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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 2 - Inputs to the Scheduling Process." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2009. Controlling System Costs: Basic and Advanced Scheduling Manuals and Contemporary Issues in Transit Scheduling. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14257.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 2 - Inputs to the Scheduling Process." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2009. Controlling System Costs: Basic and Advanced Scheduling Manuals and Contemporary Issues in Transit Scheduling. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14257.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 2 - Inputs to the Scheduling Process." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2009. Controlling System Costs: Basic and Advanced Scheduling Manuals and Contemporary Issues in Transit Scheduling. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14257.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 2 - Inputs to the Scheduling Process." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2009. Controlling System Costs: Basic and Advanced Scheduling Manuals and Contemporary Issues in Transit Scheduling. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14257.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 2 - Inputs to the Scheduling Process." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2009. Controlling System Costs: Basic and Advanced Scheduling Manuals and Contemporary Issues in Transit Scheduling. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14257.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 2 - Inputs to the Scheduling Process." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2009. Controlling System Costs: Basic and Advanced Scheduling Manuals and Contemporary Issues in Transit Scheduling. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14257.
×
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 2 - Inputs to the Scheduling Process." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2009. Controlling System Costs: Basic and Advanced Scheduling Manuals and Contemporary Issues in Transit Scheduling. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14257.
×
Page 17
Suggested Citation:"Chapter 2 - Inputs to the Scheduling Process." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2009. Controlling System Costs: Basic and Advanced Scheduling Manuals and Contemporary Issues in Transit Scheduling. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14257.
×
Page 18
Suggested Citation:"Chapter 2 - Inputs to the Scheduling Process." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2009. Controlling System Costs: Basic and Advanced Scheduling Manuals and Contemporary Issues in Transit Scheduling. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14257.
×
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 2 - Inputs to the Scheduling Process." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2009. Controlling System Costs: Basic and Advanced Scheduling Manuals and Contemporary Issues in Transit Scheduling. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14257.
×
Page 20
Suggested Citation:"Chapter 2 - Inputs to the Scheduling Process." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2009. Controlling System Costs: Basic and Advanced Scheduling Manuals and Contemporary Issues in Transit Scheduling. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14257.
×
Page 21
Suggested Citation:"Chapter 2 - Inputs to the Scheduling Process." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2009. Controlling System Costs: Basic and Advanced Scheduling Manuals and Contemporary Issues in Transit Scheduling. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14257.
×
Page 22
Suggested Citation:"Chapter 2 - Inputs to the Scheduling Process." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2009. Controlling System Costs: Basic and Advanced Scheduling Manuals and Contemporary Issues in Transit Scheduling. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14257.
×
Page 23
Suggested Citation:"Chapter 2 - Inputs to the Scheduling Process." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2009. Controlling System Costs: Basic and Advanced Scheduling Manuals and Contemporary Issues in Transit Scheduling. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14257.
×
Page 24
Suggested Citation:"Chapter 2 - Inputs to the Scheduling Process." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2009. Controlling System Costs: Basic and Advanced Scheduling Manuals and Contemporary Issues in Transit Scheduling. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14257.
×
Page 25
Suggested Citation:"Chapter 2 - Inputs to the Scheduling Process." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2009. Controlling System Costs: Basic and Advanced Scheduling Manuals and Contemporary Issues in Transit Scheduling. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14257.
×
Page 26
Suggested Citation:"Chapter 2 - Inputs to the Scheduling Process." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2009. Controlling System Costs: Basic and Advanced Scheduling Manuals and Contemporary Issues in Transit Scheduling. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14257.
×
Page 27
Suggested Citation:"Chapter 2 - Inputs to the Scheduling Process." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2009. Controlling System Costs: Basic and Advanced Scheduling Manuals and Contemporary Issues in Transit Scheduling. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14257.
×
Page 28
Suggested Citation:"Chapter 2 - Inputs to the Scheduling Process." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2009. Controlling System Costs: Basic and Advanced Scheduling Manuals and Contemporary Issues in Transit Scheduling. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14257.
×
Page 29
Suggested Citation:"Chapter 2 - Inputs to the Scheduling Process." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2009. Controlling System Costs: Basic and Advanced Scheduling Manuals and Contemporary Issues in Transit Scheduling. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14257.
×
Page 30
Suggested Citation:"Chapter 2 - Inputs to the Scheduling Process." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2009. Controlling System Costs: Basic and Advanced Scheduling Manuals and Contemporary Issues in Transit Scheduling. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14257.
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Below is the uncorrected machine-read text of this chapter, intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text of each book. Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages.

Chapter 2. Inputs to the Scheduling Process ͮ.ͭ Introduction to the Scheduling Process ͮ.ͮ External Factors ͮ.ͯ Inputs to the Scheduling Process ͮ.Ͱ Organization of Scheduling Process

2.1 Introduction to the Scheduling Process Scheduling requires a series of judgments that are based on a thorough understanding of your particular transit system and its policies and labor agreements. As with everything else, it is best to start at the beginning, and that means building a strong foundation for a schedule before ever beginning work on the schedule itself. The old saying, “a house is only as good as its foundation” applies here, whether you are making a new sched- ule or revising an existing schedule. Schedulers cannot work in isolation and need to be aware of the issues surrounding their work as well as the objectives and goals they are trying to achieve. Typically this requires an under- standing of the transit agency, its policies, structures, issues, and goals. So, what are the foundations of a schedule? These can be reasonably categorized into two types of requirements: ͭ. Those things external to developing a schedule but required for proper schedule devel- opment. The kinds of items that would be included in this category are: Knowledge of budgetary constraints Knowledge of your transit system’s goals Knowledge of the area being served Knowledge of your agency’s current short- and long-term objectives/goals ͮ. The data elements or inputs required to actually construct the schedule. Those encompass: Knowledge of the scheduling provisions of the collective bargaining agreement Route design considerations Service standards Annual Service Plan Service data, including running time, patronage, and operations The last item is critical to the task at hand and presupposes the other items on the list are readily available and well understood. Some of these items may not be familiar to those new to scheduling, but keep in mind that this is an introductory chapter providing a broad overview of the scheduling process. Subsequent chapters include much more detailed discussions. • • • • • • • • • route A defi ned series of stops along one or more streets between two terminal locations designated by a number and/or a name for identifi - cation internally and to the public. running time The time it takes for a vehicle to travel the length of a route or between two specifi c points on a route. Running time does not include layover time. Chapter 2. Inputs to the Scheduling Process 2-3

Chapter 2. Inputs to the Scheduling Process 2-4 2.2 External Factors The fi rst four requirements have the word “knowledge” in them. This is a reminder that there is no substitute for knowing your individual transit agency’s or company’s policies, service budgets, goals and objectives, and the areas served. These underlie all aspects of schedule development. This manual assumes you are familiar with your agency’s policies as well as your routes and how they interact with each other. A detailed working knowledge of the transit sys- tem is one of the most fundamental requirements for a scheduler. This understanding assists in making the many value judgments that are required during the scheduling process. Fieldwork is very helpful in keeping your knowledge of your system up to date. The kinds of things that you should look for when you are out in the fi eld include: how adequate is the running time; what do the passenger loads look like at various points along the route; where are places that cause potential delays; is there a better place to turn around at the end of the route; are the number of wheelchair boardings greater than what would be considered average for other routes on the system. Getting out of the offi ce once in a while also is a good change of pace from the routine. As Yogi Berra once said, “You can observe a lot by watching.” The last three decades of government fi nancial assistance have brought a uniformity of prac- tices to most transit organizations. This has served to produce documents that set standards for schedulers. Such documents as the Five Year Service Plan and its annual updates establish or update route design criteria and service standards. A fi nancial plan goes hand in hand with the Five Year Service Plan. It may call for expansion of service, service reductions, or both at the same time, depending on the goals of the service plan and the realities of the available funding. Sometimes circumstances will change quickly during a budget year, requiring major changes to the service. The scheduler must be aware of the general direction of the transit system; these strategic reports are a useful source of information. 2.3 Inputs to the Scheduling Process Union Contracts—Collective Bargaining Agreements Union contracts or collective bargaining agreements carry specifi c requirements that aff ect how service is scheduled, blocked, and cut into driver runs. Even systems that have no union tend to have their own rules that have developed over time. Much will be said later about labor provisions, but we assume that you have read the contract and have highlighted those sections pertinent to the scheduler. passenger load The number of passengers carried on one or more vehicles at any point on a route. Of particular interest is the maximum passenger load on a route or segment. service standards Performance requirements ex- pressed in system policies. Service standards are normally established in areas such as cost effi ciency (cost per unit of service), service effectiveness (boardings per unit of service), cost effectiveness (cost and subsidy ratios), passenger loading, and schedule adherence. Many agencies also have service policies that guide the development of routes and schedules. Also known as “service guidelines.” branch One of two or more outer route segments served by a single route.

Chapter 2. Inputs to the Scheduling Process 2-5 Beyond the union contract are agency scheduling practices or preferences. Questions such as “do we prefer to avoid interlining?”, “is our operating practice to avoid street reliefs after ͳ PM?”, or “do we prefer not to schedule runs too close to maximum allowable spread time?” cover typical non-contract issues. In most cases there are many preferences and practices not covered in the labor contract, and these need to be understood. Route Design Depending upon the structure and size of your agency, as a scheduler you may or may not be responsible for (or have input into) design of routes. Either way, it is important to understand at least the basic principles in route design as they signifi cantly aff ect the entire scheduling process. The extent of route changes varies widely from system to system. The route network may remain static or may be subject to varying levels of change. While schedulers overwhelm- ingly work on existing routes, they will be called upon at some point to build a schedule on an entirely new route and may be expected to add their expertise to the fi nal design of the route. Service planners can plan routes that meet their exacting criteria, but it is up to the scheduler to make the route work operationally. An ongoing dialogue between schedulers and service planners is necessary to develop routes and schedules that meet an agency’s objectives. An important element of making a route work operationally is running time. The scheduler’s goal is to fi nd the happy medium between too much and too little scheduled running time to ensure reliability and effi ciency in daily operations. This will be discussed in much greater detail in subsequent portions of the manual. Practical concerns such as identifying restroom opportu- nities at the ends of routes are also important in route design. Route design also encompasses certain elements that either keep the route simple or add complexity. Some of these are: Branches Do we allow for one or more branch routings, normally at the outer end of the route? If so are the branches of equal length? Unequal branch lengths can become a source of ineffi ciency in a schedule, particularly at wide headways, such as ͯͬ minutes or longer. The route on the left has two branches of equal length. The common portion of a route with branches is the trunk. Branches also aff ect the time spent on basic route defi nition tasks in scheduling packages, which need high levels of accuracy for downstream systems. The branch example above has two branches at its eastern (top) end: via Braddock Ave. and via Springfi eld Blvd. headway The interval of time between two vehicles running in the same direction on the same route, usually expressed in minutes. See also “frequency.” Frequency is the inverse of headway: a headway of 10 minutes is equivalent to a frequency of one bus every ten minutes or six buses per hour. trunk The common portion of a route with branches; more broadly, a section of a corridor served by multiple routes or trip types.

Chapter 2. Inputs to the Scheduling Process 2-6 Route Deviations These may incorporate diff erent paths in the middle of the route, either as an alternating service pattern (the route above on the right is an example), as occasional trips (e.g., serving a school at bell times), or as time of day based service patterns (e.g., deviating into a shopping center during open hours). These may be combined with branches, which can further compli- cate the schedule, particularly if the scheduler mixes and matches the alternate trips with the branch trips. Short Turns These are points were the service ends short of the end of the route. These points may be selected by schedulers or planners and should ideally be chosen at a point that is some multiple of the running time and headway, unless interlining is allowed to off set. Otherwise, layover that is longer than necessary can result. They also ideally are at a point where on-board rider- ship is half or less than the number the schedule was designed to handle at the peak load point to avoid overloads on long trips. The turnback should be at a place where the bus can take layover without obstructing traffi c and where it can easily turn around for the return trip. Finally, a short turn should be instituted only if it reduces peak bus requirements for the route. We will give an illustrative example of what must be considered in scheduling turnbacks when we examine more complicated schedules later in this manual. Below is an example of a route with short turns in both directions. The solid line shows the “core” route between the turnback locations, while the dotted lines show the full route. This route deviation example has a mid-route deviation, with trips alternating via Utopia Pkwy and Francis Lewis/Willets Point Blvds. An example of a route with short turns in both directions. The solid line shows the “core” route between the turnback locations, while the dotted lines show the full route. short turn A trip that terminates at an interme- diate point instead of traveling the full length of the route. Short turning is frequently used to add capacity to a specifi c segment of the route. turnback The location where a short turn trip turns around to begin service in the opposite direction. interlining The use of the same vehicle on a block operating on more than one route with the same operator, without returning to the garage during route changes.

Chapter 2. Inputs to the Scheduling Process 2-7 Loops These can cover the outer or inner end of a route, or the whole route itself can be a loop, either in one direction or bi-directional. Large loops at the ends of a route have the advantage of service to a larger area with just one route, but can cause long out-of-direction passenger movements. Loops are also a headache for the scheduler. Where to put the layover? Wherever you place it—before, after, or in the middle of the loop—someone riding in the “wrong” direc- tion will have to sit on the bus during the layover. One way around this dilemma is to schedule all layover time at the non-loop end of a looped route. Express, Limited, or Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) versus Local Operation Routes in larger cities may have enough ridership to be able to operate two classes of service for all or part of the day. These diff erent types of service operating on the same corridor have diff erent stopping patterns, running times, and perhaps even time points. The complexity of scheduling local and express services requires an understanding of their interaction in an operational sense, and will be addressed later. Through-routing This is the process of combining routes on diff erent sides of a central area, usually done to achieve effi ciencies in use of equipment, reduce the need for layover space, simplify routing by reducing the number of turns required, and reduce the number of trips operating through the central area. Through-routing in this manual refers to the full time operation of two routes as a single route for all practical purposes. Interlining is defi ned as a random or systematic hooking of individual trips. Some systems mix up these two distinctions or see them as inter- changeable, but we will keep them separate in this manual according to the above rule to avoid confusion. In addition to the design concerns noted here, a route needs to be planned at an operational level to check issues such as turns and clearances, to make certain that all streets shown on the planning map are actually continuous and any bridges can support the weight of a bus. Never rely solely on a map! Cycle Time At the risk of getting ahead of ourselves, we include cycle time here as a strong consideration in determining routing. Again we emphasize the need for the scheduler and planner to work collaboratively to ensure all outcomes are suffi ciently understood to make informed decisions. Let us provide an example —in this case a stand-alone route operating on a simple service pattern of operation with low frequency and consistent running time throughout the day. If bus rapid transit (BRT) A form of bus service that, through improvements to infrastructure, vehicles and scheduling, is intended to enhance service quality compared to an ordinary bus line. Features may include exclusive right-of-way, signal priority, widely spaced stops, higher capacity vehicles with special branding, stations, headway-based sched- ules, and off-bus fare collection. express service A service generally connecting residential areas with activity centers via a high-speed, non-stop route with limited stops at each end for collection and distribution. Park- and-ride lots are a common feature of express service at the residential end of the route. limited-stop service A service typically operating on arterial streets that makes stops only at major points along the route. Similar to express service, but without a lengthy non-stop segment. hooking The process of attaching the end of a trip in one direction to the begin- ning of a trip the other direction. A block is a series of hooked trips.

Chapter 2. Inputs to the Scheduling Process 2-8 the running time is ͱͰ minutes either way and the headway is Ͳͬ minutes, the route schedules effi ciently. However, what if an extension of ͳ minutes is proposed? Part of the decision-making process must be an understanding that the impact of the route design change will be an increase in operating costs of one vehicle. This is often not well under- stood at a generic planning level, where it is sometimes assumed that a ͭͯ% increase in route length (the ͳ minutes added onto the existing ͱͰ) will result in a ͭͯ% increase in operating cost. This is not so! For simple operations such as this, the cost is a step-function which increases signifi cantly each time a cycle time threshold is reached. Obtaining Mileage The scheduler is required to calculate route distances for a range of purposes. Whether sched- uling manually or using a computerized scheduling package, mileage is used as an input at the route level to provide totals at a schedule level. Even if scheduling manually, mileage can be calculated using basic “off the shelf” geographic information system (GIS) mapping systems. Furthermore, simple tools such as “Google Maps” allow distances to be calculated with a high degree of accuracy and with little eff ort. Older methods still in use include mileage measurement from a paper map with a fl exible tape measure or a map wheel and measurement in the fi eld using vehicle odometers. If using a scheduling software package, mileage is an input to the program, which then au- tomatically calculates total mileage based on trip patterns and deadhead mileage. As of this writing, nearly all computer software packages also provide a built-in mapping routine which allows the scheduler to input the route and its various service patterns and obtain accurate mileage from the map. The program then automatically generates total mileage for the fi n- ished schedule. An added benefi t of using the scheduling package for obtaining mileage is the fact that mile- age between bus stops can be accurately derived. This information is much more necessary now than in the past because it forms the input for such downstream applications as automatic stop announcement systems (voice annunciators). Some transit systems have the need to break mileage down by political jurisdiction, so this feature comes in handy for them as well. The information can be obtained by the other methods mentioned earlier, but this is true drudgery work of the type that computers were invented to relieve. In fact, automated mileage calculation is one major improvement since the all-by-hand scheduling era. No matter which method is used, the information needs to be broken down for each time point- to-time point segment, or even at a stop-to-stop level (which is then aggregated at time point-to- time point and route levels). These segments can then be accumulated into service patterns, as time point A designated location on a route used to control the spacing of vehicles along the route. As a rule, vehicles should not pass through a time point either before or after the specifi ed time on the schedule. A route may contain several time points depending on its overall length. As a rule of thumb, time point spacing is usually every seven to 15 minutes along a local route, and time points are designated where possible at major intersec- tions, major trip generators, and key destinations. through-routing A form of interlining in which a ve- hicle switches from inbound service on one route to outbound service on another route while continuing in service throughout the day. cycle time Equals the round trip running time plus layover time. This is also known as “round-trip cycle time” or “round-trip time.” deadhead The time and distance that a bus needs to travel in places where it will not pick up passengers. Dead- heading is typically required to get buses to and from their garage, or when bus operators need to travel from one route or point to another during their scheduled work day.

Chapter 2. Inputs to the Scheduling Process 2-9 each separate way of serving a route is called. The number of trips for each service pattern can be multiplied by mileage for that service pattern and then simply summed into a total for that particular schedule. Mileage is always divided between revenue and deadhead mileage. The former includes all miles when the bus is actually operating in passenger-carrying service. The latter is accumu- lated during times of operating to and from the garage or in operating out of service from one point on one route to another point, either on the same route or on another route. Deadhead mileage is often broken down into garage deadhead mileage (all mileage operating to and from the garage as a deadhead trip) and interline deadhead mileage (all mileage on deadhead trips that are generated as a means of linking one trip to another). Together, revenue and deadhead mileage constitute platform mileage. Geocoding Geocoding is the process of obtaining the latitude and longitude of an exact location from a map. This approach is overkill for merely obtaining mileage for route segments, but becomes more critical when the exact locations of bus stops have to be known [typically important for downstream systems such as automatic vehicle location (AVL), automatic passenger counter (APC), voice annunciation etc.]. Using GIS software or the mapping routines built into scheduling software packages, an exact lat-long fi x can be obtained for every bus stop, includ- ing multiple bus stops at major intersections. There are many uses for this information; two examples are (ͭ) bus stop databases, which also store detailed information about the stop, and (ͮ) automated bus stop announcement systems. The latter make use of satellite technology to know the bus’ exact location along a route and its proximity to the next stop. The “next stop” announcement is triggered at a certain distance from the stop. This technology is highly useful in meeting the requirements of the Americans with Disabilities Act and would not be possible without the ability to geocode the route and stops. Scheduling software with mapping capabilities has other uses that can save schedulers time. Many can automatically generate the most effi cient routings between starting and ending points on a route and the garage, inclusive of updating the database containing running times and mileage. This practice must of course be tempered by an understanding of the road network (e.g., avoiding narrow residential streets) and key congestion points. Ultimately the scheduler should review all outputs from such tools and adjust as necessary. Service Standards Many transit systems publish service standards. These set forth, often in great detail, minimum service levels (known as policy levels) by time of day and day of week. Where demand requires service pattern The unique sequence of stops associated with each type of trip on a route. If all trips operate from one end to the other on a common path the route has one service pattern. Branches, deviations or short turns introduce additional service patterns. Service patterns are a fundamental component of schedul- ing and provide the framework for tracking running time, generating revenue trips, and identifying deadhead movements for the route. Also referred to as “trip pattern,” “variant,” or “path.” platform time and mileage A phrase derived from the early 20th century days when motormen and conductors operated from the “platform” of a streetcar, platform time (or platform miles) includes all time or distance travelled when the operator is operating the vehicle. Layover time and pull-in and pull-out time and distance are part of platform time and mileage, but report allowance and clear allow- ance are not. Similarly, platform miles include all miles traveled while the operator is operating the vehicle.

Chapter 2. Inputs to the Scheduling Process 2-10 service greater than these policy levels, the standards specify minimum and acceptable load factors, which in turn determine headways. These standards can simplify some aspects of the scheduler’s job by providing quantitative guidance in key areas. Service standards are typically set at a strategic planning or service planning level, but form a major input into the scheduling process. These standards may be formally adopted or may just be a working copy of a compilation of actual practices your system has developed through the years. The discussion below covers some key items that are probably contained in your system’s service standards.ͭ Service Days What type of service is operated on each day of the week? Monday through Friday schedules are common, but that was not always the case. Many systems use a diff erent Friday schedule on some routes where traffi c is particularly slow or where service operates later at night. Does the system operate on Saturday and Sunday? The service may or may not be the same on these days. On larger systems, is there a holiday or otherwise reduced schedule operated on designated holidays? Many systems operate Sunday schedules on “major” holidays. Major holidays are generally defi ned as New Years Day, Memorial Day, July Ͱ, Labor Day, Thanksgiving Day, and Christmas Day. However, there are increasing demands to reduce service on so-called minor holidays, such as Martin Luther King, Jr.’s Birthday, the day after Thanksgiving, and Christmas Eve. Add to those regional holidays, such as Good Friday or Easter Monday, Columbus Day, Election Day, Veterans Day, and Presidents Day. How these are handled is designated in the Service Standards. Span of Service What are the operating hours of the route? Do the operating hours diff er on weekdays from those designated for Saturdays and Sundays? What are the criteria for operating night service on a particular route? Do the operating hours apply to the whole length of the route, or all the branches? Policy headways A large share of service at many properties is determined by “policy headways.” Policy head- ways set minimum service levels by policy rather than by capacity and demand; for example, all routes might operate every ͯͬ minutes in peak hours and every Ͳͬ minutes in off -peak hours. For policy-based headways, there should be a standard defi ning when ridership levels would jus- tify added service. Policy headways can also be used to identify a minimum frequency of service. For example, a system could decide that each route would operate at least every Ͳͬ minutes. 1 For a more complete overview of service standards, see TCRP Synthesis Report 10, Bus Route Evaluation Standards. span of service The length of time, from the beginning of the fi rst trip to the end of the last trip, during which service operates on the street. Span of service can be expressed for a route or for the system as a whole. Frequency and headway are both used to defi ne the amount of service provided, but increasing frequency (e.g., from 5 to 6 trips per hour) is the same as reducing the headway (from 12 to 10 minutes). Remember that reduc- tions in headway actually increase the amount of service provided. Tip

Chapter 2. Inputs to the Scheduling Process 2-11 Loading Standards The alternate approach to determining headways is demand-based, where the passenger loads dictate the headways to be operated. Target loads are specifi ed for diff erent types of routes during diff erent times of day. For example, loading standards might call for average loads of ͱͬ during peak periods and Ͱͬ during the base period. Some loading standards may be expressed in other ways, such as percentage of seated capacity, number of standees (if any) allowed, or standees per available fl oor space. Schedulers and planners use detailed ridership data to adjust headways so that the average peak load matches the standard (a simple division calculation in most cases). Depending on frequency of service, averages may be calculated for each hour, each half-hour, or each ͭͱ-minute period. Standards for Types of Equipment Vehicle type or size can be dictated by many factors. These include passenger loads, accessibil- ity, the road network, and capacity requirements. Scheduling may have the role of assigning equipment to each route or to individual blocks in each route and therefore needs to be famil- iar with the characteristics of each type of equipment, primarily seating and standing capacity. This task may be at the discretion of the scheduler or be mandated within the service specifi ca- tion. The increasing popularity of low-fl oor buses, which have fewer seats than standard buses of the same length, has complicated the application of loading guidelines. Loading standards may be specifi cally called out for each type of bus, or may be set as a percentage of seated capacity. Among the choices found on many systems, besides the standard 40 foot bus, are: ͯͱ foot buses—ideal where loads are moderate and route clearances may be a problem. ͮ͵ to ͯͬ foot buses—used on many shuttles serving residential neighborhoods where boardings are light; perceived as more “neighborhood friendly”. ͮͰ to ͮͳ foot “cutaways” (body on chassis, van or truck)—same applications as ͮ͵ to ͯͬ foot buses, only with yet smaller vehicles. Some cutaways are now over ͯͬ feet long. Ͳͬ foot articulated buses—deployed on heavier routes where the added carrying capacity can allow for wider headways and fewer operating resources to provide the same number of seats. Not in common North American use, but similarly deployed, are double-deck buses. Ͱͱ foot “cruiser” buses (“over the road” coaches)—an increasingly popular model for express and park-and-ride service. Because of the high fl oor, number of steps and one-door confi guration, they are not workable for local line service. 45 foot “cruiser” bus loading standard The agency-established goal for passenger loads (not the maximum vehicle load, which is considerably higher). The loading standard is usually expressed as a percent- age of seated capacity, as the maximum number of standees, or as the maximum load. The loading standard often varies over the day, with peak-period loading standard higher than off-peak periods. Some agencies also specify a time or distance duration that certain loads are allowed (e.g., 150% for up to 10 minutes). The loading standard is used to calculate demand-based headways during the various periods of the service day. peak periods The hours during which ridership is highest, usually in the morning and afternoon commute times (e.g., 6 to 9 AM and 3 to 7 PM). Sometimes expressed as peak hour, the hour of highest ridership, it can also refer to the period during which the most frequent service is operated, e.g., peak 20 minutes. base period The hours between the AM and PM peak periods, during which rider- ship is generally lower than in peak periods. Also known as “midday” or “off-peak period.”

Chapter 2. Inputs to the Scheduling Process 2-12 Criteria for Adding or Eliminating Trips The amount of service provided, both in terms of service span and frequency, is often dic- tated by economics. However, a well designed system matches the level of service to service demand. Underserved routes may be overcrowded and may cause some riders to choose other modes. Overserved routes are characterized by empty buses that could be better used somewhere else. Some routes are overserved over some portion of the route and underserved elsewhere. There is a temptation for public transit operators to be complacent in establishing standards for when service or parts of service should be added or eliminated based on produc- tivity. Ideally, for each service review, planners and schedulers have the ability to ask: “If I were to start this route from scratch, applying all good planning principles, is this the level of service I would operate?” Criteria need to be included in the service plan to set out how under-performing routes or segments will be eliminated. One particular system considers that any trip toward the end of the operating day regularly carrying less than fi ve passengers is subject to being eliminated. Of course this number can vary according to the resources of the individual system. Also, circum- stances such as ridership on adjacent trips must also be considered. Often the last trip on a route is operated as a safety valve: it may have few regular riders, but it serves those who are delayed at work or elsewhere on any given day. Other Considerations Service standards might also dictate that headways be “clockface” wherever possible. Clock- face headways are those that evenly divide into Ͳͬ minutes and are capable of providing leav- ing times at the same time each hour. The pros and cons of this are explained later, but a quick summary would list ease of understanding for the customer as the major benefi t and potential scheduling ineffi ciencies as the major disadvantage. Timed transfer requirements may also be explicitly stated by agency service standards, includ- ing locations and transfer window requirements. The scheduler is usually not concerned with route spacing, but it is normally part of a service standards package. The amount of the service area that is within the route catchment area (i.e., within a half-mile or quarter-mile walk, or some other mandated criteria) may also be specifi ed. GIS tools make the identifi cation of such areas relatively simple. Finally, much of the previous discussion on route design is usually embodied in the service standards as well. Many transit systems consider unmet needs at regular intervals. These are often incorporated into early action plans that call for route expansion whenever operating budgets will allow. The scheduler, working with the service planner, needs to be aware of these and incorporate them into a service budget when planning an annual list of service changes. timed transfer A transfer made easier and more certain for passengers by the process of scheduling two or more routes to meet at a given location at a specifi c time. A short layover may be provided at the timed transfer point to ensure that connections can be made even if one vehicle is running slightly behind schedule. Timed transfers have become more important with the growth of hub-and-spoke network designs. transfer window The layover time scheduled at timed transfer locations to ensure that transfer connections can be made, and may also refer to the amount of time past its scheduled departure time that a vehicle can be held at a transfer location to wait for a late arriving vehicle. service area Broadly, the area in which a transit agency provides service. This may also be defi ned as the area within a convenient walking distance (such as ¼ mile) of a route or a stop. For the purposes of compliance with the Americans with Disabilities Act, service area is the area within ¾ mile of a fi xed route service.

Chapter 2. Inputs to the Scheduling Process 2-13 Annual Service Plan An annual Service Plan is not something that is uniformly prepared and followed, but it is a decided advantage to the scheduler. An annual service plan, which can exist as an Operating Plan or a Service Budget, takes the proposed service changes, additions and deletions and incorporates them into a time framework that takes into account the sign-up process (when operators pick their work assignments). An ideal format for an Annual Service Budget, as developed at one large transit agency, lists service additions, discontinuations and adjustments chronologically for each sign-up period during the upcoming year along with an estimate of the vehicle hour impacts. It also carries a line item called “augmentation” which includes non- allocated hours set aside for trip increases to correct overcrowding on peak-only routes, such as park-and-ride express routes. The schedulers also have latitude to eliminate trips or peak hour buses from underperforming lines and use these resources to add where they are better needed. Seasoned schedulers will often refer to having adjustments “in their pocket,” which means they already know where they can reallocate or cut hours if the budget requires it. At most systems, the sign-up process occurs three to four times a year. The advantage of this is two-fold; (ͭ) the scheduler can plan their work for a complete year and (ͮ) they can work within very close estimates of what the annual budgeted operating hours and/or miles will be. This becomes critical at a time when major service cuts must be made to meet unanticipated budget shortfalls. 2.4 Organization of Scheduling Departments A question that is often posed is “what is the ideal size and composition of a scheduling section of a modern day transit system?” The answer requires a great deal of input information and includes some of the following criteria: How often does the service change/How many bids per year? How much service changes each time? Are there multiple modes? Does exception scheduling account for signifi cant amount of scheduling time? How large are the garages and how many are there? To what extent are schedulers required to undertake service planning work? Do schedulers prepare rosters? How large is the transit system (the schedulers-to-bus ratio is not simply a straight line function)? • • • • • • • • sign-up The process in which operators select work assignments. Most agencies have three or four sign- ups each year. sign-up period The period of time that a specifi c sign-up is in effect, usually three or four months. vehicle hours Total hours of travel by a vehicle, including hours in revenue service (including layover time) and deadhead travel. Also known as “bus hours” for bus. “Car hours” is the term used for rail. mode A type of transit service character- ized by vehicle or operational features. Common transit modes include motorbus, trolleybus, light rail, heavy rail, commuter rail, and demand-response. exception scheduling Scheduling activity undertaken to address major construction detours or delays, sporting events, holiday service, or other special situations.

Chapter 2. Inputs to the Scheduling Process 2-14 To what extent are schedulers responsible for maintaining data for downstream sys- tems? How complex or constrained are the work rules? In short, the factors that defi ne scheduling department size are far too numerous to allow a simple standard. If there is truly an average out there, it is one scheduler per operating garage. A garage on a medium to large transit system can store anywhere between ͭͬͬ and ͱͬͬ buses, with the average being between ͭͱͬ and ͮͱͬ buses. Schedulers may employ a few assistants. The scheduling department will invariably include staff with a range of experience and skills. As a result, a natural experience-based hierarchy can be derived. In addition to schedulers there may be scheduler trainees or interns, scheduling analysts or similarly named positions, one or two senior schedulers, and the head of the section. Additional support staff may be needed to perform a growing number of ancillary functions, such as programming headsigns and auto- matic stop annunciator systems and keeping up the bus stop list. At some systems (typically smaller agencies), schedulers are responsible for carrying the whole task of building a new schedule through from analyzing the traffi c checks to the fi nished runcut and roster or bid package. At others, schedulers schedule and senior schedulers perform the runcutting, which is considered to require the work of a more highly skilled person. The advent of computerized scheduling tools and even of general analytical tools such as spreadsheets has changed the nature of scheduling departments. These systems tend to allow more interaction among the traditional scheduling processes (schedule writing, blocking, runcutting, and rostering), reducing the tendency for schedulers to focus on only one aspect of the process. Our experience is that it is more diffi cult to achieve profi ciency in building tightly constructed schedules than in other areas of scheduling. There is almost an infi nite number of ways that revenue service can be scheduled, which means this profi ciency takes much longer to learn and comes easier for people with a certain set of intellectual aptitudes. Scheduling Data Sources Historically, schedule data was collected by real people recording passenger and time informa- tion on pieces of paper. This “traffi c checking force” was a critical building block in scheduling. Now,many systems use their traffi c checkers primarily to gather data for federally mandated reports (such as the National Transit Database) that are of little or no use by scheduling staff . Therefore, traffi c checkers may report to a service planning section rather than to the schedul- ing department. • • revenue service When a vehicle is in operation along a route and is available to the public.

Chapter 2. Inputs to the Scheduling Process 2-15 Data collection for scheduling can be conducted using traffi c checkers, APCs, or AVL systems. Human checkers are still needed for special checks, e.g., at special events (concerts, sporting venues) and on rail systems where per-car loadings are required. Two types of traffi c checks are specifi c to scheduling and are vital for obtaining the information necessary for adjusting an existing schedule or building a new schedule. These are generally referred to as “point checks” and “ride checks.” Note that even for data collection with human checkers, the use of technologies is an integral part of the process. Almost all counts use spreadsheet or database systems for production of checker sheets, data entry, and analysis. Handheld devices can be used to undertake the actual collection, with a range of obvious benefi ts. Point Checks These are the simplest and take the fewest number of people to perform. They are most ap- plicable for schedules that are demand-driven, rather than policy-based. A checker is stationed at a point on the route that is known to be the place where the greatest number of people are consistently on board. This point is known as the maximum load point or MLP for short. The checker records the number of passengers on board the bus either arriving at the stop, leaving the stop, or both, along with the arrival and/or departure time. Other identifying information, such as the bus number and block numberͮ are recorded. General information about condi- tions is also noted, such as the weather and any unusual traffi c conditions. Point checks may also take on the nature of a spot check where unusual conditions occur, such as boardings at schools at a particular time of day. These are short in duration, just covering the times when boardings are the highest. They may be made by scheduling personnel who need the information quickly to correct a capacity problem. Besides the MLP, point checks may be regularly made at other points along the route, such as where branches diverge (or just beyond the point of divergence), or where short turns are scheduled. This gives vital information about the split of ridership along each branch. It is possible to obtain running time information by staging checkers at each time point and comparing their times, but it is vital that all checkers synchronize their watches so the information coordinates correctly. On the subject of time, it is highly advisable to record both arrival and departure times, prefer- ably required to the half minute (handheld devices allow recording to the second). The reason for this interest in half minutes (not that many systems still write schedules to this tolerance) is to provide greater accuracy in compiling running time information. End-to-end running times are generally rounded to the whole minute, but the half minute can make a diff erence when allocating times between time points. 2 At some systems, buses display run numbers instead of block numbers in their windshields. point checks A technique to collect information about passenger loads and schedule adherence at a single location (or point), typically a time point or a location where branches of a route diverge. Also known as “line check.” ride checks A technique to collect information about boarding and alighting at every stop, in addition to passenger loads and schedule adherence at all time points. Ride checks may also include data collection on type of fare paid, stop announcements, or other information of interest to the agency. Ride checks are more labor-intensive than point checks, but provide more complete data for a given route. maximum load point The location along the route where the passenger load is greatest. The maximum load point can differ by direction and by time of day. Long or complex routes may have multiple maximum load points, one for each segment. block number A unique number associated with a specifi c block, used to track the block throughout the scheduling process and as a means of identifi cation for the operations department.

Chapter 2. Inputs to the Scheduling Process 2-16 Bear in mind that one day of data may not be suffi cient on which to base a schedule adjust- ment. There are too many variables in the operating day to be able to rely on one check as a good “average” of how the route operates regularly. Schedulers are constantly trying to construct the average schedule for the average passenger loadings operating in average street conditions and weather through average traffi c. Since we know that the average day does not really exist, it is important to have enough checks to be able to distill down to that average. We hope we have made that point! So, how many checks would yield a good representative of average conditions on a route? Those of us who began in the pre-computer days were taught to get counts on three days and compare them. Did they look similar? If so, take an average weekday. If not, throw out the outlier (i.e., the signifi cantly dissimilar observation). Today, with greater data availability, the answer is really a function of the variability in loading and operation from day to day. Each route will have its own variability in these factors. By taking a few samples over time, use of sampling methodologies can easily be applied to identify confi dence level estimates for this variation. Farebox data can provide a good basis for estimating sample requirements—simply measure the variability of ridership across days at whatever level of aggregation is required (daily, time period, or even trip level). This can tell you how big a sample is required. The following is an example of a point check. These should be developed in a spreadsheet or database, which is also then used as the basis for data entry and analysis. This ensures consis- tency and improves accuracy. average weekday A representative weekday in the operation of the transit system computed as the mathematical average of data for several typical weekdays. A typical weekday is one where there are no anomalies such as high ridership due to extra service added for a special event or low ridership due to inclement weather. Some schedulers claim that this does not really exist. Average Saturday and average Sunday are determined in the same way.

Chapter 2. Inputs to the Scheduling Process 2-17

Chapter 2. Inputs to the Scheduling Process 2-18 On-Board Ride Checks If point checks seem to be so ideal, why do anything else? Point checks generate only a subset of the information needed to undertake many scheduling tasks. Their key benefi t is that they collect a good deal of what is required with minimal manpower. One of their greatest defi cien- cies is they do not tell the scheduler anything about what is happening at other points along the route, but only provide a snapshot of what is happening at one location. A far better solution is to collect full data for each trip through an on-board ride check. This is also more appropriate for policy headway routes, where patronage is lighter. It requires more resources but results in a more complete data set, providing the scheduler more information to make informed schedule adjustments. The systems that regularly perform ride checks tend to have, proportionate to their size, a far larger checking staff . Again the issue of sample size needs to be addressed for the ride check. In this case the sample size relates to what percentage of trips on a given day are included (whereas for point counts the question was how many days). A particular point needs to be made here that you prefer- ably check the entire day and not try to do half the trips one day and the rest on another. Days are unique. Loads are diff erent. Operating irregularities are diff erent. Two partial days of ride checks blended together may either accentuate problems or under emphasize them, but the blend does not always give you a representative look at the route. On-board ride checks are tabulated on forms which list all stops from end to end and provide columns for showing scheduled time and time points, for writing in the actual times and for noting comments about drivers’ performance in operating over the route. These comments could address speed, unexpected stops/delays, and other aspects of interest to the agency. In addition, there are columns for recording boardings and alightings at each stop and carrying a running total of how many passengers are on board throughout the trip.

Chapter 2. Inputs to the Scheduling Process 2-19 TR IP S U R V E Y S H E E T R oute /D irection : 70 S B C hecker N am e: A ssignm ent D ay o f W eek: S urvey D ate : T rip # : R un # P E R S O N S P E R S O N S TO TA L O N LE A V E G E TTIN G G E TTIN G B U S W H E N TIM E S TO P S TO P N A M E O FF O N IT LE A V E S P O IN T 1 M ontebello /JC P enney#2 0 : 2 M ark land/P otre ro G rande 3 M ontebello P lz /P ark ingLot : 4 W ilcox/V ia P aseo 5 W ilcox/H ay 6 W ilcox/L inco ln 7 W ilcox/V ic to ria 8 W ilcox/B everly : 9 W ilcox/M ad ison 10 W ilcox/W hittie r 11 W hittie r/C oncourse 12 G arfie ld /W hittier : 13 G arfie ld /O lym pic 14 G arfie ld /Ferguson 15 F lo tilla /G arfie ld 16 M etro link S tation : 17 M ines/V a il 18 M ines/M ap le 19 M ines/G reenw ood 0 :

Chapter 2. Inputs to the Scheduling Process 2-20 TR IP S U R V E Y S H E E T R oute /D irection : 70 S B C hecker N am e: S m ith A ssignm ent 702 D ay o f W eek: W E D S urvey D ate : 20-O ct T rip # : 20 R un # 70-51 P E R S O N S P E R S O N S TO TA L O N LE A V E G E TTIN G G E TTIN G B U S W H E N TIM E S TO P S TO P N A M E O FF O N IT LE A V E S P O IN T 1 M ontebello /JC P enney#2 0 1 1 3:35 P M 2 M ark land/P otre ro G rande 1 3 M ontebello P lz /P ark ingLot 6 7 3:42 P M 4 W ilcox/V ia P aseo 1 6 5 W ilcox/H ay 6 12 6 W ilcox/L inco ln 12 7 W ilcox/V ic to ria 12 8 W ilcox/B everly 2 10 3:46 P M 9 W ilcox/M ad ison 10 10 W ilcox/W hittie r 2 1 9 11 W hittie r/C oncourse 5 4 12 G arfie ld /W hittier 1 3 3:50 P M 13 G arfie ld /O lym pic 1 2 14 G arfie ld /Ferguson 2 15 F lo tilla /G arfie ld 2 16 M etro link S tation 2 3:55 P M 17 M ines/V a il 2 18 M ines/M ap le 2 19 M ines/G reenw ood 2 0 4:01 P M

Chapter 2. Inputs to the Scheduling Process 2-21 Some days or seasons are more or less ideal for collecting representative data. This will vary by system, weather, and the importance of school ridership in the overall operation. When school is a factor, in-session times when classes are stable give the most accurate picture for school time service level requirements. These are usually the months of March, April, October, and November. Those are also the best when weather is a big factor. Days of the week diff er as well. Mondays and Fridays are not ideal checking days, as loads tend to be lower on those days, and traffi c on Fridays is diff erent from other weekdays. Obviously, days before and after holidays are not typical weekdays either. APC and AVL Systems APCs provide an automated version of on-board ride checks. The APC will collect time, loca- tion, and passenger boarding/alighting information, much in the way an on-board survey does. The obvious benefi t of APCs is the capacity to generate many days of data for as many routes as the number of APC units will permit. The diffi culties are in initial calibration of the systems, in daily vehicle assignment (if only a portion of all vehicles are equipped with APCs), and in staff ’s ability to analyze the sheer volume of data produced. The latter problem is a good one as far as scheduling is concerned. Schedulers work well with a wealth of data. Two common elements contributing to successful implementation of APCs are a sound validation program to fl ag data of questionable quality and good reporting capabili- ties. The latter can include standard reports to provide schedulers with the information they need most often (boardings, alightings, loads and time by stop, and running time by segment) and the fl exibility to create ad-hoc reports to query the APC database as needed. AVL systems track vehicle location throughout the day, but do not collect ridership data. Thus, the primary use of AVL data for scheduling is in the evaluation of schedule adherence and running time analysis. As with APCs, data validation and reporting capabilities enhance the reliability and usefulness of AVL data. Agencies that use both APCs and AVL tend to rely on the AVL system for time-related data. As more and more transit agencies acquire APC and AVL capabilities, either as stand-alone systems or as part of a broader Intelligent Transportation Systems procurement, schedulers will have more and better quality data at their disposal. APC and AVL will largely replace hu- man checkers but, as noted earlier, there are instances where human checkers are still needed (for example, cross-checking APC and AVL systems on buses not equipped with APC). A fi nal point is that automated data collection can tell you what is happening but cannot tell you why. Observations from operations personnel and fi eldwork by the schedulers will remain an impor- tant part of the scheduling process. automatic passenger counting (APC) APC systems count the number of boardings and alightings at each stop while also noting time, loca- tion, and direction. Infrared beams are the most common means used in counting. Stop location is identifi ed through the use of data sources such as global positioning systems (GPS), signpost emitters, GIS maps, odometer readings, and inertial navigation. Data from all these sources must be extensively compiled (from multiple buses/trips on a route) and processed, either by an on-board computer or centrally, to be meaningful. automatic vehicle location (AVL) AVL systems are vehicle tracking systems that function by measur- ing the real-time position of each vehicle and relaying this information back to a central location. The vehicle location is identifi ed through the use of global positioning systems (GPS). The information is used to assist transit dispatchers as well as inform travelers of bus status. AVL is a potential source of running time and on time perfor- mance data for scheduling, but only if an archival reporting system is included.

Chapter 2. Inputs to the Scheduling Process 2-22 We mentioned at the beginning that there were other types of checks that were less useful for schedulers. To complete our picture of data accumulation methods, we list these here: Trail checks entail following buses in a car over specifi c segments of a route. They can be useful for looking at general operations along a segment of route that is being studied for rerouting or discontinuation, but are not the preferred method for obtaining board- ing, alighting, or running time data. Farebox counts do give a record of how many patrons boarded on each trip (if the driver has been diligent to reset the box at the start of each trip), but they do not tell where passengers got on or off the bus. More importantly, fareboxes cannot tell the maximum number of passengers on board for each trip. Farebox counts are useful for identifying ridership trends. Cordon counts are a common means in traffi c engineering to count vehicles and people entering and leaving a specifi c area, typically a city center. Some of this information at a specifi c corridor level may be of interest to transit, but overall results are of little use for scheduling purposes. • • •

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TRB’s Transit Cooperative Research Program (TCRP) Report 135: Controlling System Costs: Basic and Advanced Scheduling Manuals and Contemporary Issues in Transit Scheduling explores information on available scheduling tools and techniques and their capabilities. Also, the report provides guidance to transit agencies on a variety of scheduling issues typically faced in a transit operating environment.

TCRP Report 135 is an update to TCRP Report 30: Transit Scheduling: Basic and Advanced Manuals and addresses contemporary issues in transit scheduling. The appendixes to TCRP Report 135 were published as TCRP Web-Only Document 45: Appendixes to TCRP Report 135: Controlling System Costs: Basic and Advanced Scheduling Manuals and Contemporary Issues in Transit Scheduling.

An interactive scheduling manual is available as an ISO image. Links to the ISO image and instructions for burning a CD-ROM from an ISO image are provided below. Once a CD-ROM has been made with the ISO image, open the folder on the CD-ROM called Interactive Scheduling Manual and click on Transit_Scheduling_Lessons.pps.

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