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12 Improving Safety-Related Rules Compliance in the Public Transportation Industry
because people may respond based on the questionnaire administrator's expectations. Recent
research has focused on the use of implicit measures of attitude. Adapted from the field of social
cognition, the implicit attitude test (IAT) measures unconscious attitudes, which are impervi-
ous to experimental demand characteristics. Using the IAT, aviation researchers have demon-
strated that the use of this tool, at least experimentally, can identify pilots who are likely to make
risky flight decisions (Molesworth and Chang 2009). However, this research is still in its infancy
and is not ready for practical application.
Summary Points
· Traditional psychometric inventories are not useful for identifying individuals as having
risk-taking personalities; therefore, they do not serve as useful screening tools for the
hiring process.
· High scores on the risk-taking scales of the JPI-R were associated with failure to comply with
PPE requirements. The applicability of this study to public transportation is limited.
· Identifying the situational factors that influence risk taking in public transit operations is use-
ful. Examples of factors to consider include length of time an organization has without inci-
dent, length of time an individual is on the job without incident, and the number of employee
incidents he, or she, successfully recovers from.
· DWI convictions are predictors of pilot risk-taking behavior; however, there is no empirical
evidence to suggest this as a predictor in public transit operations.
· The IAT is a promising methodology that may be adapted as a practical tool to identify indi-
viduals who may engage in risk-taking behavior. This may lead to improved employee screen-
ing and targeted training.
Training
Training employees is an effective way to promote safety-related rules compliance. Tannenbaum,
Beard, McNall, and Salas (2009) report that learning in organizations needs to address four
core areas:
· Intent to learn
· Experience and action
· Feedback
· Reflection
To optimize training effectiveness, employees need to be prepared for the learning experience.
An organization can accomplish this by informing employees about upcoming training oppor-
tunities and requirements. The information about training should include why the organization
is sponsoring it, the goals and objectives, and any potential benefits.
Improving Self-Efficacy
Research shows that even under optimal training circumstances, individual differences related
to an employee's intention to learn plays a role in training effectiveness. Some individuals have low
self-efficacy. This refers to a person's belief that he or she has the capacity to successfully perform
specific behaviors or tasks. Day et al. (2007) describe how Bandura's (1978) social learning theory
can be used to promote behavior modeling to mitigate the effects of low self-efficacy. Behavior
modeling fosters confidence and promotes skill development in those with low self-efficacy.
These researchers examined the effects of a collaborative training protocol for improving
employee self-efficacy. Active interlocked modeling (AIM) requires trainees to practice half of a
training task and then observe a partner performing the remaining half of the task. Results from
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Understanding Rules Noncompliance 13
this study indicate that training with an experienced partner using AIM provides an effective way
to increase self-efficacy.
Effective Types of Training
The type of experience one has during training influences its effectiveness. The three types of
action-based, or experiential, training included in the review are on-the-job (OJT), computer-
based, and simulation. None of these training techniques should be used alone. Rather a balanced
combination of them provides optimal training effectiveness.
On-the-Job Training
The use of OJT is most appropriate when work procedures need to be passed on to employees
and implemented immediately. This can occur during initial job orientation as well as when there
are new procedures that need to be trained long after an individual is hired. The advantages of
OJT include that the organization does not have to hire trainers or conduct training offsite, which
can be costly. However, OJT does take supervisors away from their regular duties and potentially
increases supervisor workload. Mullaney and Trask (1992) also point out that supervisors and
subject-matter experts are not always exceptional trainers. Their proficiency may cause them to
skip certain steps in the process that learners, particularly those with low self-efficacy, need to
understand.
Additionally, OJT must meet the needs of the trainee so that it builds upon his or her existing
skill set. OJT is also a good opportunity to use the commentary drive technique (McKenna,
Horswill, and Alexander 2006). During training, instructors in the vehicle (or cab) observe and
then give feedback after the session concludes. Observing other employees' commentary drive
sessions is also an effective training tool and is easily implemented using video recording of
OJT sessions.
Derouin, Parrish, and Salas (2005) provide several guidelines for optimizing the effectiveness
of OJT including the following:
· Ensure upper management support for OJT.
· Standardize OJT programs.
· Include training staff in the design and development of OJT programs.
· Train the trainer.
· Prepare trainees for OJT.
· Provide descriptive, but not evaluative, feedback during training.
· Encourage practice in a non-evaluative environment, allowing trainees to make errors where
possible.
· Evaluate OJT effectiveness.
Computer-Based Training
Computer-based training (CBT) can also be incorporated into a successful training program.
It can be conducted during work hours, linked to the Internet for remote access, and incorpo-
rated into classroom-led instruction. Fisher et al. (2002) found that PC-based risk awareness
training reduces the likelihood of risk-taking behavior, though this research only examined
young, inexperienced drivers.
Horrey, Lesch, Kramer, and Melton (2009) systematically examined the effectiveness of CBT
of distraction mitigation. Research demonstrates that operators may not be aware of the dis-
tracting effects of in-vehicle tasks on performance (Horrey, Lesch, and Garabet 2008; Lesch
and Hancock 2004). As such, zero-tolerance policies regarding the operation of electronic
