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Vehicle Operator Recruitment, Retention, and Performance in ADA Complementary Paratransit Operations (2010)

Chapter: Chapter 4 - Model of Factors That Affect Vehicle Operator Recruitment, Retention, and Performance

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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 4 - Model of Factors That Affect Vehicle Operator Recruitment, Retention, and Performance." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2010. Vehicle Operator Recruitment, Retention, and Performance in ADA Complementary Paratransit Operations. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14415.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 4 - Model of Factors That Affect Vehicle Operator Recruitment, Retention, and Performance." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2010. Vehicle Operator Recruitment, Retention, and Performance in ADA Complementary Paratransit Operations. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14415.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 4 - Model of Factors That Affect Vehicle Operator Recruitment, Retention, and Performance." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2010. Vehicle Operator Recruitment, Retention, and Performance in ADA Complementary Paratransit Operations. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14415.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 4 - Model of Factors That Affect Vehicle Operator Recruitment, Retention, and Performance." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2010. Vehicle Operator Recruitment, Retention, and Performance in ADA Complementary Paratransit Operations. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14415.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 4 - Model of Factors That Affect Vehicle Operator Recruitment, Retention, and Performance." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2010. Vehicle Operator Recruitment, Retention, and Performance in ADA Complementary Paratransit Operations. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14415.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 4 - Model of Factors That Affect Vehicle Operator Recruitment, Retention, and Performance." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2010. Vehicle Operator Recruitment, Retention, and Performance in ADA Complementary Paratransit Operations. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14415.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 4 - Model of Factors That Affect Vehicle Operator Recruitment, Retention, and Performance." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2010. Vehicle Operator Recruitment, Retention, and Performance in ADA Complementary Paratransit Operations. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14415.
×
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 4 - Model of Factors That Affect Vehicle Operator Recruitment, Retention, and Performance." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2010. Vehicle Operator Recruitment, Retention, and Performance in ADA Complementary Paratransit Operations. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14415.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 4 - Model of Factors That Affect Vehicle Operator Recruitment, Retention, and Performance." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2010. Vehicle Operator Recruitment, Retention, and Performance in ADA Complementary Paratransit Operations. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14415.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 4 - Model of Factors That Affect Vehicle Operator Recruitment, Retention, and Performance." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2010. Vehicle Operator Recruitment, Retention, and Performance in ADA Complementary Paratransit Operations. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14415.
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49 Information gathered from the literature search, focus groups, and national survey was used to develop a model to depict key factors in ADA paratransit vehicle operator recruit- ment, retention, and performance. This chapter describes the model and the factors that were identified. Several key inter- relationships between the various factors in the model are also discussed. Finally, the underlying causal factors that affect oper- ator recruitment and retention are also explored. The “Performance Pyramid” Figure 4-1 illustrates, at a very “macro” level, the key factors that impact vehicle operator performance. The factors form a “Performance Pyramid.” At the base of the pyramid, there are three key ingredients for eventual high performance. These are recruiting “The Right” employees, providing these recruits and employees with effective training and appropriate tools, and providing the necessary support from other parts of the organization and a positive work environment that will enable vehicle operators to perform to the maximum of their abilities. Job satisfaction and retention then form the middle of the pyramid. It is vital that quality vehicle operators are retained. The experience and skills gained by vehicle operators over time will have a direct impact on daily performance. Job satisfaction not only will be a major determinant in the decision to remain with the organization but will impact the attitude that vehicle operators bring to the job each day—a second key ingredient in performance. Each part of this “Performance Pyramid” is affected by numerous internal and external factors. These are explained in more detail in the following paragraphs. Attracting and Selecting “The Right” Employees Operating ADA paratransit service is much more than sim- ply “driving.” A high degree of direct assistance must often be provided to riders. The types of assistance provided depend on the particular disability or disabilities of each rider, and there are many different types of disabilities. ADA paratransit vehi- cle operators must bring to the job a high level of disability awareness, sensitivity, and passenger assistance and customer service skills. Shared-ride paratransit service is also more complex than operating a fixed-route bus or taxi. Schedules can be demanding and must be understood and carried out cor- rectly. Vehicle operators must also be familiar with all parts of the service area, rather than a set route, as pick-ups and drop-offs can happen throughout the area and in varying sequences. It is therefore important to attract and recruit not just “drivers” but individuals who can become successful ADA complementary paratransit vehicle operators. Several internal and external factors must be considered in this process. These factors are illustrated in Figure 4-2 and explained in the follow- ing paragraphs. Developing an Employee Profile and Pre-Qualifications Most ADA paratransit service providers have a set of required pre-qualifications for vehicle operators. In many cases these are defined by contractual requirements or by law or insurance requirements. For insurance purposes or because of the type of vehicle used in the provision of service, vehicle operators may need to have a certain type of license and may need to be a minimum age or older. Since passenger safety and safe vehicle operation is of paramount importance, most systems and service providers require good driving records and criminal background checks. Federal and some state laws require that vehicle operators pass drug screening tests. To ensure that service is effectively provided, many sys- tems and providers also require proficiency in English. In addition to meeting the safety, legal, and contractual requirements, it is important to consider the inherent skills C H A P T E R 4 Model of Factors That Affect Vehicle Operator Recruitment, Retention, and Performance

and qualities that recruits will bring to the job. Two of the more important skills and qualities are the following: • A customer service attitude, and • Spatial orientation and map reading skills. Given the level of interaction between ADA paratransit vehi- cle operators and riders, it is vital that individuals recruited for these positions possess a customer service attitude or good “people skills.” It is important to recruit beyond just individu- als with experience driving buses, taxis, or other types of vehi- cles. The proper attitude must be given equal consideration. Some systems that offered input on this topic indicated that they find it more successful to “hire individuals with the right attitude and provide training as a vehicle operator” than to hire “an experienced vehicle operator and try to train them to have the right attitude.” The ideal recruit will possess both types of qualities and skills. The literature search found that focusing on hiring the “right person” was also successful and espoused in other indus- tries. In the trucking industry, case studies indicated that some successful companies “hire persons with good attitudes and trained those individuals to drive” rather than focusing on hir- ing experienced operators from other companies. Many systems and individuals also noted the importance of finding individuals who have good spatial orientation and who understand how to read maps. This skill is often taken for granted. The lack of map reading skills was cited as one of the main reasons that trainees fail in the training process, are ter- minated, or become frustrated with the job and leave. Competitive Wages To attract applicants who will eventually become successful, experienced, productive, and long-term vehicle operators, a competitive wage must be offered. While there are many things that prospective recruits consider when deciding to apply for and accepting a job as a vehicle operator, the wages offered where ranked by all who offered input as one of the most important. Without competitive wages, organizations are likely to attract a more transient workforce that is interested in any job, rather than more experienced and skilled individuals, or quality individuals with a good customer service attitude who are interested in being ADA paratransit vehicle operators. When the demands of the job become known, more transient applicants are then much more likely to not complete training or to leave as soon as a better paying job becomes available. Low pay in current ADA paratransit operations was cited as a major factor in low training completion rates. Low pay was also cited by focus group participants and survey respondents as the main reason for high turnover. In establishing a competitive rate, several external factors must be considered. The first is the overall job market. Dur- ing times of lower unemployment, it may become necessary to offer higher wages or other benefits and incentives to attract quality candidates. Wages offered by other transporta- tion companies in the area must also be considered. Once individuals are fully trained, they can easily move between service providers in the area. This is particularly true if they have Commercial Drivers Licenses or obtain them as part of their training. The research also indicated that it is important to match the wage that is offered to the requirements of the job. It is impor- tant to not just provide a competitive “driver” wage but to offer 50 Performance Job Satisfaction Retention “The Right” Employees Training and Tools Supportive Work Environment Attract “The Right” Employees Internal Factors Defining “The Right” Employees Wages Offered Fringe Benefits Offered Work Schedules That Fit with Lifestyle Needs Methods of Recruitment Job Previews Pre-Screening External Factors Overall Job Market Compensation Offered by Competitors for Same Employees Reputation of the Service and Agency/Company Figure 4-2. Factors that affect recruitment of “the right” individuals. Figure 4-1. The “performance pyramid.”

a wage that will attract individuals with the right attitude who can handle the rigors of shared-ride paratransit operations. Several vehicle operators and managers who participated in focus group discussions indicated that some people quit because they are able to find employment with equal pay but a lot less demanding. Benefits Another important part of the compensation equation are the fringe benefits provided. These must be appropriate given the labor market and able to compete with other similar employers. The benefits package must also consider the wages and income level of employees. The research indicated that while many service providers indicate that they offer health benefits, the employee contributions required often put these benefits beyond the reach of most vehicle operators. For exam- ple, the national survey found that in private contractor oper- ated paratransit programs the average contribution required for an individual’s health care coverage was 33%, and the aver- age contribution for family health care coverage was 50%. In dollar terms, family coverage typically requires a contribution of $500 per month or more, and average starting wages in pri- vate contractor operations was only $10.47 per hour. Not offering health care benefits, in particular, can limit the pool of potential applicants. Applicants with families and applicants without other ways to obtain health care coverage may place a premium on this particular benefit. Approximately 80% of the focus group operators from challenged (high turnover) systems commented that benefits for paratransit vehicle operators were inadequate. One operator related: “We need better benefits. Always changing insurance and giving us bad benefits.” Another operator, citing inequities in benefits between fixed-route and paratransit operators stated: “The people who drive the big buses get more holidays than para- transit operators.” Work Shifts The run structure and the work shifts created to cover runs can also have a significant impact on recruitment efforts. To provide capacity during both morning and afternoon peak time periods and to also minimize excess capacity during mid- day and evening hours, many systems have a number of split and part-time shifts. Some operators are asked to work several hours through the morning peak, take a 2–3 hour unpaid break during the middle of the day, and then work for several hours through the afternoon peak. This practice of split shifts is sometimes unpopular with vehicle operators and excessive use of split shifts could affect job satisfaction and retention. The national survey revealed that 42 (63%) of the 67 public and private contractors that responded to the question about what percentage of paratransit operators who were assigned to split shifts indicated that some full-time paratransit operators were assigned in this way. On average, 22% of full-time oper- ators in these systems worked split shifts. The survey also revealed that most ADA paratransit vehicle operators pick work shifts based on seniority. This is the case in 55 (81%) of the 68 systems that responded to the question about how work was assigned to vehicle operators. Thirteen systems (19%) assigned work to operators as needed. None of the systems indicated that operators are hired for specific work shifts. Full-time, straight shifts tend to be selected by senior employees which means that recruitment must often focus on filling the less desirable evening, weekend, part-time or split shifts. To provide new employees with enough hours to ensure a reasonable weekly income, part-time weekday shifts are often combined with weekend work. The resulting weekly work shifts offered to new recruits most often interfere with appli- cants’ lifestyles or with family or other demands. Creating work shifts that are more conducive to a reasonable lifestyle can help to improve recruitment efforts. This is also an important factor in retaining vehicle operators. While some productivity might be lost by not trimming runs and shifts to match service demand exactly, this loss of productivity might be offset by lower recruitment costs, lower training costs, and the improved efficiency through better retention. Although not reported to be widely used in current para- transit operations, pay differentials may also be helpful in this area. If filling evening and weekend shifts as well as split-shifts proves to be difficult, a slightly higher wage might be offered for these less desirable assignments. The literature search indi- cated that pay differentials are successfully used in the trucking industry. The survey of current ADA paratransit operations, however, found that only a few paratransit providers utilize pay differentials. Recruitment Efforts Innovative recruitment efforts can also be used to attract “the right” employees. Signing bonuses and referral bonuses are offered by many systems and service providers. Typically, these bonuses range from $200 to $500. To help with retention, some systems offer to pay part of the bonus at the time the new recruit is employed and then to pay the remainder of the bonus after the new employee completes a certain period of employ- ment (e.g., 90 days). Research completed for TCRP Report 77: Managing Transit’s Workforce in the New Millennium (27) found employee referral programs to be a best practice of using internal recruitment resources within the transit industry. The study report included five examples of how transit agencies design and implement referral programs. While the amount of referral payments differed from agency to agency, the concepts of how to make the program meaningful were the same. For 51

instance, in each case the programs were designed in multi- phased bonus formats with the referring employee receiving two or more payments at designated periods of employment of the new hire. Current employees are often overlooked in their natural role as informal recruiting resources. Focus group participants (vehicle operators) spoke about how they are asked on a num- ber of occasions about the nature of their jobs and how they provide information about their work and on how to apply for the position. The person who enjoys the job of paratransit vehicle operator and is good at it can be a spontaneous cost- effective goodwill ambassador for the employer. Several focus group participants indicated that they learned of their current jobs by word-of-mouth. They also indicated that while on-the-road they are often stopped by strangers who inquire about possible employment opportunities. This word- of-mouth recruitment appears to be a significant part of find- ing new vehicle operators in current ADA paratransit services, and where this is the case, referral bonuses can be particularly effective. Word-of-mouth recruitment is also likely to work more effectively when the current workforce is content. Dis- satisfied vehicle operators may not be encouraging to individ- uals who ask about the job. Some systems also report that they have had success recruit- ing individuals who are retired and seeking a supplemental income. This is a particularly effective strategy in communities with significant retirement populations as well as in commu- nities with retired military personnel. It has also been reported by several providers that older, retired employees tend to be reliable and more customer service oriented. They also may not have a problem working part-time shifts and fewer hours per week. Sometimes, fringe benefits are not as critical if they have benefits from their prior jobs. On the other hand, older workers may be more sensitive to shifts that do not match their lifestyles. While older employ- ees may not mind part-time shifts (e.g., 4–5 hours per day), they may not want to work evening or weekend shifts. If paratransit systems can be more effective in recruiting older workers, they may find it more beneficial to create part-time work for these operators rather than to rely too heavily on split shifts. More targeted focus on recruiting older workers is also important since the workforce is aging. As noted previously, the number of older workers in the workforce is expected to increase by 56% by 2012. Several reports identified in the liter- ature search stressed that organizations will need to attract older workers in the future to remain competitive. Job fairs tar- geted to older job seekers were reported in the national survey to be one successful way to recruit older workers. Some paratransit providers also reported success targeting and recruiting health care and social service employees from home health care and other industries. These employees may be more likely to bring a customer service attitude and skills in working with persons with disabilities. Pre-Screening and Job Previews The literature and focus group discussions noted the need for effective pre-screening and realistic job previews. It is important to identify individuals who meet all qualifications and are likely to succeed in the job. Effective pre-screening can also prevent high training drop-out rates and preserve train- ing resources. Providing applicants with a realistic description of the job can also help individuals decide if the job is right for them. Agency/Company Image Individuals in the community are more likely to seek employment with an organization if the word-of-mouth is that the organization is a good employer. Similarly, if the local para- transit service has a positive reputation, individuals interested in the job for social or “people” reasons are more likely to apply. Second only to a paycheck, participants in the focus groups that were conducted indicated that they were drawn to the job (or continued in the job) because they liked working with peo- ple and felt that they were performing an important service. It is possible that building a good local service reputation would help draw more people to want to be part of the program. Conversely, if the company or service has a negative reputa- tion, it may be harder to attract individuals interested in doing community work. Higher pay or other compensation may be necessary to offset this negative perception in order to obtain high-quality recruits. One approach that may assist with recruitment is to highlight vehicle operators in local community news stories. This may also help with retention. A number of systems and providers indicated that one of the main reasons for high drop-out rates in training is that recruits do not have a good sense of the job that they are applying for. Once they learn all of the require- ments of the job, they decide it is not for them or decide that they can get less demanding employment for the same or com- parable pay. Community news stories may help provide the public and potential recruits with a better idea of the require- ments of the job of vehicle operator. Providing Effective Training and Tools In addition to finding “The Right” employee, it is important that employees are properly trained, receive the necessary tools, and receive appropriate support from others in the organization. The overall work environment is also an impor- 52

tant factor. Figure 4-3 shows some of the key considerations in training and the tools that can help with recruitment and retention. Training Effective initial training is obviously important for prepar- ing new vehicle operators for the job. Being adequately pre- pared to perform the job can reduce frustration, increase job satisfaction, improve retention, and improve performance. The national survey of paratransit providers found that, on average, about 127 hours of training is typically provided. This includes about 59 hours of classroom instruction and 68 hours of on-the-road training. Longer training (up to eight weeks) is provided by public entities that have com- bined fixed-route and paratransit workforces and that train new vehicle operators in both modes. Classroom training typically covers the service policies and procedures, the com- pany policies and procedures, ADA requirements, orientation to vehicles and equipment, passenger assistance techniques, disability awareness, customer service training, defensive driving, map reading, drug and alcohol program training, sexual harassment training, orientation to schedules and paper- work, and other topics. In some systems, short versions of first- aid and CPR are provided. The first part of the on-the-road portion of the training typically has the new operator ride along with an experienced operator/trainer. In the latter part of the on-the-road train- ing, the new operator performs the service and is observed by an experienced operator/trainer. Best practice is to test for proficiency as each portion of the training is completed. This involves written tests for the class- room training and observations and grading of performance for the passenger assistance and vehicle and equipment ori- entation segments, as well as a final grading of performance at the end of the on-the-road segment. Best practice also includes individuals with disabilities in the disability aware- ness, ADA requirements, and passenger assistance portions of the training. As noted in the “Developing an Employee Profile and Pre- Qualifications” section, the research to date indicates that improved skills in map reading and schedule reading are needed. Typically, in the classroom portions of most training programs, only about 4 hours are allocated to map reading and about 2 hours to schedule reading. Many of the operators who participated in the focus groups indicated that addi- tional training time was needed in these areas. In terms of schedule reading and management, there reportedly is a need for new vehicle operators to have a bet- ter understanding of all of the “times” involved in ADA para- transit and included on the manifests. For example, if a mani- fest shows the scheduled pick-up time, rather than the ETA, new vehicle operators need to know that there is an on-time window associated with that scheduled time and they have 20 or 30 minutes leeway in performing that trip. A common complaint of vehicle operators, repeated in the focus groups, is that the schedule has them “in two places at the same time.” This is likely due to the fact that the scheduled time is shown and the scheduler expects one pick-up to be performed early in the 20–30 minute on-time window and the second to be performed later in the window. If the ETA is shown, opera- tors need to know that the scheduler is expecting them to per- form trips as close as possible to this time to make the sched- ule work (but that there still may be some leeway even with ETAs). Better training in understanding how to read and use the time allowances in the schedule can improve job satisfac- tion and performance. Another common issue cited by systems and operators is the lack of full understanding of the features of advanced technologies. For example, the main screen on mobile computer systems (MDCs) may show only basic trip infor- mation. Special pick-up instructions are often contained on secondary screens. Vehicle operators need to be trained to know how to access these secondary screens, and an emphasis needs to be placed on making sure that all trip information is checked before a pick-up is made. Not understanding how to access full information can result in no-shows and missed trips, operator frustration, and decreased performance. In general, if advanced technolo- gies are employed, training to proficiency in the operation of these systems is needed. An innovative practice that was identified in the research was to start the training program by having applicants spend a day on the road with an experienced operator; this report- edly gave operators a much better sense of the actual job. Applicants have an opportunity at the end of this first day to decide if they want to pursue the job. It was reported that giv- ing applicants this early exposure reduced drop-out rates 53 Provide Necessary Training and Tools Adequacy of Overall Training Reading and Managing Schedules Customer Relations Training Map Reading and Orientation of the Area Well-Maintained and Comfortable Vehicles Advanced Technologies that Assist with the Job Ongoing Training Figure 4-3. Key factors in training and on-the-job tools.

later in the training process. It would also make the classroom training more pertinent and “real.” Finally, ongoing training can impact job satisfaction, reten- tion, and performance. If new operators are having difficulty with certain aspects of the job, additional instruction should be provided. New operators should also be made to feel that it is okay to alert supervisors and managers to parts of the job about which they feel they need additional instruction. Tools In addition to effective and thorough training, job satisfac- tion, retention, and performance are impacted by providing vehicle operators with the tools they need to do the job to the best of their ability. These tools include well-designed and properly maintained equipment, accessibility equipment that is functional and easy to use, and communications equipment that is reliable and effective. Vehicle operators “live with” the equipment provided every day. Their comfort as well as pro- ductivity is affected directly by the adequacy of these tools. Clean, well maintained vehicles also impact the image that is projected of the service and the agency/company. This image reflects on the vehicle operators and can impact job satisfac- tion. As noted in the “Agency/Company Image” section, it can also impact public perception of the service and company and can affect recruitment. A possible best practice is to involve vehicle operators in the design, testing, and selection of vehicles and equipment. While maintenance personnel are often involved in equipment design and selection, fewer systems get feedback from vehicle operators. Advanced technologies can also assist vehicle operators and improve performance. A number of respondents to the survey noted that they have installed GPS navigation systems on vehi- cles and have found that it helps new operators in particular. Even with better training and more time spent on map read- ing and learning the area, it is difficult for new operators to have a good working knowledge of the entire service area (par- ticularly in very large systems). Technology that can assist with finding specific addresses can relieve much of the stress placed on new operators and can even assist experienced operators in finding infrequent or uncommon addresses. MDCs can make the communications between vehicle oper- ators and dispatchers more efficient and can reduce wait times for dispatch assistance. MDCs can also minimize the manual writing that is associated with paper manifest or with add-ons to the schedule. As noted above, though, if advanced technolo- gies are employed, these systems need to function properly and vehicle operators need to be trained to use them. It has been reported that poorly performing equipment or a lack of under- standing of these advance technologies can have negative impacts on vehicle operator performance and job satisfaction. Providing Support and a Positive Work Environment The provision of efficient and quality ADA paratransit ser- vice requires a team effort. To perform to their maximum ability, vehicle operators need good support from other parts of the organization, including scheduling and dispatch. Rec- ognizing when operators perform well and offering support during difficult operating times is vital. A good overall work environment and a process that ensures that vehicle operators are “heard” is also important for job satisfaction, retention, and performance. Figure 4-4 illustrates key factors that impact the work environment. Workable Schedules One of the more surprising findings of the early research is the role that scheduling plays in job satisfaction and retention of vehicle operators. Along with pay and work shifts, the workability of run schedules was a major issue with operators who participated in focus groups. Supervisors participating in focus groups cited scheduling as the most frequent source of frustration for paratransit operators with seven of the nine supervisors making statements in this regard. During focus groups, a number of vehicle operators reported that poorly designed schedules and tight scheduling can be a major source of frustration. A female operator commented that late night flex shifts are “discouraging and kind of fright- ening since the system operates until midnight.” They cited cir- cuitous scheduling and scheduling that “didn’t make sense.” There were also complaints about schedules with too many trips to be performed on-time. Add-ons to the schedule dur- ing the day of service were also raised as an issue: “Schedule you a day off and then draft you to work on your off day.” Vehicle operators noted that poorly designed schedules can make them feel that they are constantly failing at their jobs. In addition, it leads to conflicts with riders who may be picked- up late, may ride an excessively long time on an overly cir- cuitous route, or who may get to appointments late. 54 Provide Positive and Supportive Work Environment Workable Schedules Dispatch Support Effective Grievance Process Recognition Management Support Overall Workplace Environment (Physical and Social) Figure 4-4. Key factors in providing supportive and positive work environment.

A best practice that was identified in the early research was scaling back on schedules for newer operators. A number of sys- tems reported that they identify the runs that will be performed by new operators and reduce the number of trips on those runs. This is done by either reducing the estimated travel speeds on those runs (thereby allowing more time between pick-ups and drop-offs), or by simply limiting the total number of trips per hour. Systems typically reported reducing travel speeds to 80% of the speeds of other, fully utilized runs. The research also noted that more experienced vehicle operators, who have seniority and first choice in the selec- tion of shifts, often will choose runs with set subscription riders. These runs are more stable from day to day and once learned are easier to perform than runs that involve a lot of many-to-many trips. As a result, newer operators may end up with more of the difficult run assignments which when combined with less knowledge of the area and less experi- ence with map reading, can impact performance and job satisfaction. Dispatch Support The level of support received from radio dispatchers was also a key factor noted by vehicle operators who participated in the focus groups. The importance of the relationship between vehicle operators and dispatchers is also well documented in the literature. A lack of support by dispatchers or outright con- flict between vehicle operators and dispatchers can have a major impact on job satisfaction and performance. Several operators indicated that they recognize that the job of dis- patchers is very difficult but cited a lack of teamwork to address difficult situations. The provision of shared-ride ADA paratransit service is a difficult job even under the best of circumstances. With traf- fic, weather, missed customer connections, issues with riders, and other factors, it can be difficult to manage and perform a schedule. In many areas, the situation is also exacerbated by the fact that resources are stretched to the limits. As a result, scheduling is often tight. Service may sometimes run late and riders may often be upset with the service they are provided. In these situations, the daily provision of service can be even more difficult. Vehicle operators who provided input at the focus group meetings seemed to understand the pressures on the system and the pressures that dispatchers were under. There was a sense that they were willing to “share the load” and work with dispatchers to make the best of the situation they were in. They did not, however, appreciate it when dispatchers seemed to take out their frustrations and difficulties on them or did not seem to do their part in trying to address these issues as a team. Some of the feelings expressed included: • “You don’t get help from them. They don’t know the city themselves. It is frustrating when you can’t do what you could because of poor planning.” • “Dispatchers are disrespectful and rude.” • “Dispatchers sometimes don’t sympathize with what the operators are dealing with.” Managers who participated in the focus groups concurred with operators that disrespectful dispatchers negatively impact operator job satisfaction. Transit systems and service providers need to select dis- patchers who can not only manage runs but can effectively manage the workforce they are assigned to oversee. Training dispatchers on how to manage the workforce in a positive way during times of stress can be very helpful. Selecting dispatch- ers who can work effectively with operators in a positive way is also important. Management Support Beyond the radio dispatchers, vehicle operators need the support of others in the organization, particularly their direct supervisors and the system managers. These other staff can have a major impact on the degree to which the organization operates effectively and as a team. Supervisors and managers need to understand the conditions under which vehicle oper- ators and other staff are operating and need to be supportive when appropriate. A lack of management support, or even worse—poor management or dispatch—can undermine other efforts to improve retention. Modest increases in wages, improvements in benefits, and improved training are not likely to be enough to keep good employees if they feel that they are “on their own” when there are difficult paratransit operating issues or if they are made to feel that service problems are “their fault.” During focus groups, managers expressed their desire to make employees feel they are appreciated and listened to and said they provide opportunities that encourage operators to communicate their concerns. They spoke about regularly scheduled open forums in which operators get to talk about anything they want to discuss. Some organizations have employee committees set up that employees can access if they need to air any concerns. TCRP Synthesis 71: Paratransit Manager’s Skills, Qualifi- cations, and Needs profiled four paratransit managers. One manager stated that “good managers must be able to moti- vate the drivers in a manner that allows the driver to feel ‘ownership’ in the operation. . . . A good paratransit man- ager must also ensure that the dispatchers, reservationists, schedulers, and vehicle operators communicate effectively with each other on an ongoing and consistent basis.” In regard to employee involvement, comfortable settings, consistent 55

management interaction, or supportive supervisory prac- tices, “respondents noted that a strong support team of drivers and dispatchers is essential and is the backbone of paratransit operations. . . . Know your people and they need to know you.” Other comments focused on employee devel- opment, skills training, and maintaining a positive and sup- portive culture for employees. A best practice identified in Synthesis 71 is for supervisors and managers to spend time each week or month riding vehi- cles and directly observing the operation. This time on-board can provide important insights into operating issues and can demonstrate real involvement and concern about the issues faced by vehicle operators. An Effective Grievance Process As disputes and issues arise, it is also important to have an effective process for receiving and handling grievances. Many of the managers and supervisors that participated in focus groups or who responded to the survey indicated that it was important to maintain an “open door” policy and invite any employees to bring issues directly to them. As issues are iden- tified, it is then important that they are not just heard but are acted on. Actions taken then need to be communicated back to employees so that they know that something has been done. Even if larger factors prevent an ideal solution, com- municating these factors to employees will reduce frustra- tions and avoid the impression that no efforts were made or that “nothing ever gets addressed.” Recognition All employees value and appreciate recognition and posi- tive reinforcement. This is particularly important for ADA paratransit vehicle operators who often operate under diffi- cult circumstances. Being on the road can make operators feel somewhat separate from the other parts of the operation, and recognition and positive reinforcement can help make oper- ators feel more a part of the team. A number of systems and service providers have employee of the month and employee of the year programs or have other ways of publicly recognizing good performance. Many systems also report that they provide awards and bonuses for good performance. Commonly reported programs recognize and reward safe operation, reliability and attendance, on- time performance, low complaint rates, or a combination of these performance items. In some systems, concern was expressed about the way that bonuses were distributed or how the goals were set. Input from managers and vehicle operators indicated that bonus programs need to be fair and meaningful. At the same time, they need to be achievable. Work Environment A common theme in systems that were identified to have stable workforces was that there was a good overall work envi- ronment. Vehicle operators from these systems reported that the organization was like a “family” and that they enjoyed the people they worked with. They indicated that the organiza- tion had a real interest in its employees and looked out for their interest. Small efforts, such as recognizing birthdays and periodically hosting breakfasts or company gatherings, were cited as things that helped improve the camaraderie and the overall work environment. Each of the other factors noted—support, recognition, and hearing and acting on concerns—also plays a part in the cultivation of a positive work environment. Some efforts can have an immediate impact, but more often, chang- ing the work environment is something that requires time and requires ongoing effort to maintain. Managers should also not underestimate the importance of a comfortable and inviting physical work environment. Vehi- cle operators appreciate a comfortable area to spend time on breaks or between shifts and an area where they can review and plan out schedules before going out on runs. Some sys- tems also provide exercise equipment and facilities. A com- fortable and well-appointed facility lets operators know that they are important to the company and are appreciated. Underlying Causal Factors That Impact Vehicle Operator Recruitment and Retention The previous sections detail the factors that directly impact vehicle operator recruitment, retention and performance. There are also significant underlying causal factors that often have an impact. This section details one such factor that was raised by systems and providers. This situation is illustrated in Figure 4-5. ADA paratransit ridership has grown steadily since the pas- sage of the ADA in 1990, with increases of 5% to 10% per year not uncommon at many systems. At the same time, many agency budgets have not grown at a similar rate. As a result, transit agencies and ADA paratransit managers are under pressure to deliver services as efficiently as possible and with as few resources as possible. Where services are contracted out, cost is a major factor in the selection of providers. In turn, prospective service providers understand that keeping the bid process as low as possible can be a determining factor in whether or not they are selected as a contractor. This pressure on resources and costs appears to have an impact on vehicle operator recruitment and retention. Wages for paratransit service are sometimes very low and fringe ben- efits are often limited. The national survey found that start- 56

ing wages for paratransit operators range from $7.00 per hour to $15.77 per hour. The average wage varies depending on the type of operation, with operators employed by public agen- cies receiving an average of $12.06 per hour but operators of private contractors receiving only $10.47 on average. Wages also vary depending on union representation, with non- union operators at public agencies receiving an average wage of $11.30 per hour and non-union operators at private con- tractors receiving an average wage of only $9.03 per hour. As a result, contracted service providers report that it is difficult to attract and keep vehicle operators. Annual post-training turnover rates for private paratransit contractors average 30% per year and range as high as 80% per year. This, in turn, is reported to impact vehicle operator performance and over- all system performance and cost. In some ways, though, pressures to minimize costs can have the opposite impact. Lower cost proposals, which are lower mainly because of lower wages and benefits, may be accepted. The lower wages and benefits may then result in higher vehicle operator turnover, which in turn can result in a less productive service. If productivity is lower than planned, this means that more vehicle-hours must be operated to meet the same level of demand. Since many public transit agencies pay contractors on a per vehicle-hour of service basis, more vehicle-hours of ser- vice raises the total cost. The extra cost of added vehicle-hours could be more than the cost of paying for a provider with slightly higher bid costs but with a more productive workforce. For example, in a system where the demand is for 100,000 trips a year, operating at a productivity of 1.3 trips per vehicle hour rather than 1.5 trips per vehicle-hour would require 76,923 hours of service rather than 66,667 hours of service (a 15% increase in the hours needed). A contractor with a $45 per hour rate operating at 1.3 trips per hour would actually cost more, in the long run, than a contractor charging $51 per hour but providing a workforce that could operate at 1.5 trips per hour. Important Inter-Relationships Figure 4-5 illustrates how certain factors impact vehicle operator recruitment, retention, and performance. There are also a number of important inter-relationships between fac- tors. The literature, focus groups, and surveys suggest certain relationships, but there is little hard research data that details these key inter-relationships. Key relationships between factors that may be useful to research are described in more detail in the following sections. Compensation, Turnover, Productivity, and Total Cost Information from the national survey indicates that there is a strong relationship between compensation paid to vehicle operators and the annual turnover of the operator workforce. It is also believed that lower turnover can improve productiv- ity. A more experienced workforce is more familiar with the service area, riders, and pick-up locations. This should trans- late into an ability to run schedules more efficiently. Increased productivity reduces the total number of service hours that must be operated to meet a given demand, which in turn low- ers the total cost of service. At the same time, since wages and fringe benefits account for 60–70% of total service cost, an increase in compensation has a direct impact on the unit cost of service (cost per vehicle- hour). An increase in the unit cost of service in turn has a direct impact on total service costs. These impacts of compensation levels are illustrated in Figure 4-6. As shown in Figure 4-6, there is a direct relationship between wages and benefits paid and unit cost of service (increased wages and benefits result in increased unit costs). There is an inverse relationship between wages and compensation paid and turnover (increased wages and benefits lower turnover). Case studies presented in Chapter 6 also suggest an inverse relationship between turnover and productivity (all else being equal, lower turnover and a more experienced workforce result in higher productivity). Productivity has an inverse relation- ship to the number of hours of service that must be operated (the higher the productivity, the fewer the number of vehicle- hours needed for a given level of demand). All of these inter- relationships suggest that while an increase in compensation will raise the unit cost per hour of service, it also should increase productivity and decrease the number of vehicle- hours of service needed, which will tend to lower the total cost. A better understanding of the magnitude of these direct and inverse inter-relationships could be very helpful to para- transit managers and public transit agencies. Knowing the 57 Pressure to Keep Costs Low Pressure to Keep Wages Low Increased Turnover Lower Productivity and Service Quality Limited Resources Paratransit Service Demand Figure 4-5. Underlying pressures that impact paratransit costs and performance.

degree to which increased wages impact turnover and the impact of years of experience on productivity would allow systems to set wages and compensation to minimize total cost. This issue is explored more fully in Chapter 6. Compensation and Recruitment and Training Costs A second important set of inter-relationships exist between compensation—the wages and fringe benefits provided— and recruitment and training costs. These inter-relationships are illustrated in Figure 4-7. As shown in Figure 4-7, recruit- ment cost is determined by multiplying the number of new hires needed per year by the per hire recruitment cost, where the number of new hires needed per year is determined by the total workforce requirement, training completion rates, and post-training turnover. Training costs are determined by the number of new recruits multiplied by the per trainee cost. Compensation has several impacts on the factors in this equation. Higher compensation can lower post-training turnover [illustrated by the negative (−) relationship between “Compensation” and “Post-Training Turnover” in Figure 4-7]. Because post-training turnover has a direct relationship to the number of new hires needed [illustrated by the plus (+) sign in Figure 4-7], lower post-training can lower the number of new hires needed. Higher compensation can also lower per hire recruitment costs by creating a larger pool of more qualified potential new hires. Increased compensation can decrease the drop-out rate in training by both attracting more qualified new hires and by decreasing the number of trainees who feel that the compensation does not match the demands of the job. Finally, more competitive compensation can lower retraining costs by developing a better workforce that requires less fre- quent retraining. A key for paratransit managers and transit systems is bal- ancing the increased compensation costs against the savings in total recruitment and training costs. A better understand- ing of the magnitude of the relationships and impacts illus- trated in Figure 4-7 would help managers set the level of compensation to minimize overall costs. 58 Total # of New Hires Needed Per Hire Recruitment Cost Total # of New Hires Training Drop-Outs Retraining Costs Total Recruitment & Training CostX - = CompensationPost-TrainingTurnover (+) (-) (-) ++ X Per TraineeCost (-) (-) Figure 4-7. Inter-relationships between compensation and recruitment and training costs. Cost per Hour Hours of Service Total Cost Compensation Turnover Productivity X = (+) (-) (-) (-) Figure 4-6. Inter-relationships between compensation, turnover, productivity, and total cost.

Next: Chapter 5 - The Relationship Between Compensation and Turnover »
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TRB’s Transit Cooperative Research Program (TCRP) Report 142: Vehicle Operator Recruitment, Retention, and Performance in ADA Complementary Paratransit Operations provides guidance for understanding the relationships that influence and enhance operator recruitment, retention, and performance in Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) complementary paratransit services.

Appendixes to TCRP Report 142 were published electronically as TCRP Web-Only Document 50: Survey Instrument, Productivity Charts, and Interview Protocol for Case Studies for TCRP Report 142.

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