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ConTenTs (contâd) CONTENTS I. Introduction, 3 II. Civil Rights Issues Arising Under Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 When Public Transportation Projects Allegedly Discriminate Against Minority or Ethnic Groups, 5 A. Prohibition of Intentional Discrimination Caused by Disparate Treatment Under Section 601 of Title VI, 5 B. No Cause of Action Under Disparate-Impact Regulations Promulgated Under Section 602 of Title VI to Effectuate the Provisions of Section 601, 5 C. Executive Order 12898 (1994) Requiring Federal Agencies to Combat Directly Disproportionate and Adverse Effects of Their Programs, Policies, and Activities on Minority and Low-Income Populations, 6 D. USDOT Title VI Order (1997) Incorporating the Principles of Environmental Justice in Decision-Making Practices of All USDOT Programs, Policies, and Activities, 6 E. Guidance Provided by FTA Title VI Circular (2007) for Recipients and Subrecipients of FTA Financial Assistance Regarding Compliance with Title VI and Integration of the USDOT Order as Well as Policy Guidance Concerning Limited-English-Proficient Persons, 7 F. Application of Principles of Environmental Justice to Avoid, Minimize, or Mitigate Disproportionately High and Adverse Human Health and Environmental Effects on Low-Income Populations, 9 G. Executive Order 13166 (2000), Department of Justice and USDOT Policy Guidance, and the 2007 FTA Title VI Circular Regarding Access to Transit Services for LEP Persons and Compliance with Title VI, 11 H. Recipientsâ and Subrecipientsâ Obligation to Promote Inclusive Public Participation, 12 I. Applicability of Title VI and the ADA to the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, 13 III. Judicial Interpretation of Sections 601 and 602 of Title VI, 14 A. Section 601 Proscribes Only Intentional Discrimination, 14 B. No Private Right to Enforce Regulations Promulgated Under Section 602 of Title VI to Effectuate Section 601 of Title VI, 15 IV. Proof of Disparate Treatment and Disparate Impact, 15 A. Proof of Disparate Treatment: The Arlington Heights Factors, 15 B. Title VI and Recent Cases, 17 C. Pre-Sandoval Disparate-Impact Cases, 21 D. Other Issues Relating to Title VI Claims, 23 V. Whether Disparate-Impact Claims Are Actionable Under Section 1983, 23 A. Cases Holding That Disparate-Impact Claims Are Not Actionable Under Section 1983, 23 B. Sovereign Immunity and Section 1983, 24 VI. Administrative Enforcement of Title VI Complaints, 25 A. Procedures Applicable to Complaints, 25 B. Title VI Administrative Complaints Based on Reduction in Service or Increase in Fares, 26 C. Reported Title VI Complaints in the Past 10 Years Based on Service Reductions or Fare Increases, 27 D. Transit Agenciesâ Responses to Title VI Complaints, 27 VII. Title II of the Americans with Disabilities Act and Transit Service, 28 A. Statutory Provisions Applicable to Public Transportation Providers, 28 B. DOT Regulations Implementing the ADA, 29 C. The Availability of a Private Right of Action Under the ADA, 30 D. The ADA and Paratransit Service, 31 E. ADA Administrative Compliance and Enforcement, 33 F. Judicial Claims Under the ADA for Reduction in Transit Service or Increase in Fares, 34 G. Whether State Transit Agencies Have Sovereign Immunity, 34 H. Statute of Limitations in ADA Cases, 35 VIII. Title III of the Americans with Disabilities Act and Private Transportation Entities, 35 A. Prohibition of Discrimination in Public Accommodations, 35 B. Public Transportation Services Provided by Private Entities, 36 C. ADA Title III Regulations, 37 D. Administrative Action and Enforcement, 37 E. Transit Cases Arising Under Title III, 38 IX. Discussion of Practices When Reducing Service or Increasing Fares, 38 A. Transit Agenciesâ Title VI Policies, 38 B. Low-Income Populations, 39 C. Limited-English-Proficiency Persons, 40 D. Transit Agenciesâ ADA Policies, 42 E. Transit Agency Coordination, 43 F. Transit Agency Resources, 44 G. Policy Regarding Review of Legal Issues When Reducing Service or Increasing Fares, 45 X. Conclusion, 46 Appendix A: Survey Questions, 47 Appendix B: Transit Agencies Responding to the Survey, 51