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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2011. Handbook for Analyzing the Costs and Benefits of Alternative Aviation Turbine Engine Fuels at Airports. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14531.
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2011. Handbook for Analyzing the Costs and Benefits of Alternative Aviation Turbine Engine Fuels at Airports. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14531.
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2011. Handbook for Analyzing the Costs and Benefits of Alternative Aviation Turbine Engine Fuels at Airports. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14531.
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2011. Handbook for Analyzing the Costs and Benefits of Alternative Aviation Turbine Engine Fuels at Airports. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14531.
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2011. Handbook for Analyzing the Costs and Benefits of Alternative Aviation Turbine Engine Fuels at Airports. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14531.
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2011. Handbook for Analyzing the Costs and Benefits of Alternative Aviation Turbine Engine Fuels at Airports. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14531.
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2011. Handbook for Analyzing the Costs and Benefits of Alternative Aviation Turbine Engine Fuels at Airports. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14531.
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2011. Handbook for Analyzing the Costs and Benefits of Alternative Aviation Turbine Engine Fuels at Airports. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/14531.
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TRANSPORTAT ION RESEARCH BOARD WASHINGTON, D.C. 2011 www.TRB.org A I R P O R T C O O P E R A T I V E R E S E A R C H P R O G R A M ACRP REPORT 46 Research sponsored by the Federal Aviation Administration Subscriber Categories Energy • Environment • Aviation Handbook for Analyzing the Costs and Benefits of Alternative Aviation Turbine Engine Fuels at Airports Fred Morser Philip Soucacos CSSI, INC. Washington, D.C. I N A S S O C I A T I O N W I T H James Hileman Pearl Donohoo MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY Cambridge, MA Sandy Webb ENVIRONMENTAL CONSULTING GROUP, INC. Annapolis, MD

AIRPORT COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM Airports are vital national resources. They serve a key role in trans- portation of people and goods and in regional, national, and inter- national commerce. They are where the nation’s aviation system connects with other modes of transportation and where federal respon- sibility for managing and regulating air traffic operations intersects with the role of state and local governments that own and operate most airports. Research is necessary to solve common operating problems, to adapt appropriate new technologies from other industries, and to introduce innovations into the airport industry. The Airport Coopera- tive Research Program (ACRP) serves as one of the principal means by which the airport industry can develop innovative near-term solutions to meet demands placed on it. The need for ACRP was identified in TRB Special Report 272: Airport Research Needs: Cooperative Solutions in 2003, based on a study spon- sored by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). The ACRP carries out applied research on problems that are shared by airport operating agencies and are not being adequately addressed by existing federal research programs. It is modeled after the successful National Coopera- tive Highway Research Program and Transit Cooperative Research Pro- gram. The ACRP undertakes research and other technical activities in a variety of airport subject areas, including design, construction, mainte- nance, operations, safety, security, policy, planning, human resources, and administration. The ACRP provides a forum where airport opera- tors can cooperatively address common operational problems. The ACRP was authorized in December 2003 as part of the Vision 100-Century of Aviation Reauthorization Act. The primary partici- pants in the ACRP are (1) an independent governing board, the ACRP Oversight Committee (AOC), appointed by the Secretary of the U.S. Department of Transportation with representation from airport oper- ating agencies, other stakeholders, and relevant industry organizations such as the Airports Council International-North America (ACI-NA), the American Association of Airport Executives (AAAE), the National Association of State Aviation Officials (NASAO), and the Air Transport Association (ATA) as vital links to the airport community; (2) the TRB as program manager and secretariat for the governing board; and (3) the FAA as program sponsor. In October 2005, the FAA executed a contract with the National Academies formally initiating the program. The ACRP benefits from the cooperation and participation of airport professionals, air carriers, shippers, state and local government officials, equipment and service suppliers, other airport users, and research orga- nizations. Each of these participants has different interests and respon- sibilities, and each is an integral part of this cooperative research effort. Research problem statements for the ACRP are solicited periodically but may be submitted to the TRB by anyone at any time. It is the responsibility of the AOC to formulate the research program by iden- tifying the highest priority projects and defining funding levels and expected products. Once selected, each ACRP project is assigned to an expert panel, appointed by the TRB. Panels include experienced practitioners and research specialists; heavy emphasis is placed on including airport pro- fessionals, the intended users of the research products. The panels pre- pare project statements (requests for proposals), select contractors, and provide technical guidance and counsel throughout the life of the project. The process for developing research problem statements and selecting research agencies has been used by TRB in managing cooper- ative research programs since 1962. As in other TRB activities, ACRP project panels serve voluntarily without compensation. Primary emphasis is placed on disseminating ACRP results to the intended end-users of the research: airport operating agencies, service providers, and suppliers. The ACRP produces a series of research reports for use by airport operators, local agencies, the FAA, and other interested parties, and industry associations may arrange for work- shops, training aids, field visits, and other activities to ensure that results are implemented by airport-industry practitioners. ACRP REPORT 46 Project 02-07 ISSN 1935-9802 ISBN 978-0-309-15540-3 Library of Congress Control Number 2011921470 © 2011 National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. COPYRIGHT INFORMATION Authors herein are responsible for the authenticity of their materials and for obtaining written permissions from publishers or persons who own the copyright to any previously published or copyrighted material used herein. Cooperative Research Programs (CRP) grants permission to reproduce material in this publication for classroom and not-for-profit purposes. Permission is given with the understanding that none of the material will be used to imply TRB or FAA endorsement of a particular product, method, or practice. It is expected that those reproducing the material in this document for educational and not-for-profit uses will give appropriate acknowledgment of the source of any reprinted or reproduced material. For other uses of the material, request permission from CRP. NOTICE The project that is the subject of this report was a part of the Airport Cooperative Research Program, conducted by the Transportation Research Board with the approval of the Governing Board of the National Research Council. The members of the technical panel selected to monitor this project and to review this report were chosen for their special competencies and with regard for appropriate balance. The report was reviewed by the technical panel and accepted for publication according to procedures established and overseen by the Transportation Research Board and approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council. The opinions and conclusions expressed or implied in this report are those of the researchers who performed the research and are not necessarily those of the Transportation Research Board, the National Research Council, or the program sponsors. The Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, the National Research Council, and the sponsors of the Airport Cooperative Research Program do not endorse products or manufacturers. Trade or manufacturers’ names appear herein solely because they are considered essential to the object of the report. Published reports of the AIRPORT COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM are available from: Transportation Research Board Business Office 500 Fifth Street, NW Washington, DC 20001 and can be ordered through the Internet at http://www.national-academies.org/trb/bookstore Printed in the United States of America

The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. On the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone is president of the National Academy of Sciences. The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. Charles M. Vest is president of the National Academy of Engineering. The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government and, on its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Harvey V. Fineberg is president of the Institute of Medicine. The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy’s purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone and Dr. Charles M. Vest are chair and vice chair, respectively, of the National Research Council. The Transportation Research Board is one of six major divisions of the National Research Council. The mission of the Transporta- tion Research Board is to provide leadership in transportation innovation and progress through research and information exchange, conducted within a setting that is objective, interdisciplinary, and multimodal. The Board’s varied activities annually engage about 7,000 engineers, scientists, and other transportation researchers and practitioners from the public and private sectors and academia, all of whom contribute their expertise in the public interest. The program is supported by state transportation departments, federal agencies including the component administrations of the U.S. Department of Transportation, and other organizations and individu- als interested in the development of transportation. www.TRB.org www.national-academies.org

CRP STAFF FOR ACRP REPORT 46 Christopher W. Jenks, Director, Cooperative Research Programs Crawford F. Jencks, Deputy Director, Cooperative Research Programs Michael R. Salamone, ACRP Manager Lawrence D. Goldstein, Senior Program Officer Tiana Barnes, Senior Program Assistant Eileen P. Delaney, Director of Publications Doug English, Editor ACRP PROJECT 02-07 PANEL Field of Environment Bryan C. Wagoner, Wayne County (MI) Airport Authority, Detroit, MI (Chair) Richard Altman, Commercial Aviation Alternative Fuels Initiative, Wethersfield, CT Roger A. Johnson, Los Angeles World Airports, Los Angeles, CA Darrin L. Morgan, Boeing Company, Seattle, WA Virgil M. Regoli, Jr., US Air Force, Wright Patterson AFB, OH Russ Simonson, Seattle-Tacoma International Airport, Seattle, WA Steve Sletten, PBS&J, Madison, WI Lourdes Maurice, FAA Liaison Jessica Steinhilber, Airports Council International–North America Liaison Christine Gerencher, TRB Liaison C O O P E R A T I V E R E S E A R C H P R O G R A M S AUTHOR ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The research reported herein was performed under ACRP Project 02-07 by CSSI, Inc., Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and the Environmental Consulting Group, Inc. CSSI served as the prime contractor. Mr. Frederick Morser of CSSI was the Principal Investigator. The other authors of this report were Phillip Soucacos, CSSI, Dr. James Hileman, Principal Research Engineer, MIT, and Associate Director, Partnership for AiR Transportation Noise and Emissions Reduction, Pearl Donohoo, S.M. Candidate at MIT, and Sandy Webb, Managing Director, Environmental Consulting Group. Many researchers and experts in alternative fuel production, fuel combustion, aircraft and vehicle engines, fuel distribution, airport operations, and emissions modeling provided essential assistance with the work presented in this report. The authors would especially like to thank Dr. Saravanan Arunachalam, Center for Environmental Modeling for Policy Development, University of North Carolina–Chapel Hill, for his contribution on the analysis of ambient particulate matter concentrations around Atlanta Harts- field International Airport.

ACRP Report 46 provides a handbook and analytical model that airport operators and fuel suppliers can use to evaluate the costs associated with introducing “drop-in” alternative tur- bine engine fuel at airports and the benefits as measured by reduced emissions. The analyti- cal model also includes evaluation tools that take into account options for using alternative fuel for other airside equipment, including diesel-powered ground support equipment. Alternative fuels considered are an ultralow sulfur (ULS) jet fuel and synthetic paraffinic kerosenes (SPKs). SPKs include Fischer-Tropsch fuels and hydroprocessed renewable jet fuel created from feedstocks such as algae and palm oils. The analytical model, which is contained on an accompanying CD-ROM, is the Alternative Fuel Investigation Tool (AFIT). An accom- panying research report covers background analysis used in the formulation of the AFIT model, addresses characteristics of current fuel usage and distribution, and describes what is required to switch to alternatives. Also addressed in the report and incorporated in AFIT are critical environmental factors to be considered when calculating costs and environmental benefits. Environmental benefits are measured based on the degree to which use of alterna- tive fuels can improve air quality within the airport boundaries. The handbook also includes a discussion of data requirements and sources of data required for use in the model. Jet A kerosene is a petroleum-based fuel that is presently used to power turbine engines on aircraft. Certification of two or more substitutes for Jet A fuel is anticipated in the near future, and this research was designed to provide guidance to airport operators on the steps necessary to evaluate costs and environmental benefits for implementing a fuel substitution program. The objective of the research was to prepare a handbook for use by airport oper- ators to measure the associated costs and environmental benefits. This handbook was also to provide guidance on possible uses of alternative fuels as substitutes for diesel-powered ground support equipment to maximize the return on the required investment. To accomplish this objective, the research team headed by CSSI, Inc., in association with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Environmental Consulting Group, Inc., evaluated current airport fuel supply systems; reviewed current research on development and suitability of alternative fuels; evaluated certification and implementation require- ments; interviewed airports on current fuel acquisition, supply, and delivery procedures; and assessed potential environmental benefits associated with use of alternative fuels. Based on this review and analysis, the research team formulated an evaluation model to facilitate the decision-making process with sufficient flexibility to incorporate individual airport characteristics. The report that accompanies the handbook includes an assessment of steps involved in bringing alternative fuels to airports, what airports need to know to accommodate these F O R E W O R D By Lawrence D. Goldstein Staff Officer Transportation Research Board

fuels, how the cost of using alternative fuels compares to that of current fuel, what the envi- ronmental benefits are, and how to measure those benefits. It also describes the underlying analysis that is incorporated in the computational tool. The decision to switch in part or in whole to an alternative fuel is the responsibility of and peculiar to an individual airport. Specific conditions will guide airport management decisions, and any model or decision- making tool must be flexible enough to recognize unique characteristics of a specific airport community. This report is the result of extensive research into the key issues affecting the aviation industry’s efforts to pursue cleaner fuels, and the decision-making factors that emerge are built into the model. As a result, members of the airport community can use the report, handbook, and AFIT to make their own determination of the costs and environmen- tal benefits of various alternative fuels and implementation strategies. The handbook guides the AFIT user in evaluating the cost of acquiring, transporting, distributing, and using an alternative jet fuel as well as evaluating environmental benefits. Although designed with airports in mind, it is also useful to others interested in using alter- native fuel at airports. For example, an alternative jet fuel producer can use AFIT to develop a marketing approach for working with an airport. A fuel service company could use it to better understand the process and costs involved in acquiring and transporting an alternative jet fuel from a production site to an airport. An environmental analyst could use it to evaluate the degree to which emissions could be mitigated though the use of alter- native jet fuel. The science and engineering of alternative fuels development is dynamic. Assumptions and results can become obsolete as a result of political, technological, and economic change. Therefore, alternative fuels research in general and a measure of its applicability to airport planning and aviation in particular are in constant need of updating. For example, with respect to the modeling side, the environmental input to the benefit analysis, which relies on the FAA’s preferred air quality model, the Emissions and Dispersion Modeling System (EDMS) will soon be replaced or augmented by other more sophisticated environmental models as tools and techniques improve. The structure of the decision-making process for use of alternative fuels must remain flexible, and that is the approach incorporated into the AFIT and its application.

C O N T E N T S 1 Summary 3 Chapter 1 Introduction 3 1.1 Summary 3 1.2 Handbook Purpose 4 1.3 Economic Considerations 4 1.4 Environmental Considerations 4 1.5 System Boundary 6 Chapter 2 Key Project Findings 6 2.1 Potentially Viable Alternative Turbine Engine Fuels 6 2.1.1 Composition of Current Jet Fuel 6 2.1.2 Source of Current Jet Fuel 7 2.1.3 Sulfur Content of Current Jet Fuel 7 2.2 Potentially Viable Fuels and Their Benefits 7 2.2.1 Fuels Not Viable for Use in Gas Turbine-Powered Aircraft 7 2.2.2 GSE Use of Alternative Turbine Engine Fuels 8 2.2.3 Single Battlefield Fuel (Jet Fuel Use in Diesel Engines) 8 2.2.4 Limits of Jet Fuel Use in Diesel Engines 9 2.2.5 Engine Modifications and Maintenance Changes 10 2.3 Outcomes from Airport Surveys 10 2.3.1 Airport Fuel Management Practices 10 2.3.2 Airport Fuel Infrastructure 11 2.3.3 Airports Selected for Analysis 11 2.3.4 Airport Readiness to Switch to an Alternative Fuel 13 Chapter 3 Key Environmental Factors 13 3.1 Fuel Consumption 13 3.1.1 Changes in Jet Fuel Use in Jet Engines 13 3.1.2 Changes in Fuel Use in Diesel Engines 14 3.2 Aircraft Emissions Affecting Air Quality 14 3.2.1 Nitrogen Oxides 14 3.2.2 Sulfur Dioxide 14 3.2.3 Primary Particulate Matter 16 3.2.4 Carbon Monoxide 16 3.3 Diesel GSE Emissions Affecting Air Quality 16 3.3.1 Unburned Hydrocarbons, Nitrogen Oxide, and Carbon Monoxide 17 3.3.2 Sulfur Dioxide 17 3.3.3 Particulate Matter 18 3.4 Life-Cycle Greenhouse Gas Emissions

21 Chapter 4 Air Quality Assessment for a Selected Airport 21 4.1 Methodology 21 4.2 GSE Vehicle Inventory 23 4.3 Emissions Inventory 23 4.4 Ambient Particulate Matter Concentration 27 Chapter 5 About the Handbook 27 5.1 AFIT Use 28 5.2 Data References 28 5.2.1 Fuel 30 Chapter 6 Issues and Challenges 30 6.1 Available Data for Estimating Emissions 30 6.2 Maturity of Alternative Fuels for Aviation 31 6.3 Implementation Realities 32 References 34 Appendix A Glossary, Acronyms, and Abbreviations 36 Appendix B Stanadyne Fuel Pump Repair Bulletins 45 Appendix C Airport Fueling System Interview Guide 49 Appendix D Summary of Emission Factors and Emission Indices Handbook for Using AFIT, the Alternative Fuels Investigation Tool H-1 Contents H-2 Chapter 1 Introduction H-5 Chapter 2 Conducting a Cost–Benefit Analysis of Alternative Jet Fuel Use H-10 Chapter 3 Evaluating the Results of an Alternative Jet Fuel Cost–Benefit Analysis H-12 Appendix A Cost–Benefit Computations H-13 Appendix B Sources of Data H-14 Appendix C Glossary, Acronyms, and Abbreviations H-15 Appendix D Life-Cycle Greenhouse Gas Emissions H-17 References

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TRB’s Airport Cooperative Research Program (ACRP) Report 46: Handbook for Analyzing the Costs and Benefits of Alternative Aviation Turbine Engine Fuels at Airports consists of the Alternative Fuel Investigation Tool (AFIT), a handbook on the use of AFIT, and a report on its development. AFIT is an analytical model designed to help airport operators and fuel suppliers evaluate the costs associated with introducing “drop-in” alternative turbine engine fuel at airports and the benefits as measured by reduced emissions.

AFIT, which is included in CD-ROM format with the print version of the report, takes into account options for using alternative fuel for other airside equipment, including diesel-powered ground support equipment.

The report also addresses characteristics of current fuel usage and distribution, and describes what is required to switch to alternatives.

The CD-ROM is also available for download from TRB’s website as an ISO image. Links to the ISO image and instructions for burning a CD-ROM from an ISO image are provided below.

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CD-ROM Disclaimer - This software is offered as is, without warranty or promise of support of any kind either expressed or implied. Under no circumstance will the National Academy of Sciences or the Transportation Research Board (collectively “TRB’) be liable for any loss or damage caused by the installation or operations of this product. TRB makes no representation or warranty of any kind, expressed or implied, in fact or in law, including without limitation, the warranty of merchantability or the warranty of fitness for a particular purpose, and shall not in any case be liable for any consequential or special damages.

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