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Handbook to Assess the Impacts of Constrained Parking at Airports (2010)

Chapter: Chapter 3 - Goals and Objectives for Managing Constrained Airport Parking Environments

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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 3 - Goals and Objectives for Managing Constrained Airport Parking Environments." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2010. Handbook to Assess the Impacts of Constrained Parking at Airports. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14435.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 3 - Goals and Objectives for Managing Constrained Airport Parking Environments." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2010. Handbook to Assess the Impacts of Constrained Parking at Airports. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14435.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 3 - Goals and Objectives for Managing Constrained Airport Parking Environments." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2010. Handbook to Assess the Impacts of Constrained Parking at Airports. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14435.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 3 - Goals and Objectives for Managing Constrained Airport Parking Environments." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2010. Handbook to Assess the Impacts of Constrained Parking at Airports. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14435.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 3 - Goals and Objectives for Managing Constrained Airport Parking Environments." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2010. Handbook to Assess the Impacts of Constrained Parking at Airports. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14435.
×
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 3 - Goals and Objectives for Managing Constrained Airport Parking Environments." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2010. Handbook to Assess the Impacts of Constrained Parking at Airports. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14435.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 3 - Goals and Objectives for Managing Constrained Airport Parking Environments." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2010. Handbook to Assess the Impacts of Constrained Parking at Airports. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14435.
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21 Managers of airports where parking facilities are constrained may implement a range of strategies to manage the shortfall of parking supply at their facilities. The strategies they implement will likely be influenced or determined by the physical, finan- cial, and political contexts within which they operate. Thus, no “one right” strategy exists to address constrained parking at all airports. Ultimately, the strategies developed and implemented will depend upon the goals and objectives established by the entity responsible for managing the airport. When clearly defined, these goals and objectives become the framework for developing and implementing strategies to address the constrained parking environment. These goals and objectives also form the basis for evaluating the effectiveness of the strategies implemented, as discussed in Chapter 8. The severity of parking constraints is unique from one air- port to the next and is largely dependent upon how airport managers view their parking operations. In some cases, pub- lic opinion and customer service standards may be the single greatest driving force when establishing strategies to address a constrained parking operation. In other cases, the financial position of the airport enterprise and priorities in the airport capital improvement program (CIP) may have an equal or greater influence on the strategies developed and implemented to address the parking constraint. Outside influences, such as mandated airfield improvements or local environmental poli- cies and regulations, also may be significant considerations. Therefore, what may be viewed as an unacceptable constrained parking environment at one airport may be perceived as a pre- ferred alternative at another airport. Research conducted during preparation of this Handbook revealed several common themes that influence how goals and objectives for addressing constrained parking are established at representative airports. These goals and objectives are estab- lished based on multiple themes that include, but are not limited to, customer service, environmental impacts, on- and off-airport traffic impacts, community relations, airport cap- ital improvement priorities, parking-derived revenue stream requirements, airport use and lease agreements, highest and best use of available land areas, and airport master plans and airport layout plans (ALPs). The factors that influence an airport operator’s parking program are discussed in the next section, followed by a dis- cussion of the issues to be considered when developing goals and objectives for managing constrained airport parking. Factors That Influence the Development of Goals and Objectives for an Airport Parking System As discussed previously, a constrained parking environ- ment at each airport is unique in that the severity of the con- straint is perceived differently not only from one airport to the next, but often from one manager or policymaker to the next within the same organization. Thus, a direct relation- ship exists between how public and employee parking sys- tems at an airport are managed and the policymakers (which may be external to the airport’s management structure) who influence decisions regarding how new parking products will be developed. Often, decisions about programs not seem- ingly related to parking influence an airport operator’s park- ing development strategy. For example, a CIP priority, such as the expansion of a central utility plant, may require capi- tal funding that could otherwise be used for expanding park- ing facilities. Because of the uniqueness of each airport’s operating and management structure, political environment, and regula- tory setting, it is not possible to list all of the factors that could influence the goals and objectives established for each airport. However, in discussions conducted during the research phase of this project with airport operators who are now manag- ing, or have previously managed, constrained parking opera- tions, several recurring influences emerged, as discussed in the following sections. C H A P T E R 3 Goals and Objectives for Managing Constrained Airport Parking Environments

Internal Influences Within an airport operating and management environment, generally agreed upon guiding principles influence day-to-day operations at the airport and set the framework for the future development of airport facilities. In some cases, customer ser- vice standards are determined to be so important that facilities are planned and maintained to provide exceptional levels of service above, potentially, all other considerations. In other cases, maximizing nonaeronautical revenues, including park- ing revenue streams, may be a major emphasis in order to reduce a high cost per enplaned passenger ratio for the airlines serving the airport. Whatever the situation, senior manage- ment, typically in conjunction with some type of oversight (such as a board of directors, mayor, or state transportation agency) sets the management philosophy for the airport, or what is referred to as the airport’s “guiding principles.” Although external influences are recognized and vary based on the governance structure of the airport (e.g., independent authority, city department, state agency), airport manage- ment’s guiding principles, for the most part, set the framework for the goals and objectives for the airport’s parking system. These guiding principles reflect the direction of management and consistently influence the day-to-day decision-making process of staff at all levels in the organization. In addition to airport management’s philosophy, typically some form or range of policies, regulations, operating agreements, or con- straints, whether obvious or subtle, influence the management of an airport parking system. The following categories were identified during this research project as the most common internal influences affecting how an airport operator manages and establishes the goals and objectives related to operating the airport parking system: • Financial—Limitations on capital or operating funds affect an airport operator’s ability to increase parking supply. Given that parking is such an important generator of rev- enues at an airport, net revenue generated from public parking is applied to fund other airport projects, used to lower airline fees, added to reserve funds, or needed to help meet debt service coverage as required in an airport opera- tor’s bond indenture. • Customer service—A customer service philosophy or polit- ical sensitivities influence the planning and management of an airport parking system. • Traffic management and trip generation—The airport operator is involved in efforts to reduce or limit increases in vehicle trips to and from the airport or to increase the share of customers using HOVs because of capacity constraints on on-airport roadways or the regional surface transporta- tion network that serves the airport. • Environmental concerns—The airport operator promotes environmental stewardship. For example, an airport oper- ator may define an objective to reduce emissions generated as a result of operation of the airport, including vehicle emissions generated by airline passenger and employee traf- fic, and thus may promote programs and new technologies designed to reduce emissions generated by ground vehicles accessing the airport. • Land use—The lack of available land under the jurisdic- tional control of the airport operator or sponsor and located within acceptable operational limits of the terminal area was noted as a significant influence on the establishment of an airport operator’s parking goals and objectives. The lack of available land to support the development or expan- sion of parking facilities may be due to a scarcity of land or a determination by current or prior airport manage- ment to prioritize the use of available land for other pur- poses, such as terminal or airside expansion, rental car facilities, or hotels. External Influences Some airports are subject to policies and regulations imposed by outside governing bodies, or the airport operator is party to agreements with outside entities that influence the operation and management of the airport parking program. Most, if not all, airports are subject to influences from entities such as local economic development advocacy groups or agencies, or chambers of commerce. In most cases, airport policymakers work cooperatively with local business groups to promote tourism and improve customer service. However, external influences can negatively affect the airport operator’s ability to address constrained parking environments. Examples of such external influences include the following: • Community—The airport operator is involved in mitigat- ing airport-related impacts, which may include traffic or emissions generated within the airport boundary, in sur- rounding communities, or in the region. Some airport oper- ators have entered into formal agreements with governing bodies or community groups to enable airport development programs to go forward. In some cases, these agreements can restrict the degree to which parking can be expanded at the airport. • Environment—The airport may be subject to environmen- tal mitigation commitments at the federal, state, or local level, that involve, for example, goals to reduce airport trips or VMTs to reduce vehicle emissions. In some case, these commitments must be met through the use of parking demand management strategies that effectively limit the amount of parking that can be supplied at the airport. 22

• Transportation—The airport operator and its tenants may be required or encouraged to mitigate transportation impacts. This requirement or encouragement may be part of a regional transportation planning effort aimed at reduc- ing trips generated by all users of an airport or trips gener- ated by specific user groups at an airport. Large employers at airports may be subject to employee commute regula- tions imposed by local governing bodies. These employee commute regulations may be aimed at increasing the average vehicle occupancy rate or reducing vehicle trips. Addition- ally, airport operators who seek federal funding assistance through a metropolitan planning organization (MPO) or similar type of organizational structure can be subject to specific requirements in return for funding commitments. • Zoning and land-use policies—Airport property may be regulated by local zoning or land-use policies. Adjacent communities may have adopted land-use policies that limit the amount of parking to be provided. The governance struc- ture of the airport has a significant effect on the degree to which zoning and local or regional land-use policies affect decisions related to airport parking. Developing Goals and Objectives Goals and objectives for airport parking should be devel- oped within the framework of the overall goals and objectives for the airport. Priorities should be established that are con- sistent with the guiding principles of airport policymakers and the parking development program should be integrated into the airport CIP. These goals and objectives will not only guide the development of strategies for resolving parking con- straints, but will also serve to screen out strategies that are inconsistent with broader policy objectives or that do not have a reasonable chance of achieving their desired results. Within the context of the goals and objectives, airport management will be able to develop monitoring programs, whether financial, operational, or other, to evaluate the effectiveness of strategies implemented to further policy objectives. 23 Examples of External Policies Influencing Parking Programs at Boston Logan, Portland, and Seattle-Tacoma International Airports Boston Logan International Airport (BOS) Parking Freeze—The public and employee parking sup- ply at BOS has been constrained for a number of years, primarily as the result of a regulatory restriction on the parking supply (i.e., a parking freeze) at BOS that became effective in 1975, in accordance with the Commonwealth of Massachusetts and federal air quality regulations. The public parking supply at BOS can only be increased by permanently converting employee parking spaces to pub- lic parking spaces; the on-airport employee parking supply can not be increased. (1) City of Portland Conditional Land-Use Permit—The Port of Portland operates under a conditional land-use per- mit from the City of Portland that, among other things, limits the number of public parking spaces that can be added at Portland International Airport (PDX) and specifies where the spaces can be provided. The permit also requires the Port to charge airport employees a fee to park at PDX. The most recent permit was issued in 2003. Until recently, there was a general understanding by the local regulatory agencies (the City of Portland, the Port- land MPO, and the state of Oregon) that parking spaces induce automobile trips, and that limiting parking spaces anywhere (including PDX) will encourage alternate modes of travel. A new airline passenger demand component in the regional travel demand model in use since 2009 has been effective in beginning to change the understand- ing of regulators regarding how airport parking behavior differs from the behavior of parkers visiting other types of activity centers such as an office building. It is expected that this new understanding will be reflected in approval of a new land-use permit in 2010. (16) City of SeaTac Limitation on Off-Airport Parking—Port of Seattle staff consider the privately operated off-airport parking supply an important component of the overall parking supply at Seattle-Tacoma International Airport (SEA) that helps to relieve public parking constraints during overflow conditions. However, the adjacent City of SeaTac has enacted a policy limiting the off-airport parking supply, so an increase in off-airport parking is not likely to be a solution to future parking constraints at SEA. Furthermore, the policy would prevent the Port of Seattle from leasing or purchasing land in the City of SeaTac for temporary parking use when the public parking supply at SEA is constrained. (6)

One method of developing goals and objectives and prior- itizing them is to compile a list of questions or scenarios to explore, have staff and executives consider them, and then work together to develop and prioritize them. Examples of questions that may be considered in this process include the following: • Is the airport operator obligated or inclined to provide a parking space for every customer that desires one, includ- ing a space within the facility in which the customer wishes to park? • What are the financial implications and tolerance levels for losing parking market share to private parking operators? Have concerns about the loss of market share caused the airport operator to be tentative in its approach to address- ing on-airport parking constraints? • What is the relationship between customer convenience and net revenue? • What role should the airport operator play in providing employee parking facilities? • Where is the best location for public parking versus rental car ready/return and quick turn-around areas? • Is improved customer service for resident O&D passengers a higher priority than the convenience of picking up a rental car for nonresident O&D passengers? • Should the pricing of public or employee parking be used as a tool to influence demand? If pricing has been used to influence demand, has it been used effectively? • Is a comprehensive approach being taken for providing public or employee parking in relation to overall policies for airport ground access and land use, including the establish- ment of the highest and best use of available land? • What is the tolerance for capital investment in the parking program in relation to the overall CIP for the airport? • What is the return on investment for expanding existing parking facilities and what are the options? Considerations in developing goals and objectives related to the provision and management of public or employee parking in relation to financial, customer service, traffic management and mode share, environmental, and land-use objectives are presented in the following sections. Financial Objectives Financial objectives may be related to net revenue, operat- ing and capital costs, and financing (i.e., the ability to borrow money for CIPs). Parking rates should be developed based on financial objectives, as well as other objectives, considering the perceived or actual price tolerance of airline passenger and employee parking customers. The provision of additional capacity or new parking products, or the implementation of new technology all will be influenced by financial objectives. Net Revenues Net fees derived from public parking operations typically are a key revenue source available to repay debt service result- ing from revenue bonds issued to fund airport capital expan- sion projects. As such, airport operators often look to increase parking-derived revenue streams in order to retire bond obli- gations used to finance capital programs. Many parking-related capital projects do not have comple- mentary, direct supporting revenue streams (e.g., service area improvements and public roadway upgrades, among others) or adequate supporting revenue streams (e.g., employee park- ing facilities). Net revenue generation must take into account the ability to support those types of projects as well as direct revenue producing capital projects. Additionally, rather than simply covering the capital or operational requirements for parking and related facilities, net parking revenues could be a significant source for repayment of other airport debt and operating expenses. Net revenues derived from parking are directly related to parking system operating expenses. Managing operating expenses is one way an airport operator can improve margins (net revenues) without increasing gross revenues (i.e., raising parking rates) generated by the parking system. Key operating expenses at most airports include direct and allocated indirect expenditures and costs associated with shuttle bus operations. Ironically, shuttle bus operations often represent one of the largest recurring operating expenses for an airport parking sys- tem, yet only serve parkers who choose the lowest cost parking option (remote parking products) available. Therefore, remote parking products typically have the lowest net revenue margins. Costs Operating cost efficiencies enable the airport operator to realize higher net revenues or to contain parking rates. Man- aging constrained parking with temporary solutions often involves additional personnel, busing costs, and other operat- ing costs. There may be a breakeven point where the costs to provide the temporary solutions are better applied to perma- nent solutions, such as new technology or additional capacity. An example would be an airport where a remote parcel of prop- erty is used as temporary overflow parking 20 days per year. The revenue from the overflow parking versus labor, busing, and other operating costs expended would be compared to the net revenue of developing a permanent solution. The net rev- enues from the overflow operation compared with the net rev- enues from the potential permanent solutions would provide the answer. As mentioned in the previous discussion of net revenues, the airport operator’s goals and objectives regarding financial performance in relation to capital costs is important, such as the rate of return from a new facility, the timeframe for a new 24

facility to achieve cost recovery, or the efficiencies or net rev- enues that investment in new technology may provide. Financing The relationship between financing a capital investment in the parking program and the ability to obtain project financ- ing for other projects in the capital program is an important consideration. Even if the projected financial performance of the new parking facility is acceptable to the airport operator, financing of the project may inhibit the airport operator’s ability to borrow money for projects that are of higher prior- ity in the airport CIP. Employee Parking Financial objectives for the provision of employee parking should include consideration of the financial objectives of the airport operator. If employee parking is operated on a cost recovery basis, will costs be recovered through parking fees charged to employees using the parking facilities; will tenant employers reimburse the airport operator for its operating costs; or will a large airport employer (such as a hub airline) provide parking for its employees? Alternatively, an airport operator may decide to operate employee parking at a loss and cover operating cost with revenues generated by other sources at the airport (e.g., public parking facilities). Ulti- mately, the decision of how to cover the cost of providing employee parking at an airport will depend on the operating agreement with airport tenants and the business model objec- tives of the airport operator. Customer Service Objectives The level of customer service the airport operator wishes to provide to the various groups of airline passengers and employees who are airport parking customers influences how decisions are made regarding the provision of public and employee parking. The level of importance attributed to cus- tomer service will directly influence how an airport operator will resolve parking constraints. Level-of-service considera- tions for the development of objectives pertaining to public and employee parking are summarized in the remainder of this section. Public Parking Customer service considerations for the development of objectives for passengers using public parking include the following: • Proportion or amount of parking supply to be provided in the terminal area and the customers that will benefit from it; • Proportion of parking supply provided away from the termi- nal (i.e., remote) and the implications regarding customer level of service, including shuttle frequency and walking dis- tance to board/alight parking shuttles, and the total travel time to and from airline terminals; • Parking products and range of parking rates offered; • Identification of customers that will benefit from the intro- duction of premium parking products and, if already offered, assessment of whether customers targeted for premium parking products are using and benefiting from them; • Level of information to be provided to customers regard- ing parking availability, and how that information will be conveyed; • Implementation of technology commensurate with cus- tomer service wants and needs; • Ways to resolve parking constraints in line with manage- ment’s customer service philosophies (guiding principles); • Safety and cleanliness of the parking facilities; and • Methods for measuring customer satisfaction. Employee Parking Customer service considerations for the development of objectives for employee parking include the following: • Convenience in terms of location or walking and travel time to the place of employment; • Safety and cleanliness of facilities; • Employee parking fees; • Importance of how the provision of employee parking (amount and level of service at parking facilities) affects employer and employee satisfaction; • Availability of viable commute alternatives to driving to the airport and parking; • Ways in which improvements and promotions of employee commute alternatives, including carpooling and ride- matching (a service intended to facilitate carpooling by pairing up commuters from similar origins who are des- tined for similar employment centers, such as an airport), will facilitate more efficient use of the employee parking supply; • Employee parking level-of-service standards; • Collective bargaining agreements, if applicable, and respon- sibility to ensure compliance; and • Methods for measuring customer satisfaction. Traffic Management and Mode-Share Objectives In determining traffic management objectives for the park- ing program, the effects of the operation and management of the program on the volume of airline passenger or employee 25

trips generated within the boundaries of the airport, on local roadways, and within the region may be considered. Mode- share objectives incorporate consideration of the relationship between the parking program and the mode-share distribu- tion of airline passengers or employees. It should be noted that traffic management and mode-share objectives may only be applicable at some airports, such as those in urban areas where traffic is a concern or those where operational sustainability objectives are key considerations for airport policymakers. Traffic Management and Trip Generation The volume of vehicle traffic generated by the airport and congestion on the regional surface transportation network that serves the airport may affect the airport operator’s cap- ital and operating costs, including costs for infrastructure and programs to promote the use of alternative forms of trans- portation to and from the airport. More efficient traffic man- agement results in lower infrastructure and management costs. Considerations in developing traffic management and trip generation goals include the following: • Trip generation on the airport roadway system, on local roads, and on the regional road system—Understanding the relationship between public parking capacity and trips made by single-party access modes with a higher trip gen- eration rate (i.e., customers being picked up and dropped off by private automobile, taxicab, and single-party limou- sines) and developing an acceptable balance between accom- modating parking demand and diversion to single-party pickup and drop-off modes. The diversion from parking to HOV modes will result in fewer vehicle trips. • Trip generation on the airport roadway system—Under- standing how parking policies, such as the provision of the cell phone lot, or a shortfall of short-term parking spaces influences the volume of recirculating trips on the airport roadway system. • Policies and strategies—Understanding how public park- ing policies, in conjunction with strategies for other access modes, may influence vehicle trip generation by airline passengers. • Employee trip generation—Understanding the relation- ship between employee trip generation and the availability of other airport access modes. • Data—Ensuring the collection of reliable baseline data from which to measure progress. Mode-Share Distribution The airport operator may wish to develop goals and objec- tives related to airline passenger or employee mode-share distribution that are separate from traffic and trip generation goals. The motivation for developing separate goals and objectives may be related to the desire for more passengers or employees to use HOV modes, either for environmental rea- sons or to defer the need for parking capacity increases. The desire to defer parking capacity increases could also lead to the adoption and implementation of strategies to encourage the use of single-party pickup and drop-off modes if traffic implications were not a concern. Considerations include the following: • The airline passenger or employee perception of the avail- ability of transit and other HOV modes compared to their viability for airline passenger and employee travel to and from the airport (measures of viability include the geo- graphic coverage of the service area, trip schedules, service frequencies, and travel times to accommodate airline pas- senger and employee travel needs); • An understanding of airline passenger and employee mode- share distribution, which is integral to the development of goals and objectives and the measurement of progress; and • The level of effort and influence the airport operator is will- ing or able to exert on the provision and operation of alter- native modes to effect desired changes in mode choice. Considerations for Airport Parking and Other Access Modes When developing and evaluating airport policies and air- port management goals and objectives, consideration should be given to the relationships between airport public parking, airport employee parking, and other ground access modes. Public Parking. Policy decisions to accommodate airport employee parking or rental car parking and service facilities on the airport can contribute to constrained public parking operations when land available for landside facilities is scarce. For example, it is common for airport operators to grant some employees access to public parking facilities in the terminal area and, in some cases, employee use of public parking facilities may be responsible for displacing airline passengers who wish to park in the terminal area. It is important for airport operators to understand the volume of airline passenger parking being displaced by other users of the public parking supply, such as employees. Rental Cars. When determining when and where to ex- pand public parking, airport operators must consider a vari- ety of competing objectives. One very good example is rental car ready/return areas and quick turnaround facilities for rental cars. Similar to public parking, revenues derived from rental car transactions and land leases can be one of the high- est nonaeronautical revenue sources available to the airport 26

operator. Furthermore, airports with a high number of non- business, nonresident airline passengers often have a local economy that is dependent upon the hospitality industry, resulting in external influences to maintain high levels of cus- tomer service for rental car customers. Not surprisingly, deci- sions on where to locate employee, rental car, and public parking facilities may be made using a set of goals and objec- tives based on the important issues at the time. Consequently, new strategies involving relocation of one parking product at the expense of another can be both politically challenging and costly. Depending upon the size of the local parking and rental car markets, public parking and rental car facilities can coex- ist in a shared facility. In other cases, they can not. Under- standing the need for both types of parking operations is a significant influencing factor when determining the goals and objectives for airport parking facilities. HOV Modes. The relationship between decisions regard- ing parking and HOV modes is often considered at airports with a wide selection of HOV modes or where transit con- nections to the airport are available. In some cases, there is a relationship between these modes so decisions related to one mode may influence the use of the other mode; however, at some airports, the available HOV modes may not be viable options for airline passengers or employees because of the dif- ferential in travel times compared to the private automobile or other single-party modes, the geographic coverage of the service area, and the trip schedules in relation to the airline pas- sengers’ travel needs. Furthermore, research conducted for this project indicated that constrained public parking condi- tions at airports lead to a higher increase in pickup and drop- off activity by airline passengers than to increased use of HOV modes. This result applies to airports that offer a range of HOV options as well as those that offer limited HOV options. Employee Parking. The cost of operating employee park- ing should be considered in relation to the cost of subsidizing transit. For example, if the employee cost for a monthly park- ing pass at an airport is less than the price of a monthly tran- sit pass, it may serve as a disincentive for employee transit use. This disincentive not only undermines the ability of the airport operator to reduce employee vehicle trips, but it also presents a financial operating loss to the airport operator if the cost for providing employee parking is not recovered. It should be noted that many transit systems do not operate a schedule that caters to all airport employees. Transit systems typically end service late in the evening and begin service early the next morning. For airports that have a significant shift change dur- ing late-night hours (particularly airports hosting hubbing air- line operations) and for those airport tenants whose employees work during off-peak hours (e.g., janitorial and maintenance crews), public transit may not be a viable transportation option. Environmental Objectives Environmental objectives for the parking program pro- vide guidance for management and operation of the parking program that may take into consideration the environmen- tal impacts of trips generated. In addition, the relationship between more efficient fuel technologies and the parking program is another important consideration, especially for those vehicles that the airport operator controls. For exam- ple, the provision of shuttle service using alternative fuel vehicles between remote public parking areas and the termi- nal area or between employee lots and places of employment, the requirement that off-airport parking operators use alter- native fuel vehicles in their shuttle bus fleets, the provision of an APM system to transport customers between parking and the terminal area or places of employment, and the bal- ance between parking within walking distance of the termi- nal area and parking in remote locations all have environmental implications. Land-Use Objectives Land-use objectives as they relate to the parking program provide guidance for management and operation of the park- ing program. These objectives may relate to the proximity of parking for the customers served or the income-producing potential of the property, or other preferences. An exam- ple would be the airport operator’s desire to locate public, employee, and rental car parking in areas where it represents the highest and best use of the property, considering the net revenue the property will generate. For remote parking, the net revenue calculation would include the cost to operate shuttle service between the parking area and the terminal area or places of employment. 27

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TRB’s Airport Cooperative Research Program (ACRP) Report 34: Handbook to Assess the Impacts of Constrained Parking at Airports explores different types of parking constraints that airports experience and highlights tools to assess the impacts of the constraints and strategies to deal with them.

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