Below are the first 10 and last 10 pages of uncorrected machine-read text (when available) of this chapter, followed by the top 30 algorithmically extracted key phrases from the chapter as a whole.
Intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text on the opening pages of each chapter.
Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages.
Do not use for reproduction, copying, pasting, or reading; exclusively for search engines.
OCR for page 219
6
Technology Development to
Support Long-Term Management
of Complex Sites
Despite years of characterization and implementation of remedial
technologies, many complex federal and private industrial facilities with
contaminated groundwater will require long-term management actions
that could extend for decades or longer. As discussed in Chapter 2, the
Department of Defense (DoD) manages a substantial number of such sites.
Chapter 4 concluded that the further application of existing remediation
technologies is likely to provide only incremental progress in achieving
restoration at the most complex sites. Thus, for these sites the management
challenges include optimization of active remedies, reducing mass flux/mass
discharge of contaminants from source areas such that natural attenuation
may be effective, or ensuring that any active or passive engineered contain-
ment system will remain effective over the long term. This chapter discusses
technological developments that can aid in addressing these management
challenges—in particular, providing the scientific and technical bases for
transitioning from active remediation to more passive strategies where
applicable.
Optimization of remedial technologies, transitioning to active or pas-
sive containment, and improving long-term management can be achieved
through (1) better understanding of the spatial distribution of contami-
nants, exposure pathways, and processes controlling contaminant mass flux
and attenuation along exposure pathways; (2) improved spatio-temporal
monitoring of groundwater contamination through better application of
conventional monitoring techniques, the use of proxy measurements, and
development of sensor-based monitoring technologies; and (3) application
of emerging diagnostic and modeling tools. In addition to these topics, the
219
OCR for page 220
220 MANAGING THE NATION’S CONTAMINATED GROUNDWATER SITES
chapter explores emerging remediation technologies that have yet to receive
extensive field testing and evaluation, and it reviews the state of federal
funding for relevant research and development and provides recommenda-
tions on research topics relevant to the future management of complex sites
where groundwater restoration is unlikely.
SITE CONCEPTUALIZATION
The decision to transition a site from active remediation to long-term
management requires a thorough understanding of the geologic framework,
history of contamination events, the current location and phase distribu-
tion of contaminants, temporal processes that affect groundwater flow
and chemical migration, and interactions at hydrogeologic and compliance
boundaries. The combined understanding of these factors, referred to here
as site conceptualization, supports the development of specific manage-
ment tools such as the conceptual site model (CSM, see Chapter 4) and
mathematical models. Typically, the site conceptualization and associated
tools are updated as the project progresses from discovery of contamination
through closure or transition to long-term management, with the degree
of detail dependent on the nature of the contamination and the physical
dimensions of the site. The development and enhancement of an accurate
and suitably detailed site conceptualization is an important component of
addressing future management challenges at these sites including the transi-
tion to long-term management.
The current cleanup paradigm distinguishes the source zone from the
downgradient plume, in terms of treating each region differently with re-
spect to characterization and remediation, and it acknowledges the domi-
nant role of geologic heterogeneity in controlling contaminant removal
from both regions. In NRC (2005), hydrogeologic heterogeneity was con-
ceptually captured by identifying five generic geologic environments ranging
from nearly uniformly homogeneous, unconsolidated porous media (Type I)
to fractured rock and carbonate aquifers (Types IV and V). More recently,
a 14-compartment model has been proposed (Figure 4-1; Sale and Newell,
2011; ITRC, 2011), in which contaminants can reside in groundwater,
sorbed, and vapor phases, either within the source zone or the plume,
and which are further subdivided into high- and low-permeability regions.
In the high-permeability regions, advective transport will control con-
taminant migration, while in the low-permeability regions, the dominant
transport mechanism is molecular diffusion. The advantage of such multi-
compartment conceptual models is the ability to focus on the exchange of
contaminant mass between specific compartments that can limit the rate
and extent of remediation, recognizing that the controlling processes can
change over time.
OCR for page 221
TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT 221
The 14-compartment framework highlights characterization challenges
that significantly influence optimization of remedial actions and the tran-
sition to long-term management, including the source/plume distinction,
spatial heterogeneity in hydraulic conductivity, and the potential role of the
vapor pathway when volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are present. A
more comprehensive application of the framework that fully accounts for
the relative magnitudes of contaminant mass in each of the compartments
and the rates of mass transfer between compartments will require further
development to better understand (1) the potential roles of desorption and
of back-diffusion from low-permeability compartments to advective zones,
(2) the variety of aquifer materials and conditions that comprise the “less
transmissive” compartments, (3) the reactive characteristics of the aquifer
that control the potential success of long-term strategies such as monitored
natural attenuation, and (4) the complex factors that control the fate
of volatile contaminants, which can exhibit markedly different behavior
at seemingly similar sites because of variability in subsurface conditions,
building characteristics at the soil interface, and climate conditions. Each
of these issues is further explored below.
Back-Diffusion and Desorption
For many complex sites that have been subject to partial or complete
source removal, the transition to long-term management is largely con-
trolled by volatilization into the vapor phase (if applicable) and trans-
port into the aqueous phase plume, as these two phases are the primary
media for both off-site contaminant migration and the biotic and abiotic
transformation processes associated with natural attenuation. Current con-
ceptualizations of the plume have focused on three potential sources of
contaminant mass influx in the groundwater: (1) discharge from undetected
mass remaining in the upgradient source zone, (2) aqueous back-diffusion
from aquifer materials to the pore water within low-permeability plume
material and subsequent diffusive transport to advective zones, and (3)
mass transfer (desorption) from aquifer sediments within both transmissive
and low-permeability plume materials. For successful transition to long-
term management, the contaminant influx from these three processes must
be balanced by natural attenuation processes or controlled by physical/
hydraulic containment.
The potential loading of dissolved mass from the source zone to the
plume has received considerable attention and is straightforward to as-
sess because the mass discharge occurs at the boundary of, rather than
within, the plume compartment. However, back-diffusion and desorption
of contaminants from materials within the plume are much more difficult
to analyze because they are spatially nonuniform, dependent on the history
OCR for page 222
222 MANAGING THE NATION’S CONTAMINATED GROUNDWATER SITES
of the source and plume migration, and are not easily measurable. In par-
ticular, measured groundwater concentrations provide only limited insight
into the processes responsible for the persistence of dissolved contaminant
plumes because it is difficult to distinguish the relative influence of flow field
heterogeneity, back-diffusion, and desorption.
The potential importance of back-diffusion is supported by conceptual
and modeling analysis (e.g., MacKay and Cherry, 1989; Wilson, 1997;
Parker et al., 2008) and a limited number of field investigations that have
directly sampled aquitard material (Ball et al., 1997; Chapman and Parker,
2005). Sorption processes are typically included in contaminant transport
models and estimates of time to remediate, although the common use of the
retardation factor reflects the optimistic assumptions of a single sorbent and
rapid linear partitioning. A considerable body of research over the past two
decades has demonstrated that, for many aquifer materials, sorption pro-
cesses are in fact spatially heterogeneous, nonlinear, and potentially limited
by solute diffusion to sorbent material located within the interior of soil
particles (e.g., as reviewed by Allen-King et al., 2002). As with back-diffu-
sion, conceptual and modeling analyses have shown that nonlinear and/or
rate-limited desorption can potentially contribute to plume persistence over
decades (e.g., Ball and Roberts, 1991; Rabideau and Miller, 1994; Rivett
et al., 2006). However, at the time of this writing, there is a lack of field
data and characterization techniques to distinguish desorption processes
from other nonideal effects. A modest step toward better understanding
the potential role of sorption processes would be to routinely characterize
the organic content of collected soil samples (Simpkin and Norris, 2010),
a task that could be accomplished at relatively low cost.
Understanding whether back-diffusion and desorption are occurring at
a site is challenging because the relative importance of each process is highly
dependent on the site-specific contamination history and the presence and
distribution of low-permeability and/or strongly sorbing materials. And
yet, current site characterization techniques typically do not fully delineate
the structure of these materials, particularly when they are distributed
over small spatial scales within the plume interior. Furthermore, there are
no proven remedial techniques to preferentially target and accelerate the
removal of contaminants from localized sites that are desorption/diffusion
limited. Finally, currently used mathematical models are difficult to config-
ure to provide realistic predictions of time to remediation when desorption/
diffusion processes are the limiting factor because of the need to assign
initial conditions that properly represent the mass located in immobile com-
partments. Additional research is needed to develop strategies for long-term
management that focus on plume zone processes that contribute to plume
longevity rather than the processes that occur in the source zone.
OCR for page 223
TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT 223
Representing Complex Geologic Environments
The 14-compartment model of Sale and Newell (2011) assigns “low-
permeability” compartments to both the source and plume domains, high-
lighting the potential role of back-diffusion in both domains. Such an
approach is conceptually similar to the classification scheme proposed by
NRC (2005), which included a hierarchy of five geologic environments
ranging from nearly uniformly homogeneous, unconsolidated porous media
(Type I) to fractured rock and carbonate aquifers (Types IV and V). While
both schemes distinguish between contaminants in “mobile” and “im-
mobile” groundwater, the five-region classification recognizes two subtle
but potentially significant differences not captured by the 14-compartment
model. First, the diffusion rate and storage capacity of contaminants in
low-permeability geologic materials can differ substantially among clays,
fractures, and/or intrinsic porosity of indurated rock. Second, in addition
to providing potential sinks for diffusive exchange of contaminants, some
complex domains (highly heterogeneous unconsolidated porous media,
fractured rock, karst) are often characterized by large variations in the
groundwater velocity. Hence efforts to characterize “complexity” under-
stood in terms of spatial variability must consider both groundwater flow
and contaminant transport within and between discrete compartments,
regardless of how such compartments are delineated.
Differences in the diffusion process are relatively straightforward to
account for, but require appropriate specification of the geometry and
diffusion characteristics of the low-permeability material. In some cases,
the necessary information is provided by field characterization, but for
many problems of interest, such as diffusion out of thin clay lenses, the
relevant diffusion path length is difficult to determine. Similarly, account-
ing for variation in advective transport pathways typically requires a very
detailed conceptualization of the groundwater flow field, particularly the
low-permeability features. For example, spatial variations in the hydraulic
conductivity of unconsolidated media can lead to preferential pathways in
aquifers over significant distances, similar to characteristics associated with
fractured rock and karst formations. Such paths of preferential ground-
water flow often control the distribution of contaminant mass in both
source areas and downgradient plumes, and must be properly considered
in the design and implementation of containment and remediation strate-
gies. Chapman et al. (2010) present an example of how information from
detailed site characterization can be incorporated into a remedial design
that yields good performance despite the presence of preferential flow
paths. However, while available modeling tools are increasingly capable of
incorporating detailed descriptions of hydraulic conductivity heterogene-
OCR for page 224
224 MANAGING THE NATION’S CONTAMINATED GROUNDWATER SITES
ity (e.g., see Guilbeault et al., 2005), the requirements for additional site
characterization can represent a considerable burden on site management.
Transformation Capacity
As discussed in Chapter 7, monitored natural attenuation (MNA) is
the dominant process during long-term management at sites not relying
on physical or hydraulic containment. Knowledge of the biogeochemical
environment and the identification of potentially important reactive path-
ways for the target contaminants are necessary prerequisites for initiating
MNA after the transition to long-term management has occurred. Relevant
considerations include bulk aquifer properties such as mineral composition
and pore water chemical constituents, as well as the presence of the neces-
sary microbial consortia. Contaminant transformation during MNA can
occur through microbial pathways, abiotic mechanisms, or in many cases
a combination of both.
Of critical importance to the aquifer “transformation capacity” for
MNA is the spatial pattern of redox zonation. Redox zonation occurs as
a result of microbial metabolism where in a homogeneous system terminal
electron acceptors with the most favorable free energies are preferably used
before the next one can be utilized (termed the “redox ladder” by Borch
et al., 2010). Complex sites, however, may have areas of overlapping or
patchy redox zonation whereby microbial communities that utilize differ-
ent terminal electron acceptors can co-exist. Determining whether the site
is fully oxic, has extensive zones of anoxia, or is comprised of these patchy
suboxic/anoxic regions in conjunction with the target contaminant compo-
sition is critical to determining the appropriateness of MNA (Rugge et al.,
1998; Hofstetter et al., 1999).
Another important parameter in contaminant transformation is the
presence of reactive minerals associated with aquifer solids, such that
characterizing these chemical factors can yield clues about the potential ef-
fectiveness of MNA. A variety of naturally occurring iron and manganese
oxides, iron sulfide minerals, and clays with iron moieties have been shown
to be highly reactive and can act as respective reductants and oxidants in
abiotic attenuation pathways (Kappler and Straub, 2005; Hofstetter et
al., 2003; Neumann et al., 2009; He et al., 2009). Microorganisms play
an important role in the controlling both the type and stability of these
minerals since many organisms are capable of utilizing mineral oxides as
terminal electron acceptors (Lovley, 1993; Tebo et al., 2004). Under some
circumstances the microbial population can convert iron oxides to reactive
media useful for MNA by producing Fe(II), which can either be chelated by
natural ligands, be adsorbed to the remaining iron oxides to create highly
potent reductants, or react with sulfides (if sulfate is in abundance as a ter-
OCR for page 225
TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT 225
minal electron acceptor) to produce potentially reactive iron sulfide miner-
als (Hakala et al., 2007; Hakala and Chin, 2010). In other cases, however,
reduction of manganese oxides (which can mediate oxidation reactions)
may result in a decrease in potential MNA. In aquifer pore waters, reactive
species such as natural organic matter and reduced sulfur species (bisulfide,
polysulfides, and organic thiols) play an important role in MNA by act-
ing as reductants and electron mediators (Kappler and Haderlein, 2003;
Hakala and Chin, 2010). Natural organic matter significantly increases the
reactivity of reduced sulfur species by acting as an electron mediator, and
is an important reductant in sulfur-rich aquifers (Dunnivant et al., 1992).
An example of a well-characterized site with high transformation
capacity amenable to MNA is Altus Air Force Base, which has abun-
dant levels of both sulfate and Fe(III) (Kennedy et al., 2006). Microbial
metabolic activity at this site produced potent reactive reductants such as
reduced sulfur compounds, Fe(II), and iron sulfide minerals, which were
capable of abiotically transforming TCE and its derivatives. These inves-
tigators reported the absence of sulfate in the area of the TCE plume and
the existence of abundant iron sulfide minerals. Further they found no TCE
in the area where iron sulfides are abundant and only trace levels of by-
products, suggesting that MNA was occurring.
While much is known about the biological/abiotic conditions neces-
sary to effect contaminant transformation during MNA, there is not yet
a complete protocol to determine the extent to which such conditions are
present at a site and whether contaminants are being degraded. The tools
discussed later in this chapter represent important initial steps toward the
development of such a protocol.
Vapor Intrusion Issues
As described in Chapter 5, the vapor intrusion pathway is increasingly
considered at complex sites with DNAPL contamination. This pathway can
be conceptualized as three distinct zones (Figure 6-1): (1) the source zone
where contaminant is immobilized, (2) the subsurface migration pathway,
and (3) the influence zone of the building. The management of vapor in-
trusion requires expanded site characterization, an interpretation of the
several types of vapor concentration measurements in the context of site-
specific conditions, and, if necessary, development of appropriate mitigation
strategies if source removal measures are insufficient to reduce exposure to
acceptable levels.
Characterization of the vapor pathway is challenged by the fact that
each component is subject to considerable spatial and temporal variability.
Fluctuating water table conditions controlled by recharge, pumping, and
stream–aquifer interactions can result in transient vapor flux generation at
OCR for page 226
226 MANAGING THE NATION’S CONTAMINATED GROUNDWATER SITES
FIGURE 6-1 Vapor intrusion pathways.
the sources. The migration pathway from source to building is significantly
affected by changes in soil moisture, temperature, wind, and ambient pres-
sure, and in some cases, biogeochemical transformation processes. Vertical
migration is also influenced by changes in building ventilation and heating,
ventilation, and air conditioning systems operation. Finally, attempts to
characterize the pathway via indoor air sampling can be confounded by
indoor sources of contamination.
Among the available guidance for assessing vapor intrusion (e.g.,
Johnson et al., 1999; Hay-Wilson et al., 2005; McAlary et al., 2005;
NYSDOH, 2006; ITRC, 2007), federal guidance is evolving toward an ap-
proach based on multiple lines of evidence that involves sampling of indoor
air, subslab soil gas, deeper soil gas, groundwater, and soil—in combination
with screening-level modeling and empirical assessment (e.g., EPA, 2002,
2011a,b, 2012a,b,c). This reflects experiences with conflicting lines of evi-
dence at some sites, recognition that there will likely be spatial variability
in pathway sampling results, low confidence in our ability to correctly in-
terpret the data, and a limited peer-reviewed knowledge base to rely upon.
This also suggests that assessment paradigms that rely on too few samples
(in space and time) are limited.
Vapor intrusion from groundwater plumes with chlorinated solvents
is especially challenging to characterize, partly because such plumes can
vary widely in size. Where large plumes encompass an entire neighbor-
hood, assessment of all potentially affected buildings may be impracticable.
Furthermore, it is not always the case that the greatest indoor air impacts
are found in buildings overlying the highest groundwater concentrations.
Groundwater-related vapor intrusion has been documented in some build-
ings overlying dissolved chlorinated solvent groundwater concentrations as
OCR for page 227
TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT 227
low as 10 µg/L, and no impacts have been observed in other buildings over-
lying groundwater concentrations as great as 10–100 mg/L (EPA, 2012b).
A number of commercial products can serve as indoor sources of
chlorinated solvent vapors, so that interpreting indoor air quality and sub-
slab soil gas data is not always straightforward (Gorder and Dettemmaier,
2011). As a case in point, approximately 3,000 residences overlie chlori-
nated solvent groundwater plumes originating from Hill Air Force Base,
although monitoring has indicated that a very small percentage of the resi-
dences have indoor air impacts attributable to groundwater contamination.
Detailed study beyond typical pathway assessment monitoring identified
numerous indoor air sources of contaminants, including household cleaning
products, craft supplies, gun cleaners, and holiday ornaments—leading to
a list of 72 household products known to contain TCE and almost another
2,000 products known or suspected of containing chlorinated solvents.
A solid technical basis is lacking for determining which scenarios re-
quire indoor sampling and what sampling frequency and duration are
appropriate, both over the short term (i.e., daily) and long term (i.e., sea-
sonal). Studies suggest that vapor intrusion emissions into buildings can
fluctuate on time scales ranging from days to weeks (Luo, 2009; Luo et al.,
2010; Johnson et al., 2012). Research by McHugh et al. (2010) suggests
that changes in indoor air concentrations may be different for chemicals
emanating from groundwater than those emanating from indoor chemi-
cal sources, such that temporal data might be used to distinguish between
indoor air impacts from these two sources. However, even with detailed
indoor air monitoring data, the issue of temporal variability is further
complicated by the dynamics of volatilization from the groundwater plume,
which is affected by groundwater table elevation, moisture infiltration rates,
moisture profiles, and other climate factors (Sakaki et al., 2013). In general,
the temporal changes in the vapor emission rates from groundwater have
yet to be studied in great detail and further study is needed to more intel-
ligently design sampling plans.
Because the costs and complexity of vapor intrusion assessment have
been increasing without a commensurate increase in the mechanistic under-
standing of the exposure pathway, the resulting response actions reflect a
conservative management approach.
MONITORING
Monitoring of groundwater is conducted over the entire life cycle of a
complex site and can represent a significant percentage of life-cycle costs
if residual contamination remains after active remediation has been com-
pleted, especially when monitoring extends over multiple decades. Tradi-
tionally, the monitoring of temporal changes in groundwater contamination
OCR for page 228
228 MANAGING THE NATION’S CONTAMINATED GROUNDWATER SITES
relied on conventional well sampling, which is labor intensive and requires
costly laboratory analyses. Given that tens to hundreds of monitoring
wells are present at most sites, and standard quarterly sampling is often
required, estimates of monitoring can exceed $100 million per year at DoD
facilities alone, which represents a significant percentage of the financial
resources dedicated to remediation efforts. Furthermore, the traditional
two-dimensional resolution of monitoring well networks (which produce
vertically averaged concentration values) may be insufficient to support
an accurate site conceptualization, particularly for highly heterogeneous
formations.
Continued development of conventional monitoring techniques has
led to more detailed characterization of the distribution of dissolved con-
taminants, particular in the vertical dimension. However, to support a cost-
effective transition to long-term management, additional tools are needed.
This section addresses ongoing developments in (1) optimization of con-
ventional monitoring systems, (2) techniques for measuring contaminant
flux, (3) sensor technology, and (4) new tools that can be applied to better
understand whether MNA is working.
Improved Application of Conventional Monitoring Tools
The deployment of conventional site characterization tools has evolved
in a manner that has emphasized greater spatial resolution in regions
where contamination is significant. In particular, multi-level monitoring
and nested well systems now enable the collection of hydraulic head data
and groundwater samples over relatively short vertical intervals (ITRC,
2004; Einarson, 2006; Einarson et al., 2010; Kavanaugh and Deeb, 2011).
Although more costly than conventional 2-D monitoring, multi-level moni-
toring systems can lead to more streamlined and accurate remedial investi-
gations and long-term management.
Formal simulation/optimization techniques have been developed to
improve the design of monitoring programs—a process sometimes termed
long-term monitoring optimization (LTMO). These applications are in a
relatively early stage of development and a variety of approaches are avail-
able to formulate and solve the optimization problem. For example, one
approach might be to analyze the value of information provided by an
existing monitoring network to identify monitoring wells that are spatially
redundant and could be removed (e.g., Reed et al., 2000, 2001; Babbar-
Sebens and Minsker, 2008). Most work to date has focused on monitoring
frequency and spatial resolution of well networks, with less attention given
to issues such as the number and selection of analytes, sampling analytical
techniques, and data processing. In a pilot study comparing two software-
driven LTMO systems, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
OCR for page 229
TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT 229
suggested that annual savings of a few hundred to tens of thousands of
dollars might be achievable, particular for sites where more than 50 samples
are collected and analyzed annually (EPA, 2004). EPA subsequently issued
a “road map” to assist managers with developing a site-specific LTMO
program (EPA and USACE, 2005), including user-friendly software tools.
Although the underlying concepts are fairly well established, additional
documentation of successful case studies would clarify the range of poten-
tially achievable cost savings.
Monitoring of Source Zone Contamination
The successful design of a source zone remediation program depends
on sufficiently detailed knowledge of the spatial pattern of immobile source
materials. A number of recent reviews have evaluated the variety of tools
available to quantify the magnitude and spatial distribution of DNAPL
(e.g., NRC, 2005; Mercer et al., 2010). These tools range from low-cost
methods to infer the presence of DNAPL (as reviewed by Kram et al., 2001)
to more extensive methods designed to delineate the spatial distribution
of NAPL saturation to guide source zone remediation (e.g., Saenton and
Illangasekare, 2004; Moreno-Barbero and Illangasekare, 2005, 2006). For
the latter purpose, the partitioning interwell tracer test (PITT) has proven
to be relatively effective (e.g., Annable et al., 1998; Brooks et al., 2002),
although its deployment is hindered by high cost and need for relatively
sophisticated interpretive tools.
As it is unlikely that complete removal of contaminant source mate-
rial will be feasible for many complex sites, the transition to long-term
management will depend not only on the amount of source mass removed,
but on the rate at which mass is transferred between the source and plume
compartments during the post-remediation period. One of the most prom-
ising recent developments in source zone management is the development
of tools for measuring contaminant mass flux, either at localized monitor-
ing points or as an integrated mass discharge across a control plane. Such
knowledge of contaminant discharge is particularly useful in evaluating the
potential for downgradient natural attenuation processes.
Conceptually, contaminant discharge is a calculated parameter that
reflects both temporal and spatial averaging of the product of groundwa-
ter discharge (length per area per time) and contaminant concentration
(mass per volume). Field methods include synoptic sampling (e.g., Einarson,
2006), passive flux meters (Annable et al., 2005; Basu et al., 2006), steady-
state pumping (e.g., Buschek, 2002), recirculation flux measurements (Goltz
et al., 2007), integral pumping tests (Bockelmann et al., 2001; Bauer et
al., 2004), and modified integral pumping tests (Brooks et al., 2008). The
use of flux measurements as an alternative to concentration-based metrics
OCR for page 250
250 MANAGING THE NATION’S CONTAMINATED GROUNDWATER SITES
Borch, T., R. Kretzschmar, A. Kappler, P. Van Cappellen, M. Ginder-Vogel, A. Voegelin, and
K. Campbell. 2010. Biogeochemical redox processes and their impact on contaminant
dynamics. Environmental Science & Technology 44 (1):15-23.
Bozzini, C., T. Simpkin, T. Sale, D. Hood, and B. Lowder. 2006. DNAPL remediation at Camp
Lejeune using ZVI-clay soil mixing. Proceedings of the International Conference on
Remediation of Chlorinated and Recalcitrant Compounds, Monterey, CA, May 22-25.
Brooks, M. C., M. D. Annable, P. S. C. Rao, K. Hatfield, J. W. Jawitz, W. R. Wise, A. L. Wood,
and C. G. Enfield. 2002. Controlled release, blind tests of DNAPL characterization using
partitioning tracers. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology 59:187–210.
Brooks, M. C., A. L. Wood, M. D. Annable, K. Hatfield, J. Cho, C. Holbert, P. S. C. Rao, C. G.
Enfield, K. Lynch, and R. E. Smith. 2008. Changes in contaminant mass discharge from
DNAPL source mass depletion: Evaluation at two field sites. Journal of Contaminant
Hydrology 102(1):140-153.
Brusseau, M. L., and P. S. C. Rao. 1989. Sorption nonideality during organic contaminant
transport in porous media. CRC Critical Reviews in Environmental Control 19(1):33-99.
Burgmann, H., J. Kleikemper, L. Duc, M. Bunge, M. H. Schroth, and J. Zeyer. 2008. Detection
and quantification of dehalococcoides-related bacteria in a chlorinated ethene-contam-
inated aquifer undergoing natural attenuation. Bioremediation Journal 12(4):193-209.
Buscheck, T. 2002. Mass Flux Estimates to Assist Decision-Making: Technical Bulletin. Ver-
sion 1.0. ChevronTexaco Energy Research and Technology Company, June 2002.
Cao, J., D. Elliott, and W.-X. Zhang. 2005. Perchlorate reduction by nanoscale iron particles.
Journal of Nanoparticle Research 7(4-5):499-506.
Carey, G. R., P. J. Van Geel, and J. R. Murphy. 1999. BIOREDOX-MT3DMS V2.0: A Coupled
Biodegradation-Redox Model for Simulating Natural and Enhanced Bioremediation of
Organic Pollutants – User’s Guide. Waterloo, Ontario: Conestoga-Rovers & Associates.
Carreon-Diazconti, C., J. Santamaria, J. Berkompas, J. A. Field, and M. L. Brusseau. 2009.
Assessment of in situ reductive dechlorination using compound-specific stable isotopes,
functional gene PCR, and geochemical data. Environmental Science & Technology
43(12):4301-4307.
Chapman, S. W., and B. L. Parker. 2005. Plume persistence due to aquitard back diffusion
following dense nonaqueous phase liquid source removal or isolation. Water Resources
Research 41. doi:10.1029/2005WR004224.
Chapman, S. W., B. Parker, J. Cherry, J. Langenbach, and S. Thotapalli. 2010. Performance
of an Innovative Hydraulic Capture System for DNAPL Source Cutoff. 2010 Battelle
Conference, Remediation of Chlorinated and Recalcitrant Compounds. May 25, 2010.
Cheng, R., J. L. Wang, and W.-X. Zhang. 2007. Comparison of reductive dechlorination
of p-chlorophenol using Fe0 and nanosized Fe0. Journal of Hazardous Materials
144(1-2):334-339.
Chuang, A. S., Y. O. Jin, L. S. Schmidt, Y. Li, S. Fogel, D. Smoler, and T. E. Mattes. 2010.
Proteomic analysis of ethene-enriched groundwater microcosms from a vinyl chloride-
contaminated site. Environmental Science & Technology 44(5):1594-1601.
Clement, T. P. 1997. RT3D - A modular computer code for simulating reactive multi-species
transport in 3-dimensional groundwater aquifers. Battelle Pacific Northwest National
Laboratory Research Report, PNNL-SA-28967. http://bioprocess.pnl.gov/rt3d.htm.
Culler, D., D. Estrin, and M. Sirivastava. 2004. Overview of sensor networks. IEEE Computer
Society 37(8):41-49.
Da Silva, M. L. B., R. L. Johnson, and P. J. J. Alvarez. 2007. Microbial characterization of
groundwater undergoing treatment with a permeable reactive iron barrier. Environmental
Engineering Science 24(8):1122-1127.
Davey, N. G., E. T. Krogh and C. G. Gill. 2011. Membrane-introduction mass spectrometry
(MIMS). TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry 30(9):1477-1485.
OCR for page 251
TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT 251
DOE (Department of Energy). 2009. Draft Tank Closure and Waste Management Environ-
mental Impact Statement for the Hanford Site, Richland, Washington. DOE/EIS-0391.
Richland, WA: Department of Energy.
Dunnivant, F. M., R. P. Schwarzenbach, and D. L. Macalady. 1992. Reduction of substituted
nitrobenzenes in aqueous solutions containing natural organic matter. Environmental
Science & Technology 26(11):2133-2141.
Einarson, M. 2006. Multilevel ground-water monitoring. Pp. 808-845 In D.M. Nielsen (Ed.),
Practical Handbook of Environmental Site Characterization and Ground-Water Monitor-
ing (2nd ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Einarson, M. D., D. M. Mackay, and P. J. Bennett. 2010. Sampling transects for affordable,
high-resolution plume characterization and monitoring. Ground Water 48(6):799-808.
Eixarch, H., and M. Constanti. 2010. Biodegradation of MTBE by Achromobacter xylosoxi-
dans MCM1/1 induces synthesis of proteins that may be related to cell survival. Process
Biochemistry 45(5):794-798.
Elias, D. A., F. Yang, H. M. Mottaz, A. S. Beliaev, and M. S. Lipton. 2007. Enrichment of
functional redox reactive proteins and identification of mass spectrometry results in sev-
eral terminal Fe(III)-reducing candidate proteins in Shewanella oneidensis MR-1. Journal
of Microbiological Methods 68(2):367-375.
Elliott, D. W., H.-L. Lien, and W.-X. Zhang. 2008. Zerovalent iron nanoparticles for treatment
of ground water contaminated by hexachlorocyclohexanes. Journal of Environmental
Quality 37(6):2192-2201.
Elsner, M., L. Zwank, D. Hunkeler, and R. P. Schwarzenbach. 2005. A new concept linking
observable stable isotope fractionation to transformation pathways of organic pollutants.
Environmental Science & Technology 39:6896-6916.
Elsner, M., M. Chartrand, N. VanStone, G. Lacrampe Couloume, and B. Sherwood Lollar.
2008. Identifying abiotic chlorinated ethene degradation: Characteristic isotope patterns
in reaction products with nanoscale zero-valent iron. Environmental Science & Technol-
ogy 42(16):5963-5970.
Elsner, M., G. Lacrampe-Couloume, S. Mancini, L. Burns, and B. Sherwood Lollar. 2010.
Carbon isotope analysis to evaluate nanonscale Fe(0) treatment at a chlorohydrocarbon
contaminated site. Groundwater Monitoring & Remediation 30(3):79-95.
EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 1999a. Hydraulic optimization demonstration
for groundwater pump and treat systems, volume I: Pre-optimization screening (method
and demonstration). EPA/542/R 99/011A. Washington, DC: Office of Research and
Development and Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response.
EPA. 1999b. Hydraulic optimization demonstration for groundwater pump and treat systems,
volume II: Application of hydraulic optimization. EPA/542/R-99/011B. Washington, DC:
Office of Research and Development and Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response.
EPA. 2002. Draft Guidance for Evaluating the Vapor Intrusion to Indoor Air Pathway from
Groundwater and Soils (Subsurface Vapor Intrusion Guidance). Washington, DC: EPA
OSWER. http://www.epa.gov/correctiveaction/eis/vapor/guidance.pdf.
EPA. 2003. A review of emerging sensor technologies for facilitating long-term ground water
monitoring of volatile organic compounds. EPA/542/R-03/007. Washington, DC: EPA
Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response.
EPA. 2004. Demonstration of two long-term groundwater monitoring approaches. EPA/542/
R-04/001A. Washington, DC: EPA Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response.
EPA. 2005. O&M Report Template for Ground Water Remedies (with Emphasis on Pump
and Treat Systems). EPA 542-R-05-010. Washington, DC: EPA Office of Solid Waste and
Emergency Response.
EPA. 2009. Impacts of DNAPL Source Treatment: Experimental and Modeling Assessment
of the Benefits of Partial DNAPL Source Removal. 600-09-R-096. Ada, OK: EPA ORD.
OCR for page 252
252 MANAGING THE NATION’S CONTAMINATED GROUNDWATER SITES
EPA. 2011a. Background Indoor Air Concentrations of Volatile Organic Compounds in
North American Residences (1990–2005): A Compilation of Statistics for Assessing
Vapor Intrusion. EPA 530-R-10-001. Washington, DC: EPA Office of Solid Waste and
Emergency Response.
EPA. 2011b. Petroleum Hydrocarbons and Chlorinated Hydrocarbons Differ in Their Poten-
tial for Vapor Intrusion. Washington, DC: EPA Office of Underground Storage Tanks.
EPA. 2012a. Conceptual Model Scenarios for the Vapor Intrusion Pathway. EPA 530-R-10-
003. Washington, DC: EPA Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response.
EPA. 2012b. EPA’s Vapor Intrusion Database: Evaluation and Characterization of Attenuation
Factors for Chlorinated Volatile Organic Compounds and Residential Buildings. EPA
530-R-10-003. EPA 530-R-10-002. Washington, DC: EPA Office of Solid Waste and
Emergency Response.
EPA. 2012c. Superfund Vapor Intrusion FAQs. Washington, DC: EPA Office of Solid Waste
and Emergency Response.
EPA and USACE (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers). 2005. Road map to long-term monitor-
ing optimization. EPA/542/R-05/003. Washington, DC: EPA Office of Research and
Development.
Fagerlund, F., T. H. Illangasekare, and A. Niemi. 2007a. Nonaqueous-Phase Liquid Infiltra-
tion and Immobilization in Heterogeneous Media: 1. Experimental Methods and Two-
Layered Reference. Vadose Zone Journal 6:471-482.
Fagerlund, F, T. H. Illangasekare, and A. Niemi. 2007b. Nonaqueous-phase liquid infiltration
and immobilization in heterogeneous media: 2. Application to stochastically heteroge-
neous formations. Vadose Zone Journal 6:483-495.
Fagerlund, F., T. H. Illangaserkare, T. Phenrat, H.-J. Kim, and G. V. Lowry. 2012. PCE dis-
solution and simultaneous dechlorination by nanoscale zero-valent iron particles in a
DNAPL source zone. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology 131:9-28.
Fisher, A., K. Theuerkorn, N. Stelzer, M. Gehre, M. Thullner, and H. H. Richnow. 2007.
Applicability of stable isotope fractionation analysis for the characterization of benzene
biodegradation in a BTEX-contaminated aquifer. Environmental Science & Technology
41(10):3689-3969.
Fuller, M. E., and R. J. Stefan. 2008. ER-1378 groundwater chemistry and microbial ecol-
ogy effects on explosives biodegradation. Final report for the Strategic Environmental
Research and Development Program.
Gao, J., L. B. M. Ellis, and L. P. Wackett. 2010. The University of Minnesota biocatalysis/bio-
degradation database: Improving public access. Nucleic Acids Research 38:D488-D491.
Glover, K., J. Munakata-Marr, and T. H. Illangasekare. 2007. Biologically-enhanced mass
transfer of tetrachloroethene from DNAPL in source zones: Experimental evaluation and
influence of pool morphology. Environmental Science & Technology 41(4):1384-1389.
Goltz, M. N., Kim, S., Yoon, H., and Park J. 2007. Review of groundwater contaminant mass
flux measurement. Environmental Engineering Research 12(4):176-193.
Gopalakrishnan, G., B. S. Minsker, and D. E. Goldberg. 2003. Optimal sampling in a noisy ge-
netic algorithm for risk-based remediation design. Journal of Hydroinformatics 5:11-25.
Gorder, K. A., and E. M. Dettemaier. 2011. Portable GC/MS methods to evaluate sources
of cVOC contamination in indoor air. Ground Water Monitoring & Remediation
31(4):113-119.
Guan, J., and M. M. Aral. 2004. Optimal design of groundwater remediation systems using
fuzzy set theory. Water Resources Research 40(1):W01518.
Guilbeault, M. A., B. L. Parker, and J. A. Cherry. 2005. Mass and flux distributions from
DNAPL zones in sandy aquifers. Ground Water 43(1):70-86.
OCR for page 253
TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT 253
Haenggi, M. 2005. Opportunities and challenges in Wireless Sensor Networks. In: Handbook
of Sensor Networks: Compact Wireless and Wired Sensing Systems. M. Ilyas and I.
Mahgoub (eds.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Hakala, J. A., and Y.-P. Chin. 2010. Abiotic reduction of pendimethalin and trifluralin in
controlled and natural systems containing Fe(II) and dissolved organic matter. Journal
of Agriculture and Food Chemistry 58(24):12840-12846.
Hakala J. A., Y.-P. Chin, and E. J. Weber. 2007. Influence of dissolved organic matter and
Fe(II) on the abiotic reduction of pentachloronitrobenzene. Environmental Science &
Technology 41:7337-7342.
Hay-Wilson, L., P. C. Johnson, and J. Rocco. 2005. Collecting and interpreting soil gas
samples from the vadose zone: A practical strategy for assessing the subsurface-vapor-
to-indoor-air migration pathway at petroleum hydrocarbon sites. American Petroleum
Institute. Publication Number 4741.
He, Y. T., C. Su, J. T. Wilson, R. T. Wilkin, C. Adair, T. Lee, P. Bradley, and M. Ferrey. 2009.
Identification and characterization methods for reactive minerals responsible for natural
attenuation of chlorinated organic compounds in ground water. EPA 600/R-09/115. Ada,
OK: EPA Office of Research and Development.
Heiderscheidt, J. L. 2005. DNAPL Source Zone Depletion During In Situ Chemical Oxidation
(ISCO): Experimental and Modeling Studies. PhD Dissertation, Environmental Science
and Engineering Division, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO.
Heiderscheidt, J., R. L. Siegrist, and T. H. Illangasekare. 2008. Intermediate-scale 2D ex-
perimental investigation of in situ chemical oxidation using potassium permanganate
for remediation of complex DNAPL source zones. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology
102(1-2):3-16.
Hendrickson, E. R., J. Payne, R. M. Young, M. G. Starr, M. P. Perry, S. Fahnestock, D. E.
Ellis, R. C. Ebersole. 2002. Molecular analysis of dehalococcoides 16S ribosomal DNA
from chloroethene-contaminated sites throughout North America and Europe. Applied
and Environmental Microbiology 68(2):485-495.
Hendrickx, B., W. Dejonghe, F. Faber, W. Boenne, L. Bastiaens, W. Verstraete, E. M. Top, and
D. Springael. 2006. PCR-DGGE method to assess the diversity of BTEX mono-oxygenase
genes at contaminated sites. FEMS Microbiology Ecology 55(2):262-273.
Hoch, L. B., E. J. Mack, B. W. Hydutsky, J. M. Hershman, J. M. Skluzacek, and T. E. Mallouk.
2008. Carbothermal synthesis of carbon-supported nanoscale zero-valent iron particles
for the remediation of hexavalent chromium. Environmental Science & Technology
42(7):2600-2605.
Hofstetter, T. B., C. G. Heijman, S. B. Haderlein, C. R. Holliger, and R. P. Schwarzenbach.
1999. Complete reduction of TNT and other (poly)nitroaromatic compounds under iron-
reducing subsurface conditions. Environmental Science & Technology 33:1479-1487.
Hofstetter, T. B., R. P. Schwarzenbach, and S. B. Haderlein. 2003. Reactivity of Fe(II) species
associated with clay minerals. Environmental Science & Technology 37:519-528.
Hong, Y., R. J. Honda, N. V. Myung, and S. L. Walker. 2009. Transport of iron-based
nanoparticles: Role of magnetic properties. Environmental Science & Technology
43(23):8834-8839.
Hunkeler, D., R. U. Meckenstock, B. Sherwood Lollar, T. C. Schmidt, and J. T. Wilson. 2008.
A Guide for Assessing Biodegradation and Source Identification of Organic Ground Wa-
ter Contaminants using Compound Specific Isotope Analysis. EPA report 600/R-08/148.
Illangasekare, T. H., J. L. Ramsey, K. H. Jensen, and M. Butts. 1995. Experimental study of
movement and distribution of dense organic contaminants in heterogeneous aquifers.
Journal of Contaminant Hydrology 20:1-25.
OCR for page 254
254 MANAGING THE NATION’S CONTAMINATED GROUNDWATER SITES
Illangasekare, T. H., J. Munakata Marr, R. L. Siegrist, K. Soga, K. C. Glover, E. Moreno-
Barbero, J. L. Heiderscheidt, S. Saenton, M. Matthew, A. R. Kaplan, Y. Kim, D. Dai,
J. L. Gago, and J. W. E. Page. 2007. Mass Transfer from Entrapped DNAPL Sources
Undergoing Remediation: Characterization Methods and Prediction Tools, SERDP Proj-
ect CU-1294.
Imfeld, G., C. Estop Aragones, S. Zeiger, C. V. von Eckstadt, H. Paschke, R. Trabitzsch, H.
Weiss, and H. H. Richnow. 2008. Tracking in situ biodegradation of 1,2-dichloroethenes
in a model wetland. Environmental Science & Technology 42(21):7924-7930.
ITRC (Interstate Technology & Regulatory Council). 2004. Strategies for Monitoring the
Performance of DNAPL Source Zone Remedies. http://www.itrcweb.org/Documents/
DNAPLs-5.pdf.
ITRC. 2007. Vapor Intrusion Pathway: A Practical Guideline. Washington, DC: Interstate
Technology Regulatory Council. http://www.itrcweb.org/gd_VI.asp.
ITRC. 2010. Use and Measurement of Mass Flux and Mass Discharge. MASSFLUX-1. Wash-
ington, DC: ITRC Integrated DNAPL Site Strategy Team.
ITRC. 2011. Technical and Regulatory Guidance: Integrated Strategies for Chlorinated Solvent
Sites; Interstate Technology & Regulatory Council: Washington, DC.
Jennings, L. K., M. M. G. Chartrand, G. Lacrampe-Couloume, B. Sherwood Lollar, J. C.
Spain, and J. M. Gossett. 2009. Proteomic and transcriptomic analyses reveal genes
upregulated by cis-dichloroethene in Polaromonas sp. strain JS666. Applied and Envi-
ronmental Microbiology 75(11):3733-3744.
Johnson, P. C., M. W. Kemblowski, and R. L. Johnson. 1999. Assessing the significance of
subsurface contaminant vapor migration to enclosed spaces: Site-specific alternatives to
generic estimates. Journal of Soil Contamination 8(3):389-421.
Johnson, P. C., H. Luo, C. Holton, P. Dahlen, and Y. Guo. 2012. Vapor intrusion above a di-
lute CHC plume: Lessons-learned from two years of monitoring. EPA-AEHS Workshop,
Recent Advances to VI Application & Implementation, 20 March 2012, San Diego.
https://iavi.rti.org/WorkshopsAndConferences.cfm.
Kampara, M., M. Thullner, H. H. Richnow, H. Harms, and L. Y. Wick. 2008. Impact of
bioavailability restrictions on microbially induced stable isotope fractionation. 2. Experi-
mental evidence. Environmental Science & Technology 42(17):6552-6558.
Kao, C. M., H. Y. Chien, R. Y. Surampalli, C. C. Chien, and C. Y. Chen. 2010. Assessing of
natural attenuation and intrinsic bioremediation rates at a petroleum-hydrocarbon spill
site: Laboratory and field studies. Journal of Environmental Engineering 136(1):54-67.
Kappler, A., and S. B. Haderlein. 2003. Natural organic matter as reductant for chlorinated
aliphatic pollutants. Environmental Science & Technology 37:2707-2713.
Kappler A., and K. L. Straub. 2005. Geomicrobiological cycling of iron. Reviews in Mineral-
ogy and Geochemistry 59:85-108.
Kavanaugh, M., and R. Deeb. 2011. Diagnostic Tools for Performance Evaluation of In-
novative In-Situ Remediation Technologies at Chlorinated Solvent-Contaminated Sites.
ER-200318. Washington, DC: ESTCP.
Kennedy, L. G., J. W. Everett, and J. Gonzales. 2006. Assessment of biogeochemical natural at-
tenuation and treatment of chlorinated solvents, Altus Air Force Base, Altus, Oklahoma.
Journal of Contaminant Hydrology 83(3-4):221-236.
Kram, L. K., Keller, A. L, Rossabi, J., and Everett, L. G. 2001. DNAPL characterization
methods and approaches, Part 1: Performance comparisons. Ground Water Monitoring
and Remediation 21(4):109-123.
Lee, P. K. H., T. W. Macbeth, K. S. Sorenson Jr, R. A. Deeb, and L. Alvarez-Cohen. 2008.
Quantifying genes and transcripts to assess the in situ physiology of Dehalococcoides
spp. in a trichloroethene-contaminated groundwater site. Applied and Environmental
Microbiology 74(9):2728-2739.
OCR for page 255
TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT 255
Li, X., and W.-X. Zhang. 2007. Sequestration of metal cations with zerovalent iron
nanoparticles—A study with high resolution x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (HR-
XPS). Journal of Physical Chemistry C 111(19):6939-6946.
Liang, H., R. Falta, C. Newell, S. Farhat, S. Rao, and N. Basu. 2011. Decision and Manage-
ment Tools for DNAPL Sites: Optimization of Chlorinated Solvent Source and Plume
Remediation Considering Uncertainty. ESTCP Project ER-200704.
Lieberman, S. 2007. Direct Push Chemical Sensors for DNAPL. ER-0109. Washington, DC:
ESTCP.
Lien, H. L., and W.-X. Zhang. 1999. Transformation of chlorinated methanes by nanoscale
iron particles. Journal of Environmental Engineering 125(11):1042-1047.
Lien, H. L., and W.-X. Zhang. 2005. Hydrodechlorination of chlorinated ethanes by nanoscale
Pd/Fe bimetallic particles. Journal of Environmental Engineering 131(1):4-10.
Liu, Y., and G. V. Lowry. 2006. Effect of particle age (Fe0 Content) and solution pH on NZVI
reactivity: H2 evolution and TCE dechlorination. Environmental Science & Technology
40(19):6085-6090.
Liu, Y., S. A. Majetich, R. D. Tilton, D. S. Sholl, and G. V. Lowry. 2005. TCE dechlorina-
tion rates, pathways, and efficiency of nanoscale iron particles with different properties.
Environmental Science & Technology 39(5):1338-1345.
Lovley, D. R., E. E. Roden, E. J. P. Phillips, and J. C. Woodward. 1993. Enzymatic iron and
uranium reduction by sulfate-reducing bacteria. Marine Geology 113(1-2):41-53.
Lu, X., J. T. Wilson, and D. H. Kampbell. 2006. Relationship between dehalococcoides DNA
in ground water and rates of reductive dechlorination at field scale. Water Research
40(16):3131-3140.
Luo, H., P. Dahlen, P. C. Johnson, T. Peargin, and T. Creamer. 2009. Spatial variability of
soil-gas concentrations near and beneath a building overlying shallow petroleum hydro-
carbon–impacted soils. Ground Water Monitoring & Remediation 29(1):81-91.
Luo, H., P. Dahlen, and P. C. Johnson. 2010. Hydrocarbon and oxygen transport in the vicin-
ity of a building overlying a NAPL source zone. Air and Waste Management Association:
Vapor Intrusion 2010:155-185.
Luster-Teasley, S., P. Onochie, and V. Shirley. 2010. Encapsulation of Potassium Permanganate
Oxidant in Biodegradable Polymers to Develop a Novel Form of Controlled Release
Remediation. In: Emerging Environmental Technologies, Volume 2. Vishal Shah (ed.)
Springer.
MacKay, D. M., and J. A. Cherry. 1989. Groundwater contamination: Pump-and-treat reme-
diation. Environmental Science & Technology 23(6):630-636.
MacMillan, D. K., and D. E. Splichal. 2005. A review of field technologies for long-term moni-
toring of ordnance-related compounds in groundwater. ERDC/EL TR-05-14. Vicksburg,
MS: U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center.
McAlary, T., R. A. Ettinger, and P. C. Johnson. 2005. Reference Handbook for Site-Specific As-
sessment of Subsurface Vapor Intrusion to Indoor Air. EPRI Technical Report 1008492.
Palo Alto, CA.
McDonald, M. G., and A. W. Harbaugh. 1988. A modular three-dimensional finite-difference
ground-water flow model. Techniques of Water-Resources Investigations. Book 6. U.S.
Geological Survey.
McHugh, T., R. Davis, G. DeVaull, H. Hopkins, J. Menatti, and T. Peargin. 2010. Evaluation
of vapor attenuation at petroleum hydrocarbon sites. Soil and Sediment Contamination:
An International Journal 19(6):725-745.
McKelvie, J. R., S. K. Hirschorn, G. Lacrampe-Couloume, J. Lindstrom, J. Braddock, K.
Finneran, D. Trego, and B. Sherwood Lollar. 2007. Evaluation of TCE and MTBE in situ
biodegradation: Integrating stable isotope, metabolic intermediate, and microbial lines of
evidence. Ground Water Monitoring & Remediation 27(4):63-73.
OCR for page 256
256 MANAGING THE NATION’S CONTAMINATED GROUNDWATER SITES
Mercer, J. W., R. M. Cohen, and M. R. Noel. 2010. DNAPL site characterization issues at
chlorinated solvent sites. Pp. 217-280 in In Situ Remediation of Chlorinated Solvent
Plumes. Stroo, H. F., Ward, C. H., Eds. New York: Springer.
Moreno-Barbero, E., and T. H. Illangasekare. 2005. Simulation and performance assessment
of partitioning tracer tests in heterogeneous aquifers. Environmental & Engineering
Geoscience XI(4):395-404.
Moreno-Barbero, E., and T. H. Illangasekare. 2006. Influence of pool morphology on the
performance of partitioning tracer tests: evaluation of the equilibrium assumption. Water
Resources Research 42:11. doi:10.1029/2005WR004074.
Morris, R. M., J. M. Fung, B. G. Rahm, S. Zhang, D. L. Freedman, S. H. Zinder, and R. E.
Richardson. 2007. Comparative proteomics of Dehalococcoides spp. reveals strain-
specific peptides associated with activity. Applied and Environmental Microbiology
73(1):320-326.
Nesatyy, V. J., and M. J. F. Suter. 2007. Proteomics for the analysis of environmental stress
responses in organisms. Environmental Science & Technology 41(20):6891-6900.
Neumann, A., T. B. Hofstetter, M. Skarpeli-Liati, and R. R. Schwarzenbach. 2009. Reduction
of polychlorinated ethanes and carbon tetrachloride by structural Fe(II) in smectites.
Environmental Science & Technology 43(11):4082-4089.
NRC (National Research Council). 2005. Contaminants in the Subsurface. Washington, DC:
National Academies Press.
NYSDOH (New York State Department of Health). 2006. Final NYSDOH CEH BEEI Soil
Vapor Intrusion Guidance. http://www.health.state.ny.us/environmental/investigations/
soil_gas/svi_guidance/.
Olson, M. R., T. C. Sale, C. D. Shackelford, C. Bozzini, and J. Skeean. 2012. Chlorinated
solvent source-zone remediation via ZVI-clay soil mixing: 1-year results. Ground Water
Monitoring & Remediation 32:63–74. doi:10.1111/j.1745-6592.2011.01391.x.
Ouyang, G., and J. Pawliszyn. 2006. Recent developments in SPME for on-site analysis and
monitoring. Trends in Analytical Chemistry 25(7):692-703.
Parker, B. L., S. W. Chapman, and M. A. Guilbeault. 2008. Plume persistence caused by back
diffusion from thin clay layers in a sand aquifer following TCE source-zone hydraulic
isolation. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology 102:86-104.
Peralta, R. C. 2011. Simulation/Optimization Modeling for Groundwater and Conjunctive
Management. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Phenrat, T., N. Saleh, K. Sirk, R. D. Tilton, and G. V. Lowry. 2007. Aggregation and sedi-
mentation of aqueous nanoscale zerovalent iron dispersions. Environmental Science &
Technology 41(1):284-290.
Pironi, P., C. Switzer, J. I. Gerhard, G. Rein, and J. L. Torero. 2011. Self-sustaining smoldering
combustion for NAPL remediation: Laboratory evaluation of process sensitivity to key
parameters. Environmental Science & Technology 45:2980-2986.
Pooley, K. E., M. Blessing, T. C. Schmidt, S. B. Haderlein, K. T. B. MacQuarrie, and H. Prom-
mer. 2009. Aerobic biodegradation of chlorinated ethenes in a fractured bedrock aquifer:
Quantitative assessment by compound-specific isotope analysis (CSIA) and reactive trans-
port modeling. Environmental Science & Technology 43(19):7458-7464.
Rabideau, A. J., and C. T. Miller. 1994. 2-Dimensional modeling of aquifer remediation
influenced by sorption nonequilibrium and hydraulic conductivity heterogeneity. Water
Resources Research 30(5):1457-1470.
Ramos, M. A. V., W. Yan, X. Q. Li, B. E. Koel, and W.-X. Zhang. 2009. Simultaneous oxida-
tion and reduction of arsenic by zero-valent iron nanoparticles: Understanding the signifi-
cance of the core-shell structure. Journal of Physical Chemistry C 113(33):14591-14594.
OCR for page 257
TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT 257
Reed, P., B. S. Minsker, and D. Goldberg. 2001. A multiobjective approach to cost effective
long-term groundwater monitoring using an elitist nondominated sorted genetic algo-
rithm with historical data. Journal of Hydroinformatics 3(2):71-90.
Reed, P. M., B. S. Minsker, and A. J. Valocchi. 2000. Cost-effective long-term groundwater
monitoring design using a genetic algorithm and global mass interpolation. Water Re-
sources Research 36(12):3731-3741.
Rivett, M. O., S. W. Chapman, R. M. Allen-King, S. Feenstra, and J. A. Cherry. 2006.
Pump-and treat remediation of chlorinated solvent contamination at a controlled field-
experiment site. Environmental Science & Technology 40(21):6770-6781.
Ross, C., L. C. Murdoch, D. L. Freedman, and R. L. Siegrist. 2005. Characteristics of potas-
sium permanganate encapsulated in polymer. Journal of Environmental Engineering
131:1203-1211.
Rügge, K., T. B. Hofstetter, S. B. Haderlein, P. L. Bjerg, S. Knudsen, C. Zraunig, H. Mosbæk,
and T. H. Christensen. 1998. Characterization of predominant reductants in an anaerobic
leachate-contaminated aquifer by nitroaromatic probe compounds. Environmental Sci-
ence & Technology 32(1):23-31.
Saenton, S., and T. H. Illangasekare. 2004. Determination of DNAPL entrapment architecture
using experimentally validated numerical codes and inverse modeling. Proceedings of
XVth Computational Methods in Water Resources 2004 International Conference (ed.
C. T. Miller, M. W. Farthing and W. G. Gray), Elsevier.
Sakaki, T., P. E. Schulte, A. Cihan, J. A. Christ, and T. H. Illangasekare. 2013. Airflow path-
way development as affected by soil moisture variability in heterogeneous soils. Vadose
Zone Journal. In Press.
Sale, T. C., and C. Newell. 2011. Guide for Selecting Remedies for Subsurface Releases of
Chlorinated Solvents. ESTCP Project ER-200530. Washington, DC: ESTCP.
Shackelford, C. D., T. C. Sale, and M. R. Liberati. 2005. In-situ remediation of chlorinated
solvents using zero valent iron and clay mixtures: A case history. Proceedings of the Ses-
sions of the Geo-Frontiers 2005 Congress. Geotechnical Special Publication. 142:5996.
Sherwood Lollar, B., G. F. Slater, J. M. E. Ahad, B. Sleep, J. Spivak, M. Brennan, and P.
MacKenzie. 1999. Contrasting carbon isotope fractionation during biodegradation of
trichloroethylene and toluene: Implications for intrinsic biodegradation. Organic Geo-
chemistry 30(8):813-820.
Sherwood Lollar, B., G. F. Slater, B. Sleep, M. Witt, G. M. Klecka, M. Harkness, and J.
Spivack. 2001. Stable carbon isotope evidence for intrinsic bioremediation of tetrachlo-
roethene and trichloroethene at Area 6, Dover Air Force Base. Environmental Science &
Technology 35(2):261-269.
Siegrist, R. L., M. Crimi, and R. A. Brown. 2011. In situ chemical oxidation: technology
description and status. In In Situ Chemical Oxidation for Groundwater Remediation.
Siegrist, R. L., Crimi, M., Simpkin, T. J., Eds. New York: Springer.
Simpkin, T. J., and R. D. Norris. 2010. Engineering and implementation challenges for chlo-
rinated solvent remediation. Pp. 109-144 In In Situ Remediation of Chlorinated Solvent
Plumes. Stroo, H. F., Ward, C. H., Eds. New York: Springer.
Singh, O. V. 2006. Proteomic and metabolomics: The molecular make-up of toxic aromatic
pollutant bioremediation. Proteomics 6:5481-5492.
Sohn, K., S. W. Kang, S. Ahn, M. Woo, and S. K. Yang. 2006. Fe(0) nanoparticles for nitrate
reduction: Stability, reactivity, and transformation. Environmental Science & Technology
40(17):5514-5519.
Song, D. L., M. E. Conrad, K. S. Sorenson, and L. Alvarez-Cohen. 2002. Stable carbon isotope
fractionation during enhanced in situ bioremediation of trichloroethene. Environmental
Science & Technology 36(10):2262-2268.
OCR for page 258
258 MANAGING THE NATION’S CONTAMINATED GROUNDWATER SITES
Song, H., and E. R. Carraway. 2005. Reduction of chlorinated ethanes by nanosized zero-
valent iron: Kinetics, pathways, and effects of reaction conditions. Environmental Science
& Technology 39:6237-6245.
Song, H., and E. R. Carraway. 2006. Reduction of chlorinated methanes by nanosized zero-
valent iron: Kinetics, pathways, and effect of reaction conditions. Environmental Engi-
neering Science 23:272-284.
Song, H., and E. R. Carraway. 2008. Catalytic hydrodechlorination of chlorinated ethenes by
nanoscale zero-valent iron. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental. 78:53-60.
Switzer, C., P. Pironi, J. I. Gerhard, G. Rein, and J. L. Torero. 2009. Self-sustaining smoldering
combustion: A novel remediation process for non-aqueous phase liquids in porous media.
Environmental Science & Technology 43:5871-5877.
Taghavy, A., J. Costanza, K. D. Pennell, and L. M. Abriola. 2010. Effectivness of nanoscale
zero-valent iron for treatment of a PCE-DNAPL source zone. Journal of Contaminant
Hydrology 118:128-142.
Tebo, B. M., J. R. Bargar, B. G. Clement, G. J. Dick, K. J. Murray, D. Parker, R. Verity, and S.
M. Webb. 2004. Biogenic manganese oxides: Properties and mechanisms of formation.
Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 32:287-328.
Thullner, M., M. Kampara, H. H, Richnow, H. Harms, and L. Y. Wick. 2008. Impact of bio-
availability restrictions on microbially induced stable isotope fractionation. 1. Theoretical
calculation. Environmental Science & Technology 42(17):6544-6551.
Vera, Y. M., R. J. de Carvalho, M. L. Torem, and B. A. Calfa. 2009. Atrazine degradation by
in situ electrochemically generated ozone. Chemical Engineering Journal 155(3):691-697.
Waddill, D. W., and M. A. Widdowson. 2003. SEAM3D: A numerical model for three-
dimensional solute transport and sequential electron acceptor-based biodegradation in
groundwater. ERDC/EL TR-00-18. Vicksburg, MS: U.S. Army Research and Develop-
ment Center.
Waldron, P. J., L. Wu, J. D. Van Nostrand, C. W. Schadt, Z. He, D. B. Watson, P. M. Jardine,
A. V. Palumbo, T. C. Hazen, and J. Zhou. 2009. Functional gene array-based analysis of
microbial community structure in groundwaters with a gradient of contaminant levels.
Environmental Science & Technology 43(10):3529-3534.
Wang, C. B., and W.-X. Zhang. 1997. Synthesizing nanoscale iron particles for rapid and
complete dechlorination of TCE and PCBs. Environmental Science & Technology
31(7):2154-2156.
Wani, A. H., B. R. O’Neal, D. M. Gilbert, D. B. Gent, and J. L. Davis. 2005. Electrolytic
Transformation of Hexahydro-1,3,5-Trinitro-1,3,5-Triazine (RDX) and 2,4,6-Trinitro-
toluene (TNT) in Aqueous Solutions. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. ERDC/EL TR-05-
10. Washington, DC.
Wani, A. H., B. R. O’Neal, D. M. Gilbert, G. B. Gent, and J. L. Davis. 2006. Electrolytic
transformation of ordnance related compounds in groundwater: Laboratory mass bal-
ance studies. Chemosphere 62:689-698.
Welch, R., and R. G. Riefler. 2008. Estimating treatment capacity of nanoscale zero-valent
iron reducing 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene. Environmental Engineering Science 25(9):1255-1262.
Werner, J. J., A. C. Ptak, B. G. Rahm, S. Zhang, and R. E. Richardon. 2009. Absolute
quantification of Dehalococcoides proteins: Enzyme bioindicators of chlorinated ethene
dehalorespiration. Environmental Microbiology 11:2687-2697.
Werner-Allen, G., K. Lorincz, M. Welsh, O. Marcillo, J. Johnson, M. Ruiz, and J. Lees. 2006.
Deploying a wireless sensor network on an active volcano. IEEE Internet Computing
10(2):18-25.
Wiesner, M. R., G. V. Lowry, P. Alvarez, D. Dionysiou, and P. Biswas. 2006. Assessing the risks
of manufactured nanomaterials. Environmental Science & Technology 40(14):4336-4345.
OCR for page 259
TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT 259
Wilkins, M. J., N. C. VerBerkmoes, K. H. Williams, S. J. Callister, P. J. Mouser, H. Elifantz,
A. L. N’Guessan, B. C. Thomas, C. D. Nicora, M. B. Shah, P. Abraham, M. S. Lipton,
D. R. Lovley, R. L. Hettich, P. E. Long, and J. F. Banfield. 2009. Proteogenomic moni-
toring of Geobacter physiology during stimulated uranium bioremediation. Applied and
Environmental Microbiology 75(20):6591-6599.
Wilson, J. L. 1997. Removal of aqueous phase dissolved contamination: Non-chemically-
enhanced pump and treat. In Subsurface Remediation Handbook. Ward, C. H., Cherry,
J., Scalf, M., eds. Chelsea, MI: Ann Arbor Press.
Xu, Y., and D. Zhao. 2007. Reductive immobilization of chromate in water and soil using
stabilized iron nanoparticles. Water Research 41(10):2101-2108.
Zheng, C., and P. P. Wang. 1999. MT3DMS, A Modular Three-Dimensional Multi-Species
Transport Model for Simulation of Advection, Dispersion and Chemical Reactions of
Contaminants in Groundwater Systems: Documentation and User’s Guide. SERDP-99-1.
Vicksburg, MS: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Engineer Research and Development
Center.
OCR for page 260
