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Planning for Offsite Airport Terminals (2010)

Chapter: Chapter 4 - Project Definition and Planning

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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 4 - Project Definition and Planning." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2010. Planning for Offsite Airport Terminals. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14424.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 4 - Project Definition and Planning." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2010. Planning for Offsite Airport Terminals. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14424.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 4 - Project Definition and Planning." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2010. Planning for Offsite Airport Terminals. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14424.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 4 - Project Definition and Planning." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2010. Planning for Offsite Airport Terminals. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14424.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 4 - Project Definition and Planning." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2010. Planning for Offsite Airport Terminals. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14424.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 4 - Project Definition and Planning." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2010. Planning for Offsite Airport Terminals. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14424.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 4 - Project Definition and Planning." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2010. Planning for Offsite Airport Terminals. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14424.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 4 - Project Definition and Planning." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2010. Planning for Offsite Airport Terminals. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14424.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 4 - Project Definition and Planning." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2010. Planning for Offsite Airport Terminals. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14424.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 4 - Project Definition and Planning." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2010. Planning for Offsite Airport Terminals. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14424.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 4 - Project Definition and Planning." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2010. Planning for Offsite Airport Terminals. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14424.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 4 - Project Definition and Planning." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2010. Planning for Offsite Airport Terminals. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14424.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 4 - Project Definition and Planning." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2010. Planning for Offsite Airport Terminals. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14424.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 4 - Project Definition and Planning." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2010. Planning for Offsite Airport Terminals. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14424.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 4 - Project Definition and Planning." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2010. Planning for Offsite Airport Terminals. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14424.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 4 - Project Definition and Planning." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2010. Planning for Offsite Airport Terminals. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14424.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 4 - Project Definition and Planning." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2010. Planning for Offsite Airport Terminals. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14424.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 4 - Project Definition and Planning." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2010. Planning for Offsite Airport Terminals. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14424.
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Below is the uncorrected machine-read text of this chapter, intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text of each book. Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages.

An offsite terminal is located in an area that is remote from the airport and serves its market area with a transportation link that provides service to and from the airport terminal area. The offsite terminal should offer an enclosed waiting area for its customers and sufficient secure parking. This chapter presents considerations and rules of thumb for the planning and development of the trans- portation link, parking, and the offsite terminal. Also discussed are guidelines for estimating the minimum parcel size for the offsite terminal. Site characteristics were discussed in Chapter 3. This chapter begins by discussing additional considerations in the site selection process. Site Selection Process Chapter 3 shows how to conduct a market analysis for an offsite terminal. Various site char- acteristics important to the success of an offsite terminal are presented as part of this analysis. Some of these characteristics are proximity of the offsite terminal to highway on- and off-ramps and the location of the offsite terminal in relation to the traveler’s customary travel path to the airport. Site availability, cost, and the time to prepare a site will ultimately determine where the offsite terminal will be located or whether it makes sense to open an offsite terminal at a particular time in the market area under consideration. Finding an appropriate site can be a difficult and time- consuming task. Location Site location is crucial to the success of the offsite terminal and transportation link. The off- site terminal must be located in an area not considered out of the way by the customer relative to their typical route to the airport. The offsite terminal must be far enough from the airport, relative to the distance already traveled, for the customer to consider stopping rather than con- tinuing on to the airport. In addition, the site of the offsite terminal and the surrounding area must be considered secure and safe; otherwise, the customer will not use the facility and will choose to travel directly to the airport. Minimum Parcel Size The minimum parcel size can be estimated by developing layouts that include the offsite termi- nal, air passenger and employee parking, private and commercial vehicle circulation, loading and unloading areas for the airport transportation link and intermodal connections, and commercial 21 C H A P T E R 4 Project Definition and Planning

vehicle layover areas. Considerations for estimating the terminal size and sizing the parking inven- tory are provided in this chapter. For an offsite terminal with minimal intermodal connections, automobile parking will account for a large proportion of the land area required. To add some flexibility to what properties might be available for the offsite terminal, the proj- ect sponsor may define a minimum parcel size for surface parking and a minimum parcel size for structured parking, if the provision of structured parking is an option for the project sponsor. Site Availability Once the minimum parcel size for the offsite terminal has been determined based on near- term and long-term space needs, the project sponsor will begin the search for a viable site that meets size, location, and cost criteria, unless the site for the offsite terminal has been predeter- mined. Furthermore, the political environment must be favorable for introducing the offsite ter- minal in the area being considered, including public sentiment and reception by local officials. There is the possibility the public will be concerned about potential negative impacts generated by the offsite terminal such as additional vehicle trips generated in the areas surrounding the off- site terminal. Properties under consideration may also need to be rezoned for the intended use. A property under consideration must be available for lease or sale by an owner who is willing to work with the project sponsor. A parcel requiring extensive site preparation or mitigation will add cost to the project and time to the schedule for opening the offsite terminal. Examples of potential mitigation include cleaning up hazardous materials and providing solutions for main- taining or improving traffic flow at surrounding intersections. The project sponsor must decide whether it prefers to buy or lease the property for the offsite terminal. This decision may be driven by cost and policies of the sponsoring organization regard- ing the purchase or lease of off-airport property. A long-term lease (minimum of 20 years) could be structured with purchase and early termination options. This arrangement may be optimal for testing the market for the offsite terminal. Shorter-term leases may result in renewal rates that are unfavorable to the project sponsor, with the alternative of relocation undesirable and perhaps impossible based on land availability, location criteria, and the political climate. In the search for a site, the sponsoring organization may not find the “ideal” site and will have to make tradeoffs in selecting the site such as • Selecting a site that doesn’t meet all of the location criteria, • Sharing the property with another use, • Establishing the offsite terminal in another market area, or • Waiting until a site becomes available in the optimal part of the market area. If the sponsoring organization decides to locate the offsite terminal on a property with other uses, the offsite terminal and transportation link should have a clear identity and be easy for cus- tomers to find and use. Dedicated parking should be provided and the airport transportation link should have a dedicated boarding and alighting area. It is recommended that customers are provided with a dedicated waiting area. Cost For each parcel being considered, there will be a cost for acquisition or leasing, site preparation, design, construction, potential environmental studies such as an environmental impact report, and other studies and mitigation. There may be operating costs that are unique to some properties. When considering an individual property or comparing properties, it is important to identify and estimate all costs. Chapter 5, Costs and Benefits, provides information on cost categories. 22 Planning for Offsite Airport Terminals

Timing and Complexity There are several factors for the project sponsor to consider related to timing and complexity when considering a property for an offsite terminal or when comparing properties. This includes when the property will become available and the time it will take to conduct environmental stud- ies, obtain permits, prepare the site, construct the terminal, and get approval for any zoning changes. Transportation Link To encourage airport users to shift from on-demand, low-occupancy modes to using the off- site terminal, the transportation link should be tailored to the needs of airport users. Although the most flexible and cost-effective high-occupancy transportation link between the offsite terminal and the airport will be a bus, most of the information provided in this section also applies to a rail link. The project sponsor might consider testing the market for an offsite terminal with a bus link before it commits the time and funds to developing a rail link. If the market is not responsive to the offsite terminal, a different market location could be tested. The transportation link between the offsite terminal and the airport must provide service that is competitive with the alternative modes available to the airport user, with door to door travel time being an important consideration for the time-sensitive customer. Airport users will com- pare the total travel time for using the offsite terminal and transportation link to the time it takes using their preferred mode of airport access. In addition to service characteristics related to travel time, there are other considerations in planning and developing a transportation link that will influence project cost, customer use, and customer service. These are shown in Table 4. Project Definition and Planning 23 Element/Influence Cost Ridership CustomerService Hours of Operation Service Frequency Number of Stops On-time Schedule Luggage Storage Amenities Revenue Collection Operated by Project Sponsor or Third Party Vehicle Ownership Vehicle Type Source: DMR Consulting Table 4. Relationship between the transportation link and cost, ridership, and customer service.

Hours of Operation It is critical to analyze the overall flight schedule, as well as the distribution of international and domestic seats, when developing hours of operation for the transportation link considering lead time for the first departing flight, lag time for checked luggage on the last arriving flight, and potential delays. Since most airlines recommend that passengers arrive at least 90 to120 minutes before flight departure for domestic flights and longer for international flights, for a bus service to accommodate the full departures schedule, the first scheduled bus should be timed to depart from the offsite terminal so it arrives at the airport at least 90 to120 minutes before the first scheduled flight. Similarly, if the transportation link is to accommodate the full arrivals sched- ule, it should be in operation until at least 1 hour past the last scheduled flight arrival at the air- port. If the project sponsor also wants to serve the full airport employee schedule, service may have to be expanded further. If the airport experiences frequent delays in flight departures or arrivals, the project sponsor should also consider offering extended hours to accommodate those delays or provide alternative transportation (i.e., a guaranteed ride home) for delayed passen- gers using the offsite terminal and transportation link. Even at very busy airports, there is typically a time in the late evening/early morning when the number of departing or arriving flights is low or has ceased operation in one direction while there is still significant activity in the opposite direction, taking into account lead and lag times for the offsite terminal. Provision of scheduled bus service in one direction doesn’t reduce costs significantly since the bus must still travel in the opposite direction. Through analysis of the flight schedule, the project sponsor can determine what percentage of departing and arriving seats would be served if the transportation link hours of operation accommodated less than 100% of the flight schedule and then decide whether the cost savings outweigh the loss of poten- tial customers not served by the transportation link. For example, can a schedule be developed that accommodates 90% of scheduled seats considering lead and lag times? What is the cost sav- ings compared with providing a schedule that accommodates 100% of scheduled seats? If there are airport employees in the market area of the offsite terminal, how might they be impacted by the reduced schedule? If an airport user perceives that the transportation link is available for limited hours, that customer may not use it for all trips to the airport because it wasn’t available for one trip. In addition, an airport user requiring flexibility, particularly the business traveler, will not want to be constrained by the operating hours of the transportation link. Hence, the lower the per- centage of the flight schedule served by the transportation link, the less desirable it will be to airport users in its market area. A bus schedule that accommodates 70% of scheduled seats will be less appealing to travelers in the market area than a schedule that accommodates 90% of seats. The recommended approach for developing the hours of service is for the first bus depart- ing the offsite terminal to serve the first significant bank of departing flights and then to develop the rest of the schedule based on this. If there are a significant number of arriving seats prior to this time, the schedule would begin from the airport to the offsite terminal to accommodate these passengers. The ending hours will depend on the amount of arriving and departing seats in the evening. If the project sponsor is considering more than one option for the provision of service hours, it should consider that it is more difficult for customers to accept cuts in service compared with additions in service. Service hours that accommodate less than 80% of departing seats or 80% of arriving seats are not recommended, neither is a schedule that doesn’t accommodate a signifi- cant number of departures or arrivals in a concentrated time period. Once the service is in oper- ation, the project sponsor should monitor changes in air travel patterns and customer comments to determine whether adjustments in the schedule are necessary. 24 Planning for Offsite Airport Terminals

Number of Stops Ideally, the transportation link will provide nonstop service between the offsite terminal and the airport to minimize travel time. Under some circumstances, one stop may be acceptable if the increase in overall trip time is insignificant compared with total travel time: • For distances less than 25 or 30 miles from the airport, a nonstop bus service is recom- mended between the offsite terminal and the airport. • For offsite terminals that are more than 25 or 30 miles away from the airport, an interim stop may be acceptable if it is close to the highway and the stop does not add more than 5 or 10 minutes to the overall travel time. An interim stop meeting these criteria may make the service feasible if one or both of the market areas cannot support a dedicated bus service individually. Project Definition and Planning 25 Example of Transportation Link between Airport and Offsite Terminals: LAX’s FlyAway Los Angeles World Airports, owner and operator of LAX, operates LAX FlyAway, three nonstop buses to LAX. Two operate from an offsite terminal and initially offered long-term parking and remote luggage check-in for domestic flights only; however, LAWA discontinued remote luggage check at all FlyAway locations in 2008 because of low customer usage. The third operates from a dedicated bus stop and offers remote luggage check-in and short-term parking only. LAX’s FlyAway: Three Nonstop Buses Van Nuys Union Station Westwood Distance from LAX (miles) 24 20 10 Hours of operation 24 hours 24 hours 5 A.M.–1 A.M. % of enplaning seats served* 100% 100% 89% % of deplaning seats served1 100% 100% 99% Headways to LAX 15 minutes: 4:45 A.M.–9:30 A.M. Half hourly: 3 A.M.–4:30 A.M.; 10 A.M.–midnight Hourly: 1 A.M.–3 A.M. Half hourly: 5 A.M.–1 A.M. Hourly: 2 A.M.–4 A.M. Half hourly: 5 A.M.–1 A.M. Headways from LAX Half hourly: 5:30 A.M.–midnight 8 trips between midnight and 4:45 A.M., varying headways Half hourly: 5 A.M.–1 A.M. Hourly: 2 A.M.–4 A.M. Half hourly: 5 A.M.–1 A.M. Stops between offsite terminal and LAX 0 0 0 *Based on May 2007 flight schedule.

26 Planning for Offsite Airport Terminals Service Frequency The transportation link should provide frequent service to the airport. Long wait times add to passenger concern about getting to the airport on time and leave a negative impression for future use. The longer the distance and travel time to the airport, the more willing an air passenger will be to allow more lead time to get to the airport: • For offsite terminals that are located from 10 to 25 or 30 miles from the airport, the bus should provide service at a minimum of every 30 minutes during most of its operating hours. Departures from the airport should run at the same frequency for consistency. Service should be added during busy periods. During slow periods, hourly service may be acceptable to customers. • For offsite terminals that are more than 25 or 30 miles away from the airport, hourly service may be acceptable to customers. Service should be added during busy periods. • Offsite terminals in the United States are not located less than 10 miles from the airport. If the project sponsor is considering development of an offsite terminal at a location closer than 10 miles from the airport, it should consider the proximity of the site to remote airport park- ing facilities. If the site is perceived to be close to a remote airport parking facility, the fre- quency of the transportation link should be at least as good as frequencies provided by the shuttle service at the remote airport parking lot. On-Time Schedule Customers must be certain that the transportation link is reliable or they will not use it. The service must be scheduled so that all buses depart on time with no dropped or missed trips. An adequate number of seats should be offered to accommodate demand, and passengers should be assured of a seat with extra buses made available during peak travel times. Passengers should be made aware of average and peak travel times with advisories provided to them regarding delays or changes to the operation, especially during peak travel periods. Luggage Storage The vehicle selected for the service should accommodate the needs of the airport customer, many of whom have heavy luggage or multiple pieces of luggage. Ideally the vehicle will have a secure luggage hold area (e.g., an underfloor baggage-storage area) with luggage returned to pas- sengers at the end of the trip. Luggage storage in a contained area inside the bus or sufficient space surrounding individual seating may also be acceptable. A passenger who experiences crowding in a vehicle due to insufficient luggage storage may be discouraged from using the transportation link in the future. Amenities The project sponsor should consider the customer types using the service and determine whether there are amenities that can be offered in the vehicle that may promote a positive cus- tomer experience and encourage repeat business, for example, wireless internet for longer trips or perks similar to the in-flight experience such as music channels or video programming using headsets, blankets, and bottles of water. Although amenities on the transportation link will improve the customer service experience, there is no evidence such offerings will increase ridership. Revenue Collection Revenue collection will impact both cost and customer service. Options for revenue collection include onboard fare boxes, automated ticketing machines/kiosks at the airport and the offsite

terminal, tickets sales by the bus driver or personnel at the offsite terminal and/or the airport ter- minals, and internet sales. It may also be beneficial to coordinate with local transportation agen- cies for acceptance of local transit passes, transit proximity cards, or a debit/credit system associ- ated with toll roads and bridges. Operated by Project Sponsor or Third Party Another important consideration is whether the bus service will be operated by the project sponsor or contracted out to a third party with experience operating a bus service. Factors that will influence the decision to use one model over the other include cost of providing the service, quality of service, liability, and policies and regulations within the sponsoring organization such as labor rules and procurement requirements. Another consideration is the cost and risk associ- ated with early termination of the bus service. There are two models for operation by a third party, with the primary differences being the level of control over the transportation link by the project sponsor and which party assumes financial responsibility: 1. Management Contract—through a competitive bid or proposal process, the sponsoring organization retains a third party who will operate the service on behalf of the sponsoring organization. The sponsoring organization determines the service characteristics of the trans- portation link and provides specifications for the vehicle type. The third party operator is paid a fixed amount of money by service unit provided (e.g., rate per bus hour or bus mile). The sponsoring organization is financially responsible for an operating deficit or retains operat- ing income. The operator is responsible for all aspects of operating the buses. As noted below, the sponsoring agency may or may not provide and maintain the buses. 2. Concession Agreement—the sponsoring organization awards a concession agreement to a third-party operator through a competitive bid or proposal process. The project sponsor is typ- ically not financially responsible for the service and may receive revenue for granting the right to operate the service. The sponsoring organization may specify some service parameters, but it will typically have less control over service characteristics than if it was financially responsi- ble. If the service is put out for third-party operation or concession, some items to consider when developing solicitation documents and subsequent contracts include the following: • Service parameters: fare, level of service, and operating hours; • Length of contract; • Provisions for termination, cause, and no-fault: if buses are owned by a third-party oper- ator, provision for buyout that is fair to both parties; • Customer-service standards; • Maintenance standards; • Maintenance plan; • Schedule adherence: rewards and penalties; • Fuel escalation provisions; • Reporting requirements; • Training; • Personnel standards; • Indemnification; • Insurance provisions; • Vehicle and fueling specifications: – Age, condition, passenger capacity, luggage capacity, size, height, fuel type, and ADA and – Amenities on the bus; • Schedule and staffing plan; • Terms of additional service: holiday periods, permanently extended service hours, and spe- cial events; Project Definition and Planning 27

28 Planning for Offsite Airport Terminals Offsite Bus Link Example: Operation of the Logan Express Massport, owner and operator of Boston Logan International Airport, operates four offsite terminals with nonstop express bus service—the Logan Express—to and from Logan Airport. The routes are operated by different third-party opera- tors who were awarded the rights to operate the service on behalf of Massport through competitive bid. The buses are owned by the private operators. Massport is considering bus ownership in the future. Operational Model/Vehicle Ownership Sponsoring Organization Own/Lease Bus Operator/ Concessionaire Own/Lease Sponsoring Organization Third-Party Competitive Bid Concession Agreement Source: DMR Consulting Table 5. Bus ownership options by operational model. • Expectations regarding cleanliness of vehicles, drivers, and uniforms; and • Contract monitoring and accountability. Most of the items listed above will have to be identified and planned for if the transportation link is operated by the project sponsor. Vehicle Ownership Regardless of which of the three operational models is adopted—self-operation, a third-party bid, or a concession agreement—the sponsoring organization or a third party may own the vehicles (see Table 5). Whether it makes the most sense for the sponsoring organization to be responsible for the buses or for a third-party operator to provide buses depends on individual circumstances. One of the potential cost disadvantages of using a third-party operator for provision of the bus service is that the length of the contract may typically be for 5 years or less due to procure- ment requirements of some sponsoring organizations and to allow for competition in the mar- ketplace. Since buses are a major purchase and the cost of the buses is typically amortized over a period that is longer than the time period of the operating contract, the operator may pass on higher costs to the sponsoring organization to recoup the entire cost of the rolling stock during the contract period. This is one reason for the project sponsor to consider owning or leasing the buses for the transportation link. In return for taking on the risk of ownership, the project spon- sor is able to pay the true cost for the vehicles over their expected life and the buses are available for use independent of the third-party operator. In this case, maintenance of buses can be pro- vided by the sponsoring organization, the third-party operator, or a contractor. The project sponsor may mitigate the risk to the operator and lower its costs through devel- opment of business terms included in the request for proposal (RFP) and contract. For exam- ple, the Massachusetts Port Authority (Massport) provides an amortization table in its Logan Express contracts that shows how much Massport will purchase the buses for from the operator during the contract period if the contract is terminated early.

Another reason for the sponsoring organization to consider purchasing or leasing buses is it allows the sponsoring agency a greater ability to specify the type, model, and configuration of the vehicle. If more than one route is in operation and the routes are operated by different com- panies, there may be economies of scale in the system if the buses are provided by the sponsor- ing organization. In this case, fewer spare buses would be needed as backup for buses in regular service than if spare buses are provided by route. Vehicle Type The type of vehicle put in service will impact the cost of the transportation link and will also have environmental impacts. It may have an impact on curb management at the airport, depend- ing on the size of the vehicle. ADA requirements will also influence vehicle selection. The vehicle type may have an influence on ridership if the vehicle has the feel of public trans- portation rather than a service designed for airport users—that is, the perception of an uncom- fortable, noisy city bus versus a smooth, comfortable ride. Coaches or vehicles with the comfort of coaches are recommended, with features such as cushioned seats, armrests, and tray tables, particularly for trips of long duration. Capital, operating, and maintenance costs plus expected life cycle will impact the cost of pro- viding the transportation link. Capacity will also impact cost if a smaller vehicle will require more buses to be put into service to meet demand. The project sponsor should consider what type of vehicle is most likely to attract the targeted customer groups. If the sponsoring organization has environmental requirements or goals, they may influence selection of the vehicle type. If alternative-fuel vehicles are considered, the location of fueling facilities in the vicinity of the airport and the offsite terminal for regular fueling, as well as backup fueling facilities for emergency situations, should be identified in advance. Alternative-fuel vehi- cles available in the marketplace may dictate vehicle size or vehicle comfort. The size of the bus in relation to airport terminal curb capacity and bus layover and overnight space should also be considered. If the bus is operated by a third-party operator, overnight stor- age may be provided by the third party operator. Customer Parking An air passenger who typically would drive to the airport and use long-term parking will con- sider using an offsite terminal and transportation link if the appeal of using the offsite terminal is close to that of driving directly to the airport. This means that the experience of getting to the terminal as well as use of the terminal must be easy and safe. As this relates to parking, the park- ing supply should be • Dedicated for airport users, • Adequate to serve demand, and • Secure for its users. If there are a significant number of airport employees using the offsite terminal, employee parking should not interfere with air passenger parking. Passenger parking should be located closer to the terminal. Elements of parking to be evaluated during project definition include • Air passenger parking inventory: – Long-term spaces (vehicles parked for duration of air travel) and – Short-term spaces (serving passenger drop-off and pick-up); Project Definition and Planning 29

• Airport employee parking inventory; • Surface lot versus parking structure; • Hours of operation; • Revenue collection/parking technology; and • Security. Air Passenger Parking Inventory Long-term Parking The provision of a sufficient supply of long-term parking is crucial to attracting customers to the offsite terminal, particularly for offsite terminals located in suburban areas with little or no public transportation access. The provision of insufficient long-term parking to accommo- date ridership will almost certainly result in ridership not reaching its potential, while the pro- vision of parking in excess of demand does not guarantee additional revenue. A customer who travels to the offsite terminal and is turned away because there is no available parking must alter his or her plans and drive to the airport to make the flight. This inconvenient situation often results in a permanently lost customer who will most likely warn other people not to use the offsite terminal. In some instances, it may be unrealistic for the project sponsor to provide parking for every customer due to cost or scarcity of land. In these cases, the project sponsor can manage the park- ing supply through pricing or information dissemination or can provide supplemental parking nearby (e.g., holiday overflow parking, as is done at many airports). Providing customers with information about limited parking availability allows them to make the decision in advance either to access the offsite terminal through a drop-off mode or to use a different transportation mode to the airport. In this case, the offsite terminal may not attract all of its potential customers, but it also will not alienate them. For offsite terminals located in a densely populated area or in an area with high-quality, fre- quent, and reliable public transportation connections, long-term parking can be sized accord- ingly since passengers may access the offsite terminal by other modes in addition to private auto- mobile. If the offsite terminal is located in a facility that is shared with other uses such as an intermodal transportation center, a sufficient amount of parking is still crucial. The best way to guarantee a sufficient parking supply for airport users is to provide dedicated parking or a des- ignated area of a larger parking supply for offsite terminal customers. Guidelines for Sizing Long-Term Parking Typically it takes 3 or 4 years for the airport transportation link to realize its full ridership potential, referred to as “mature ridership,” as cus- tomers in the market become aware of the new service and shift from their previous modes of access to and from the airport to the offsite terminal and transportation link. Parking should be sized to accommodate demand for at least 4 years of growth after mature ridership. The project sponsor should develop a plan for future expansion of parking spaces that will not disrupt the existing parking supply. Number of Spaces For a suburban terminal with few public transportation connections, most passengers will access the offsite terminal using a private automobile in which they are picked up or dropped off or they will use long-term parking. The long-term parking supply is used exclusively by resident air travelers since non-residents do not have a private automobile locally. Parking can be sized by analyzing the mode choices of resident passengers in the market area of the offsite terminal by travel purpose. In general, the ratio of resident passengers travel- ing directly to the airport using long-term parking to those using automobile pick-up/drop-off 30 Planning for Offsite Airport Terminals

also applies to use of the offsite terminal, considering travel party size and trip purpose. For example, if the mix of resident pleasure travelers using private automobiles is 25% long-term park and 75% pick-up/drop-off, this ratio will be about the same for resident pleasure travelers using the offsite terminal. To size parking, travel party size and average trip length should be considered. Evaluating infor- mation on average length of stay in on-airport parking facilities (particularly for economy or remote lots) can help with this determination. Users of long-term parking at an offsite terminal typically have an average length of stay that is at least 1 day longer than the average length of stay for users of on-airport long-term parking since an offsite terminal is typically not attractive to travelers parking for 1 day (i.e., the business traveler). Comparison of occupancy data for off-peak, average, and peak travel times can also help with determining the amount of parking needed to accommodate demand during typical travel times versus busy times such as holidays and vacation periods. If the offsite terminal will be served by frequent and convenient intermodal connections that allow airport passengers to connect to the airport transportation link in a timely fashion, the amount of long-term parking needed can be factored down to account for resident travelers pro- jected to access to the terminal by other modes. For each viable connection, the project sponsor would estimate the number of resident air travelers in the market area who would use those con- nections to the offsite terminal instead of parking at the offsite terminal, then factor down the number of parking spaces needed considering party size and length of stay. To illustrate, Table 6 provides information on the parking supply for the offsite terminals serv- ing Boston Logan and Los Angeles International Airports. Since passenger characteristics vary by airport, this data may or may not be helpful in determining a parking estimate for an offsite terminal in a new market area. Analysis of specific data, using the guidelines in the previous sec- tion, is the most valid way to develop an estimate of the inventory needed. Project Definition and Planning 31 Airport LAX BOS BOS BOS Offsite terminal Van Nuys Fly Away Braintree Logan Express Fram ingham Logan Express Woburn Logan Express Average daily enplaning passengers 1 937 464 479 228 Average daily employees to airpor t 1 165 267 82 167 Parking spaces 2,950 1,162 346 875 Dedicated employee spaces No 800 290 No Total spaces 2,950 1,962 636 875 Facility type Structure Surface Surface Surface Constrained No No Yes No Overflow parking No No Yes No Terminal size (sq. ft.) 15,000 5,000 2,250 7,500 1 Calendar Year 2006 Source: DMR Consulting based on data from LAWA and Massport. Table 6. Characteristics of parking supply at existing U.S. offsite terminals.

Land Area Needed Table 7 shows the land area needed for 1,000 parking spaces based on different unit space sizes. For a surface lot, the land area includes circulation space, entry/exit plazas, and some landscap- ing. Since more circulation space is needed for a parking structure for ramps, stairs, and eleva- tors, higher unit space sizes in the table should be used for a parking structure. Typically the unit size per space is between 320 and 360 square feet. To develop initial estimates for the land area needed for the offsite terminal and parking, 350 square feet per space is a reasonable estimate, absent detailed plans. Short-term Parking Sufficient parking should be available near the offsite terminal for the loading and unloading of passengers being picked up and dropped off. It will be easier for both pick-up/drop-off pas- sengers and long-term parkers if the two types of parking are segregated. For passengers being dropped off, the amount of time the accompanying automobile will park will be equal to or less than the bus headway since the automobile will typically not remain at the offsite terminal once the air passenger has departed. Automobiles picking up passengers may wait a little longer since they may arrive further in advance of the bus. The number of short-term spaces required can be determined by calculating the ratio of resident pick-up/drop-off passen- gers to long-term parkers and travel party size, by considering parking needs for the next depart- ing bus and the next arriving bus, and by making assumptions about dwell times. Non-resident passengers may also be picked up and dropped off by private automobile, and this should be fac- tored into the short-term parking needs. In general, for a bus service with half-hourly headways and a capacity of 40 to 50 passengers per bus, a short-term parking area with 20 to 40 spaces should be sufficient to serve both average periods and peak periods. If the terminal offers ameni- ties that are used by the meeter/greeters or the general public, the short-term parking supply should be adjusted accordingly. Airport Employee Parking Inventory The amount of parking needed for airport employees will be related to the number of airport employees residing in the market area, the hours of operation of the transportation link in com- parison with employee work schedules, and where the bus picks up and drops off at the airport compared with where employees work. Other factors impacting the likelihood of employees to use the bus include cost and convenience. If a significant number of employees are projected to use the offsite terminal, employee parking should be segregated from air passenger parking, with spaces closest to the terminal reserved for air passenger parking. 32 Planning for Offsite Airport Terminals Area per Space (sq. ft.) Land per 1,000 Spaces (sq. ft.) Land per 1,000 Spaces (acres) 280 280,000 6.43 300 300,000 6.89 320 320,000 7.35 330 330,000 7.58 350 350,000 8.03 360 360,000 8.26 Source: Jacobs Consultancy. Table 7. Land area needed for 1,000 parking spaces.

Surface Lot Versus Parking Structure The project sponsor will make the decision to provide surface or structured parking based on land availability, inventory, financial impacts, and customer-service considerations. Land Availability The size of available property that will be used for the offsite terminal compared with near- term, medium-term, and long-term parking projections may drive the decision to provide either surface or structured parking. Conversely, surface or structured parking preferences may be a criterion for selecting the site for the offsite terminal. Parking Inventory If the majority of the parking supply for air passengers will offer short walks to the terminal and the terminal is in sight of all parking spaces, a structure is probably not necessary. If more than 50% of the parking supply will require a walk of more than 600 feet, considering that some passengers will use the short-term parking area to drop off luggage in the terminal prior to park- ing in long-term parking, then shuttle buses around the surface lot or structure should be con- sidered. A convenient drop-off area or the provision of luggage carts in the lot may mitigate the need for a shuttle bus or a parking structure. Financial Impacts Estimated costs and revenues will play an important role in determining what kind of park- ing facility to develop. A surface lot that can be operated without a shuttle bus to transport pas- sengers between the lot and the offsite terminal will cost less to provide and operate than a park- ing structure. If a shuttle bus is being considered to shuttle customers between the surface lot and the offsite terminal, analysis will show whether the cost of a structure or a surface lot is more costly. Through analysis, the project sponsor can determine the daily parking rate that would be necessary for each parking facility type, given projected costs and revenues of other portions of the project and the overall financial goals of the project. Further analysis will show whether the market can bear the parking rates. Chapter 5 includes guidelines for estimating the capital costs of parking facilities. Customer-Service Considerations Walk times for customers between parking spaces and the offsite terminal are important to consider, as well as actual and perceived security of the parking facility types. Weather condi- tions in the airport market area may also play a role in the decision to provide structured park- ing if it will make a significant difference to the well-being of passengers or automobiles. There may be additional customer service considerations in a particular airport environment that will influence the parking facility type chosen. Hours of Operation At a minimum, the hours of operation of the parking facility should accommodate the sched- ule of the transportation link. In addition, there should be a way for customers to retrieve their automobiles outside of bus operating hours when, for example, a flight arrival is delayed and the last bus is missed. Revenue Collection/Parking Technology The best method and technology for parking revenue collection should be determined in advance by considering the facility, costs for equipment, operation and maintenance, and what kind of data will be needed for performance measurement. Project Definition and Planning 33

Security The location of the offsite terminal, including the parking area, should provide the customer with a sense of safety and security. The passenger must feel safe in the parking facility and should perceive that parking at the offsite terminal is as safe as parking at the airport. Layout lighting, fencing, and presence of staff or security patrol are all important considerations. Offsite Terminal The configuration of the offsite terminal and the level of amenities should be developed to sat- isfy near-term airport user needs and projected long-term needs. What is practical and feasible for a specific project will depend on budget and goals and objectives unique to the project sponsor. If possible, customers should feel that once they arrive at the offsite terminal the airport experience has begun and they no longer need to worry about getting to the airport. While the high-quality transportation link will ease the customer’s concern about the trip to the airport, layout and ameni- ties provided at the offsite terminal can serve as an extension of the on-airport experience. The following project elements will impact the cost, design, and operation of the offsite terminal: • Shared space versus dedicated terminal, • Modular building versus permanent structure, • Size, • Basic customer conveniences provided in an offsite terminal, • Amenities, • Pedestrian and vehicular access and circulation, • Bus bays and layover area, • Security, and • Hours of operation. Shared Space Versus Dedicated Terminal If possible, the offsite terminal should be a freestanding structure intended exclusively for air- port users and should also incorporate the ambiance of an airport terminal. This is especially important in suburban locations, where airport users may not be as familiar or comfortable using bus or rail service as airport users living in urban locations. Another option is to co-locate the offsite terminal with a well-utilized intermodal center serv- ing a geographic area with a threshold number of air passenger origins, as described in Chapter 3, either by automobile access or through the use of high-quality intermodal connections. While this may detract from the desired airport experience, it may not have a negative impact on rid- ership and may boost ridership, particularly among non-resident air passengers. This depends on a number of factors, including the terminal layout, the location of the airport transportation link, the perceived level of safety of the terminal, the quality of the terminal, and the ability of the intermodal connections to provide frequent and reliable connections to the airport trans- portation link. The airport transportation component of the intermodal center must have a strong identity: airport users must be certain of how to find the boarding area for the airport transportation link in order to board the next departing trip. At a minimum, the project sponsor should provide a dedicated waiting area and/or a boarding/alighting area within the intermodal facility. When a freestanding offsite terminal is not feasible or desirable because of costs, land avail- ability, political considerations, or other reasons, it may be located within another activity cen- 34 Planning for Offsite Airport Terminals

ter such as a regional shopping center or office complex. In this case, the offsite terminal will function most effectively if it is situated independently of all other facilities so that airport users can easily locate it, do not have their access or egress impeded by non-airport users, and are not competing for parking with non-airport users. Project Definition and Planning 35 Shared Terminal Example: LAX’s Union Station FlyAway Los Angeles World Airports operates the Union Station FlyAway, a nonstop bus service between Union Station in downtown Los Angeles and LAX. The service picks up and drops off airport customers at a bus plaza adjacent to Union Station. Union Station is an intermodal terminal serving Amtrak, commuter rail, light rail, and bus passengers. The terminal provides a waiting area, restrooms, food and beverage options, and a newsstand. FlyAway passengers purchase tickets at a ded- icated kiosk on the bus plaza. (Until 2008, passengers had the option checking their luggage through to their final destination for domestic flights on most air- lines; remote baggage check-in was discontinued in 2008 due to low customer usage.) For passengers accessing the FlyAway by private automobile, a dedicated parking area for FlyAway passengers is located in the parking garage adjacent to the bus plaza. Opened in early 2005, the Union Station FlyAway provided the missing link between LAX and the region via all modes serving Union Station. Modular Building Versus Permanent Structure If the project sponsor will be pursuing a dedicated terminal, a modular structure may be an option under the following circumstances: • In place of a permanent structure to reduce capital costs, • To test the market before a larger investment is made for a permanent structure, or • To provide a waiting area while a permanent structure is being built. The number of passengers the offsite terminal will accommodate and the amenities in the ter- minal may influence the decision between a modular and permanent facility. Size A permanent structure should be sized to accommodate passengers for medium-term growth (7 to 10 years) at a minimum and be designed to provide sufficient flexibility to accommodate long-term growth. It should have room for basic customer conveniences and amenities to be provided at the outset, as well as additional amenities that may be provided at a later date within the original footprint. For a shared terminal, consideration must be given to how customers will be provided with basic conveniences, and, if some of the conveniences aren’t provided, how it might impact customer perception of the service and potential ridership. Basic Customer Conveniences Provided in an Offsite Terminal Basic customer conveniences provided in an offsite terminal include the following: • Waiting area and seating with sufficient space for placement of luggage—seating needs can be estimated by considering capacity and schedule of buses traveling to and from the offsite ter- minal, plus estimated use by meeters/greeters and users of other services in the terminal; • Adequate space for customer circulation with luggage;

• Restrooms; • Space for bus ticketing—bus ticketing machines or customer ticket booth; • Space for parking revenue collection—if the parking revenue system selected requires space in the terminal; • Vending machines; • ATM; • Public telephone; and • Courtesy phone for local taxicab service and/or local hotel/motels. In addition, it may be required or desirable to have a separate restroom and break area for off- site terminal employees and bus drivers. Amenities An offsite terminal building that offers some of the features of an airline terminal provides an environment with a similar feel to the airline terminal. In addition to the basic customer con- veniences in the offsite terminal—waiting area and seating, restrooms, space for bus ticketing, an ATM, and public telephones—the amenities discussed in this section will enhance the cus- tomer experience in the terminal, but should be weighed against the feasibility of providing them. There is no evidence that the amenities will attract additional customers. Some amenities will not be economically feasible without a minimum number of customers. For example, without a minimum number of customers, installation of vending machines dis- pensing food and beverages is more practical than providing a food-and-beverage stand. In this case, space may be allocated for development of amenities that may be feasible as the customer base grows. In a shared terminal with potential users from the larger shared customer base, the provision of some amenities may be more feasible than in a dedicated terminal. An important consideration is the practicality of specific amenities for the customer base. For example, the pas- senger dwell time inside the offsite terminal will be less for a transportation link with 15-minute headways than it will be for a link with 1-hour headways. There are fewer amenities that make sense with shorter passenger wait times in the offsite terminal unless the amenities are accessi- ble and useful for the general community in the vicinity of the offsite terminal. The potential amenities for an offsite terminal are • Areas for sales of food and beverage and other retail uses including newsstands, drugstores, gifts, flowers, dry cleaning, car wash, and automobile detailing (if consumption of food and beverage is prohibited on the transportation link, food and beverage sales may not be feasible); • Rental car counters, which could potentially increase the attractiveness of the offsite terminal and transportation link for non-residents who need to rent an automobile for travel within the region, but which would require space on or near the premises for rental car pick-up and drop-off, storage and ready return; • Flight Information Display System (FIDS) to inform customers and meeters/greeters about departing and arriving flights; • Airline ticketing kiosks for flight check-in; • Airline ticket counters (because of the current financial state of the U.S.–based airlines, air- line staffing in remote locations may be a phenomenon of the past); • Wireless internet access; • Electrical outlets for passengers to charge electronic equipment; • Business center; • Remote luggage check; • On-site screening of passengers and luggage; and • Other services found in an airport terminal. 36 Planning for Offsite Airport Terminals

Remote Luggage Check For enplaning passengers, it is more efficient for luggage check-in to be operated by a third- party operator who can process luggage for a large number of airlines compared with multiple airlines providing luggage check at the offsite terminal. This is currently being offered at some offsite terminals, cruise ship terminals, convention centers, and hotels. The luggage is accepted at the off-airport location and screening is conducted at the airport. The logistics of transport- ing the luggage to the airport, security screening, and distributing to individual flights at the air- port may require luggage check-in times of 2.5 to 3 hours before flight time, which may not be practical for some passengers. If the passenger is not required to be on the same bus as the lug- gage, the service may be appealing to passengers who drop off the luggage in advance of the flight and return for a later bus to the airport. For deplaning passengers, the provision of luggage checked through to the offsite terminal would require a system for airlines to tag luggage throughout the flight network and efficient retrieval at the airport to prevent long wait times at the offsite terminal. On-site Security Screening of Passengers and Luggage On-site security screening of both passengers and luggage could serve as an incentive for more customers to use the offsite terminal since it would save passengers time and avoid inconven- ience at the airport. If a procedure was developed that enabled air passengers to be screened for security at the offsite terminal on terms that were acceptable to the airlines, the airport operator, and the Transportation Security Administration, passengers could be transported to the secure part of the airline terminal and avoid waiting in security lines at the airport. Considerations for developing cutoff times for processing at the offsite terminal are: (1) the imposition of a long cutoff time for security processing at the terminal in relation to the flight departure time will diminish the appeal of using the amenity; and (2) cutoff times that lead to passenger arrival at the airport that are close to boarding times will reduce passenger exposure to on-airport concessions and lower the average passenger spend rate. Passengers are not likely to spend extra time at the concessions at the offsite terminal because they’ll want to board the next transportation link to the airport to be near their departure gate. Alternatives to passenger security screening at the offsite terminal are to provide a passenger screening area(s) on-airport for the processing of offsite terminal customers or to provide head- of-the-queue privileges at in-terminal passenger security screening for users of the offsite terminal, similar to when air passengers on next departing flights are permitted to go to the head of the queue. Customer Access and Circulation Space must be allocated on the offsite terminal property for ingress and egress of vehicles trans- porting customers to/from the offsite terminal. Thought should be given to whether the transporta- tion link will share the same ingress and egress route with vehicles transporting customers to and from the site. In addition to a short-term parking area for passengers being picked up and dropped off, curb space in front of the terminal should be made available for vehicles that are picking up and drop- ping off passengers and for taxi pick-up and drop-off. If there is a sufficient market for taxi service, space for a taxi stand should be allocated near the terminal. If other scheduled public transporta- tion modes will serve the terminal, space near the terminal must be allocated for this function. Bus Bays and Layover Area If all of the customer pick-up and drop-off in low-occupancy modes will occur at the front of the terminal, the airport transportation link should be planned so that customers are served from Project Definition and Planning 37

the side or from the back of the terminal to provide a dedicated area for the airport transporta- tion link and to promote safety. For headways of a half-hour to an hour, there should be space adjacent to the terminal for at least two buses: one picking up and one dropping off. Since the buses are serving air passengers with luggage, it can be expected that it will take at least 5 min- utes to unload baggage and for passengers to alight from an arriving bus. Departing buses should be at the boarding area at least 10 minutes prior to departure since it will take longer for passen- gers to board the bus and get settled, and it takes time to organize luggage that will be unloaded at the airport terminal (at airports having multiple terminals). Because of scheduling, it is pos- sible for more than two buses to be at the offsite terminal at one time. There should be room in the boarding/alighting area for a third bus or space on the property for buses to layover when they are not in service. For headways of less than a half-hour, more space may be needed. When considering the layout for the terminal and bus zone, bus movements, including access and ingress routes and turning radii, must be taken into consideration. Security Airport customers must feel as safe using the offsite terminal and related parking as they feel using the airport terminal and parking. The location of the offsite terminal and related parking must be perceived as safe to potential customers. On-site staff provides a sense of security for customers and thought should be given to lighting as it relates to a secure environment. It may also be judicious for local police to patrol the offsite terminal from time to time, particularly in the late evening and early morning hours. Hours of Operation The offsite terminal should be open and staffed during all hours the airport transportation link is in operation. 38 Planning for Offsite Airport Terminals

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TRB’s Airport Cooperative Research Program (ACRP) Report 35: Planning for Offsite Airport Terminals explores issues related to providing originating passengers with remote terminal facilities. The report examines how to identify potential customers for an offsite terminal and how the concept fits into airport planning.

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