles. July 1998. Study commissioned to characterize aircraft emissions in the vicinity of Los Angeles International Airport; jet aircraft exhaust apparently does not contribute significantly to the saturated hydrocarbons found in the atmospheric particles, soils, plant surface, and water samples evaluated from the area of potential effect; saturated hydrocarbons present in samples appear to be comparably influenced by regional atmospheric deposition; with the exception of vanadium, aerial deposition of trace metals and boron is occurring in the El Segundo Dunes at levels that are consistent with studies of other urban areas; concentrations of trace ele- ments in ambient PM10 were within expected values for urban locations. Whellens, M. W. and R. Singh, “Paper 7111: Propulsion System Optimization for Minimum Global Warming Poten- tial.” Proceedings of ICAS 2002 Congress, Toronto, Canada. 2002. Analysis of how turbofan engines would be designed if they were optimized for the environment rather than fuel con- sumption. The results of the study show that, with the given relationship between emissions and global warming poten- tial, a turbofan engine optimized for minimum cruise global warming potential is characterized by lower operating pres- sures and temperatures than those found in a turbofan opti- mized for minimum cruise SFC (specific fuel consumption). Although this makes it a fuel-inefficient solution, it is also shown that a better SFC performance can be retained by choosing solutions that are close, but not coincident, to the mathematical optimum for global warming potential. Yan, S. H., E. G. Eddings, A. B. Palotas, R. J. Pugmire, and A.F. Sarofim, “Sooting tendency of HC liquids in diffusion flames.” Energy and Fuels. 19(6). Nov-Dec 2005. Discusses methods for predicting soot emissions of partic- ular fuels. Zanini, G., et al., “Concentration measurement in a road tunnel as a method to assess ‘real-world’ vehicle exhaust emissions.” Atmospheric Environment. 40(7). 2006. Authors ran buses for 8 hours in a closed tunnel with dif- ferent fuels to measure PM changes over time and driving conditions outside a laboratory environment. Other pollutants were measured as well. 39

Zannis, T. C. and D. T. Hountalas, “DI diesel engine perfor- mance and emissions from the oxygen enrichment of fuels with various aromatic content.” Energy & Fuels. 18(3). 2004. Paper examines effect of fuel oxygen enhancement with various aromatic content on pollutant emissions. Result: Fuel oxygen addition appears to be more effective in the reduction of soot CO and HC emissions (higher NOx emissions when oxygenated additives). Zervas, E., X. Montagne, J. Lahaye, Influence of Fuel and Air/Fuel Equivalence Ratios on the Emission of Hydrocarbons from a SI Engine. Experimental Findings, Formation Path- ways and Modeling of Combustion Processes. For this paper, researchers tested emissions for fuels with varying air/fuel equivalence ratios. The emissions of all hydrocarbons generally decrease with the addition of oxygenated compounds except sometimes in the case of methane, ethane, and cyclohexane. Under rich conditions the relative increase of exhaust methane and ben- zene is more important than the other saturated hydrocar- bons. Some hydrocarbons are correlated with the physical properties of the fuel and other exhaust pollutants. 40