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chapter two
Literature Review
Introduction since 1970, when the census reported that 20.4% of American
workers commuted to work by carpool. The decline is attrib-
This chapter summarizes the relevant findings of literature on uted to a drop in gasoline prices, as well as improved fuel
the integration of ridesharing with transit. The sources in this economy and shifting social trends.
literature review were identified through a search of the TRIS
database, online resources, and references in publications.
Twenty-six documents were reviewed, the majority of which Transit-Operated Vanpool Programs
were published between 1999 and 2011, although some date
to the 1970s. There have been several studies that examine vanpool pro-
grams across the county. The 2002 report Transit-Operated
Vanpools in the United States: Selected Case Studies (Higgins
Ridesharing programs in public transit agencies are not
and Rabinowitz 2002), for example, profiles 25 vanpool pro-
widespread. Perhaps because of this, there is limited research
grams, including those run by transit agencies, public-sector
focusing on the integration of ridesharing and transit. The
organizations, and nonprofit groups. Among the programs
existing research primarily includes case studies of specific
surveyed are six operated by transit agencies in the Seattle area
programs run by transit agencies. Roughly half of the arti-
as well as vanpool services provided by Pace Suburban Bus
cles reviewed herein are about vanpool programs, including
Service in Chicago. The authors find that the most common
those operated by transit agencies, where a key purpose is
objective of the vanpool programs studied is to "extend the
to increase penetration into areas where bus service is not
reach of transit services into areas or service hours not well
realistic. Some research has indicated that using vanpools
served by fixed-route public transit." They also determined that
instead of express buses can reduce operating costs. Other
there are several conditions that lend to successful programs,
studies examine ridesharing incentives or ride-matching ser
including centralized employment centers, long-distance com-
vices provided by transit agencies. There has also been research
mutes, strong retail growth, increasing fuel prices, and priority
on casual carpooling (carpooling without pre-arrangement) on roadways for vanpools.
and dynamic, or real-time, ridesharing in specific cities, but
the focus has not largely been on the nexus between transit An older report, APTA Vanpool Involvement Survey, by
and ridesharing. Pace Market Research, published in 1996, described the state
of vanpool programs within the public transit agency industry
Public Transit Agencies with at that time. Based on survey responses from APTA members,
Ridesharing Programs the report discusses a wide variety of issues, including the
reasons vanpool programs were established, the types of vans
Although government-sponsored ridesharing projects have used, and the sources of funding for operations and capital
been around since the 1970s, ridesharing is not well integrated purchases. The report, for example, concluded that opening
into public transit agencies. "Ridesharing in North America: new markets and fulfilling agency missions were the most
Past, Present, and Future" (Chan and Shaheen 2011) reported important factors for starting vanpool programs. In addition,
that currently there are approximately 384 ride-matching the report illustrates the differences between transit agencies
programs in the United States. When contacted, the authors with vanpool programs and those without. It found that agen-
consulted their database and found as of July 2010, 32 of cies with vanpool programs serve larger areas but smaller
the 384 were operated by U.S. public transit agencies. To be populations than those without.
counted in the 32 agencies, the transit agency showed direct
support to both transit services and carpool/vanpool services Another study, TCRP Report 95: Traveler Response to
on its website. Seven of the 32 offer carpool services, 12 offer Transportation System Changes, Chapter 5--Vanpools and
vanpool services, and 13 offer both carpool and vanpool Buspools (Evans 2005), describes different types of vanpool
services. The paper, quoting unpublished data, also noted programs in the country--employer-sponsored, third-party,
that there are seven times as many U.S. passenger miles and transit-provided vanpool programs--and analyzes traveler
for commute trips by carpool and vanpool as there are for response factors to vanpools and buspools. This 2005 report
public transit. Although ridesharing has increased slightly in also provides case studies of four vanpool programs, three of
recent years to around 10.7% of mode share, it has declined which are operated or supported by transit or transportation
