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OCR for page 103
4
Fiber and Other Products
INTRODUCTION
Salt-tolerant plants can be used to produce economically impor-
tant materials such as essential oils, gums, oils, and resins, pulp and
fiber, and bioactive compounds. Further, salt-tolerant plants can be
cultivated for landscape use and irrigated with saline water, thereby
conserving fresh water for other uses.
ESSENTIAL OII S
Kewda
The male flowers of kewda (Pandanus fascicularis), a common
species of screw pine in India, are used to produce perfume and fla-
voring ingredients. The flowers are charged to a copper still, water
added, and the mix distilled. The steam and essential oil (approxi-
mately 0.3 percent by weight of the flowers) are condensed to produce
kewda water, or the kewda vapors are captured in sandalwood oil and
formulated from this base. The kewda plant is salt tolerant and has
been planted in coastal areas to check drifting sand. Propagation is
through suckers or stem cuttings, and flowering starts ~4 years after
planting. An annual income of US$8 per plant has been estimated.
103
OCR for page 104
~4
TBe s~lt~tole:~t We (~c~) grows E~ 2~ to 3 ~ fish ~ coasts
India. Began amen ~ asps to~SSusSe pe~e ~6 fig Ogres.
toned Boa plow g_ on sager Mange sdiI. T
Are evaluated ~ ~ bar peppermint oily Ad ~
{6 men~tbol) both gage CHIN chorale to thou Stied on nor
., : ^ ., ~ . ... , ~ . ^ : , , ~
as. ~ sag. i.
~. . ,
~,. ~ . ,, . . , , ~^ ~
mcluc~ ~ If Aver: ~$~ ~-
>~ ~ Ad ~ ~
C:f~ #~rf/~, Ad /~et6~= ~a {E~1~E dilll.
~(~
oilplaat,is ~sorepo~edtogio~ unserved oder~telys~iF~econdit~nsS
Tbeproductlon of en ol~top~ov~idean~{souroeofinc6~e
in rural areas ~ one of the objectives of the Ciskei E~se~ti~ Offs
Projects established id southern Judaica in 1972.
, t ~.. a, ^ ., ~. . . . .
Other oldectlves
Include age ~O~l~C8110# 01 e~tr~actlo~ tec~m~ue for use ~ rural
Resend t~heide~ti5cadon of~ike~ far the oils produced
a. . ~ , . ~
11ttiC Colts.
resources and requlreJ
O-r He pan ~ ~; ~ ^~ baa
OCR for page 105
105
produced and exported US$1 million worth of essential oils and pro-
vided employment to hundreds of rural dwellers during the harvest
season. Although the use of salt-tolerant plants is not the focus of the
Ciskei Project, the principles could be applied to provide employment
and income in areas where saline water or soil occurs.
GUMS, OILS, AND RESINS
Sesbania bispinosa, commonly known as dhaincha in India, is
an important legume and fodder crop. It is an erect, multibranched
annual, about 2.5 m tall at maturity that grows readily on alkaline
saline soils. Often grown for use as a green manure (about 12 tons per
hectare), its stalks are sources of fiber and fuels and the seeds yield
a galactomannan gum that can be used for sizing and stabilizing
purposes. The seed meal can be used for poultry and cattle feed.
S. sesian and S. speciosa are salt-tolerant perennials used as green
manure. S. sesban can tolerate waterlogging and salt concentrations
of 1.0 percent as a seedling and 1.4 percent as it matures.
GTindelia camporum is a 0.5-1.5 m resinous perennial shrub. It
exudes large amounts of aromatic resins that cover the surface of the
plant. The resins are nonvolatile mixtures of bicyclic terpene acids,
esters, and related structures that are insoluble in water but soluble
in organic solvents. The amount of resin produced ranges from 5 to
18 percent of the dried biomass.
The plant appears to be salt tolerant; populations are found
in saline flats and near salt lakes and springs. Several species of
Grindelia occur along the North American Pacific Coast in estuaries
or salt marsh habitats. These include G. humilis, G. stricta, G.
latifolia, and G. integrifolia. All produce diterpene acid resins.
Grindelia resins have properties similar to the terpenoids in wood
and gum rosins, which are used commercially in adhesives, varnishes,
paper sizings, printing inks, soaps, and numerous other industrial
applications (Figure 3~. With increasing costs and declining supplies
of these wood-based materials, substitutions with Grindelia resins in
this market (700,000 tons per year) may become practical.
The creosote bush (Larrea tridentata) grows over large areas of
the Chihuahua, Sonora, and Mojave deserts of North America. Eval-
uations of [arTea resins have shown potential uses as an antioxidant
for rubber, as an antifungal agent for agricultural applications, and
as a reactive material for polymerization with formaldehyde.
Sapium sebiferum, the Chinese tallow tree, is a small marshland
OCR for page 106
106
i'
COOH
a
W
~ COOH
o
c
~,1~
COOH
b
~~
t~-COOH
11
d
FIGURE 3 Diterpene Acids. Gr~ndelia resins have properties similar to wood
rosins, which are used in a wide variety of industrial applications. Diterpene
acids from Pin?= (a,b) and Gr~r~delia (c,d) are remarkably similar. SOURCE:
B.N. Timmerman and J.J. Hoffmann, 1986.
tree native to subtropical China. It has been cultivated there for
more than 1,000 years as a source of specialty oils, medicines, and
vegetable dyes. The Chinese tallow tree possesses several valuable
characteristics: it can be seeded directly; it grows rapidly in warm,
waterlogged saline soils; and it resprouts readily.
The major economic potential for this tree is in its high yield
of oiTseed more than 10 tons per hectare according to the USDA.
The seed contains both an edible hard vegetable fat and an inedible
liquid oil, which comprise 45-50 percent of its weight. These oils are
physically separated in the seed and may be isolated separately. The
edible fat is a potential substitute for cocoa butter and the inedible
of! (stillingia oil) appears promising as a drying of! for paints and
varnishes. Of the total lipid content in the seed, 30-50 percent is the
edible fat.
The seed meal, after extraction of the oil, has a high protein
content. It can be used for feed or, with suitable treatment, for human
OCR for page 107
Rubber rabbitbush grows on saline soils in western North America. It con-
tains natural rubber, a hydrocarbon resin, and constituents that are potential
pesticides. (D.J. Weber)
consumption. Five years after planting, when seed production begins,
a net return of US$3,200 per hectare per year has been estimated.
Jojoba* (Simmondsia chinensis) is a perennial desert shrub with
seeds that contain a unique oil. About half of the seed's weight is
an of! with a structure similar to sperm whale oil an ester of a
C20_22 straight chain alcohol with a C20_22 straight chain acid. Both
the alcohol and the acid have a terminal double bond, providing a
readily accessible site for diverse chemical reactions. This oil and its
derivatives have been used primarily in cosmetics, but broader use as
a component in specialty lubricants and waxes will probably develop
when increased oil production brings lower prices. Currently there
are about 16,000 hectares of jojoba plantations in the southwestern
United States and other plantations in Mexico, Australia, Israel,
Argentina, and South Africa and other African nations.
*See also Jojoba: New Crop for Arid Lariat, New Crop for Industry. To order,
see p. 135.
OCR for page 108
108
Jojoba is relatively salt tolerant. In California, plants are grow-
ing satisfactorily with water containing 0.2 percent salts. In labo-
ratory testing, one variety of jojoba showed no reduction in flower
production with 0.6 percent salt. In Israel, jojoba is growing well
near the Dead Sea irrigated with brackish water (~6 dS/m).
While natural rubber occurs in over 2,000 plant species, the com-
mercial source is the rubber tree, Hevea brasiliensis. Natural rubber
consists of cis-1,4-polyisoprene units. It is preferred in applications
that require elasticity, resilience, tackiness, and low heat buildup.
It is indispensable for bus, truck, and airplane tires. In 1980, the
United States imported about 700,000 tons of natural rubber; im-
ports of about 1 million tons are anticipated for 1990.
Rubber rabbitbush (Chrysothamnus nauseosus) is a common
desert shrub native to western North America. It grows under a
wide range of environmental conditions from Mexico to Canada,
commonly appearing on disturbed sites and saline soil. In addition
to its forage value, it contains natural rubber and a hydrocarbon
resin, and it has constituents that are potential insecticides and
fungicides.
The perennial desert shrub, guayule (Parthenium argentatum),
has also been used as a source of natural rubber. $ In 1944, there were
12,000 hectares of guayuTe planted in California (USA) for rubber
production. In tests with guayule, total rubber yields first increased
and then decreased as soil salinity increased (Table 14~. Interest has
recently been revived in guayuTe for natural rubber.
More recent reports on guayule (Ho~man et al., 1988; Maas et
al., 1988) indicate the root-zone salt-tolerance threshold to be about
7.5 dS/m; above this, rubber Production is reduced 6.1 percent ner
unit increase of soil salinity.
Rubber samples from Hevea, Parthenium, and Chrysothamnus
appear to be structurally identical. Rubber contents as high as 6.5
percent for Chrysothamnus have been reported. If rubber yields of 2
percent are assumed, a plantation would produce 370 kg per hectare
after 6 years' growth (guayuTe yields from California production were
higher about 1,000 kg per hectare after 2 years; Hevea yields are
about 1,300 kg per hectare per year). Resin contents as high as
21 percent have been reported for Chrysothamnus, and some of its
hydrocarbon components may find use as insecticides and fungicides.
,¢ ~
*See also Guayule: An Alfcrr~atinc Soured of Natural Rubber. To order, see
p. 135.
OCR for page 109
109
TABLE 14 Plant Growth and Rubber Content of One-Year-Old
Guay~le Plants at Three Soil Salinities.
Fresh Top
Soil Salinity Plant Height Weight
dS/m cm g
Rubber
%
3.2 53 397 3.32
8.7 52 388 6.05
13.2 44 286 4.61
SOURCE: Frangois, 1986.
Compared with guayule, Chrysothamnus has several advantages
as a potential source of natural rubber. Guayule generally requires
good soil, good moisture conditions, and good horticultural practices.
Guayule must be grown in frost-free areas because freezing kills it.
In contrast, Chrysothamnus grows on poor soil, on disturbed sites,
and on saline soil. It is found from the hot desert of Arizona to the
western arid regions of Canada; there are subspecies that grow at sea
level and others that grow at 3,000 m. The rubber content of these
plants is similar to that of guayule in natural populations.
PULP AND FIBER
Phragmites australis, common reed, is an ancient marsh plant
that has served in roofing, thatching, basketry, and fencing, as well
as for fuel. It grows throughout the world in areas with saturated
soils or standing water 2.5 m deep or less. The water can be fresh
or moderately saline. Nearly any soil from peat to sand is tolerated.
Little data exist for yields from managed stands. In the harvest of
natural stands, however, productivity is consistently estimated to be
about 10 dry tons per hectare. There is current use and broader
interest in the manufacture of paper and other cellulose derivatives
from this plant.
In Romania, 125,000 tons of Phragmites are harvested in the
Danube delta each year for use in papermaling. The pulp from these
reeds is blended with wood pulp to give a stronger final product.
In Sweden, extensive stands of Phragmites have been suggested
as an alternative fuel for winter heating. This reed has about 40
percent (by weight) of the energy content of heating oil.
In Egypt, two rushes, Juncus rigidus and ]. acutus, have been
/
OCR for page 110
110
TABLE 15 Genninaiion of Junc~ spp. With Increasing Salinity.
Germination % NaC1%
at 25°C 0.1 1.0 2.0 3.0
J. rigidus 100 100 95 63
J. acutus 15 5 0 0
SOURCE: Zahran and E1 Demerdash, 1984.
investigated with particular emphasis on their potential use in paper-
making. In pilot-level testing, the strength properties of unbleached
]. rigidus pulp were found to be 73 percent of the kraft pulp ordi-
narily used. In similar tests, rice straw and bagasse pulps gave only
24 and 42 percent of the strength of kraft pulp.
In germination and propagation testing, ]. rigidness was much
more salt-tolerant than ~1. acutus. Germination results are shown in
Table 15.
When rhizomes of these two species were planted on saline test
plots, the vegetative yield of J. rigidus was almost twice that of ~1.
acutus. In studies of the effects of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers,
vegetative yields and fiber lengths in both species were improved.
Increased fiber lengths are an indicator of improved performance in
papermaking.
-1. rigidus has also been introduced to India from Egypt. Germi-
nation, seedling growth, and evaluation of nine-month culms in India
indicate that 1.5-2.0 tons per hectare of pulp for papermaking can
be produced on saline soil.
The textile screw pine, Pandanus tectorius, abounds in tidal
flats of Southeast Asia, Malaysia, and Polynesia. The leaves are
traditionally and widely used for thatching and basketry. They are
also used to fashion wallpaper and lampshades.
Esparto grass (Stipa tenacissima) grows in semiarid areas of
North Africa. It covers more than 7 million hectares in Algeria and
1.5 million hectares in Tunisia. It has been used for more than a cen-
tury in papermaking. The paper produced from this fiber is smooth,
opaque, and resilient. A paper mill in central Tunisia produces more
than 70,000 tons of pulp and paper from this grass, and 20,000 rural
fannies find seasonal work harvesting the crop. In addition, a veg-
etable wax extracted from the grass before pulping can be used as a
substitute for carnauba wax.
OCR for page 111
iii
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em S~~th~e~!~u~4dE~bt^~t~~s~b~e=~si~s~ tam
~!~i~!~!~> Ion ~b~l~$~dS~/~ aver ~!~S~ ME ~5~i
:^: .. : i . .. ESSAY ~E~:~SSS ~^ . ^: . ..:eSE ~S ~.. ESE
pea ~p~~i~ye#~ s~4~4~s~ ~, fee ~s~y
-~SS'~!'~ m#S~,~.~$Bes~E~-E~sus~stos~s~p=~c
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a ~ sad ~ ~ t At EMS ~E~ )$~{ ~S~E'~ :~ ~= S _ ~ S 0~S~:E~S~S em Aura [
Was Bind
IS I ~E~ ~be: ~ ~ ~ ~ :!b~-t ~ ~ ~5 ~ P at, age E.
~ . S:: . . ::- a.. . S . ^; t .. .. i:: . . . S : ..: SE: : :S: IS. Sat sE: :-.: :: ~ ^E :S S : E: :: S: a: :::
Hi. a~S~S~=y~E.~ )~ pig Am bee pO~lole =: ~ S:~S#
toted I I Robe s~E~t~ ~ E~st~^~ Am
owing ~ ! ~i ~adios Hess ~! Abed ~ Is
Adage ~ ~ ups ~ c~ pang ~,~ reed, add ~bersss~b--
~ E ME ~ Arced ~ ~ Be ~!~.~S: ISIS Law ~ ~ ~
I Tab ~ Bag EVE ~ up Diets 6.0~S~6S~/= gate gag
unacted by aged aver Is ~ to~E~4.8 Is/. EM unit
Inca ^~ 4.6 dS/~m auk vegetative yak ~ 36 pierced.
Entree; ~
lea a saga
OCR for page 112
112
At... ~ . .. ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ..
t~ ~.~.~ ~ ,~ .. ~ ~.~. s.
.8i.~ -. ~ ~I.
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F~ ~. .. ..
A. ..
........
A :
The American oil palm, Elacis olcifcra, is found in coastal swamp forests from
the lower basin of the Amazon to southern Mexico. Its fruits are a source of oil
and tallow, similar to that obtained from the African oil palm. The tree has a
low growing habit, which eases fruit harvest. (M.J. Balick)
mangrove swamps, and tidal streams throughout the tropics. The
bark fiber is used for ropes, fishing lines' and nets.
Urochondra setulosa is a halophytic grass of the Indus delta and
saline marsh flats of the Pakistan coast. This plant dominates sites
with ECs of 34-62 dS/m. It merits evaluation as a fiber source.
Cotton (Gossypium hirusutum) production using saline water
has been examined in the United States, India, Israel, and Tunisia.
In Israel, using drip irrigation and four levels of water quality
(EC = 1.0, 3.2, 5.4, and 7.3 dS/m), salinity did not reduce yields even
at the highest level. In the United States, cotton was drip irrigated
with 8.5 dS/m saline water on saline soil in the presence of a saline
water table. The yields were equal to that of a control plot that was
irrigated with fresh water.
In India, three cotton varieties were reduced in growth and yield
when irrigated with seawater diluted to 10,000 and 15,000 ppm salts.
In Tunisia, two varieties of cotton were grown with irrigation water
containing 0.25, 1.43, 2.43, and 3.45 g per liter of soluble salts. Yield
increases of 30-34 percent were obtained at the highest salt level.
OCR for page 113
~ ~ a:
~ Use
TBe reseed tad #my ~~ ~- S~<
^ ^ ~ ~ ~ .
for ~ adds deed seer : extras
calls
~ . ~
Poole
^ ewe ~ $Be~ =~t=1 of ~1 It
Pat; ~ =~ ~ ~ ^~
^ ~
~ ~> the
or sandy beam but ^ occurs
goofed ~ ~
^^\
p. opal
Hater I~ uses of the nut fir Coda as Duel ~ ~
OCR for page 120
120
TABLE 17 Salt-Tolerant Ornamental Plants.
Mower Flowenng Average Salt
Plant Color Season Height(m) Resistance
Trees:
Acacia gerrardii cream July-Oct 5 1
A. horrida yellow May-Sept 8 1
A. rad~diana cream Mar-Apr 5 1
Oct-Dec
A. salicina cream Mar and Sept 8 1
A. tortilis cream Spring and Fall 5 1
Casu~rina glauca Apr 8 1
Conocarpus erectus
s
Elaeagnus
angustifolia white Apr-May 4
Eucalyptus sargentii yellowish- 6
white
Moringa peregrina white Mar-May 6
to pink
Parkinsonua aculeata yellow May-June 8 2
Phoenix dactylifera 12 2
Prosopis juliflora white Apr-May 6 1
Tamers aphylla white May-June 8 2
Shrubs:
Atriplex barclayana 1.5 2
A. cinerea 1 2
A. nummularia 1.5-2 2
Callistemon rigidus red Apr 2 1
Cassuz mexicana yellow Apr-Sept 0.5-0.75 1
Colutea istria yellow Mar-Apr 2 1
Maireana sedifolia 2 2
Melaleuca nesophila lilac May-July 3 1
Retama raetam white/ Mar-Apr 2 1
purple
Tamarix chinensis violet 3 1
"mapu"
LANDSCAPE AND ORNAMENTAL USE
Many attractive halophytes can be used as landscape plants,
especially in areas with constraints on the use of fresh water for
watering or irrigation. In Israel, trees such as Conocarpus erec-
tus, Eucalyptus sargentii, and Melaleuca halmaturorum, and shrubs
such as Maireana sedifolia, Borrichea frutescens, and Clerodendrum
inerme are sold for amenity planting to allow irrigation with saline
OCR for page 121
121
TABLE 17 (Continued)
Flower Flowenng Average Salt
Plant Color Season Height(m) Resistance
Succulents and
Semi-Succulents:
Agave Americana white Apr-July 2 1
Arthrocnemum
fruticosum* 0.6 3
A. macrostachyam 0.5 3
Batis maritime 0.3 3
Biennial and Perennial
Ground Cover:
Arctotis grandis assorted Dec-Apr
Aster alpinus blue Dec-Apr
Catharansus roseus white/ Most of year
pink
Cineraru: merits violet Apr-June 1
Crithrnum maritimum yellow May-June 2
Gazania splendens assorted Dec-May 1
Inula crithmoides yellow June-July 3
Nitraria billardieri white Apr-May 3
Ses~vium verrucosum lilac June-July 3
Lawn Grasses:
Cynodon dactylon
Paspalum vaginatum
2
2
Salt resistance: arbitrary degrees according to soil electrical conductivity:
1 = 5-15 dS/m; 2 = 15-25 dS/m; 3 = 25-50 dS/m.
*Thnves under conditions of waterlogging.
SOURCE: Adapted from Pastemak et al., 1986.
water. A selection of salt-tolerant ornamental plants is shown in
Table 17. The striking floral display of the Butea monosperma tree
(p. 63) has earned it the name "flame of the forest." In addition,
plants such as Limonium species have potential for floral use. For
example, sea lavender (Limonium axiliare) can be irrigated with
seawater and used to produce cut flowers.
OCR for page 122
122
REFERENCES AND SELECTED READINGS
General
Balandrin, M. F., J. A. Klocke, E. S. Wurtele and W. H. Bollinger. 1985.
Natural plant chemicals: sources of industrial and medicinal materials.
Scicnec 228:1154-1160.
Hinman, C. W. 1984. New crops for arid lands. Scicnec 225:1445-1448.
Vietmeyer, N. D. 1986. Lesser-known plants of potential use in agriculture and
forestry. Scicr~cc 232:1379-1384.
Essential Oils
Kemp
Dutta, P. K., H. O. Saxena and M. Brahman. 1987. Kewda perfume industry
in India. Economic Botany 41:403-410.
Mentha and Other Species
Chandra, V., A. Singh and L. D. Kapoor. 1968. Experimental cultivation of
some essential oil bearing plants in saline soils. Perfume and Essential Oil
Review. December:869-873.
Graven, E. H., B. Gardner and C. Tutt. 1987. Essential oils- new crops for
Southern Africa. Cisici Agricultural Journal 1:2-8.
Patra, P. and P. K. Dutta. 1979. Studies on salinity tolerance in aromatic and
medicinal plants. Journal of the Orissa Botanical Socicly 1~1~:17-18.
Piprek, S. R. K., E. H. Graven and P. VVhitfield. 1982. Some potentially
important indigenous aromatic plants for the eastern seaboard areas of
Southern Africa. World Crops 10~4~:255-263.
Gums, Oile and Resins
General
Forti, M. 1986. Salt tolerant and halophytic plants in Israel. Reclamation and
Revegetatior. Rcscarch 5:83-96.
Greek, B. F. 1987. Modest growth ahead for rubber. Chemical and Engineering
NEWS 66~12~:25-51.
Sesbania
Chahda, Y. R. (ed.~. 1972. Sc~bania. The Wealth of India. 1X:293-303. CSIR, New
Delhi, India.
Chandra, V. and M. I. H. Farooqi. 1979. Dhaincha for reed gum. Extension
Bulletin No. 1. National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow, India.
OCR for page 123
123
Gorham, J., E. McDonnell and R. G. Wyn Jones. 1984. Pinitol and other
solutes in salt-stressed Scebar~ia aculc~a. Zcitschripc fur Pfanzenghy~ologic
4:173-178.
Grindelia
Hoffmann, J. J. and S. P. McLaughlin. 1986. Grindelia camporum: potential cash
crop for the arid southwest. Economic Botany 40:162-169.
Schuck, S. M. and S. P. McLaughlin. 1988. Flowering phonology and outcrossing
in tetraploid Grindelia camporum Greene. Dcscrt Plants 9~1~:7-16.
Timmerman, B. N. and J. J. Hoffmann. 1985. The potential for the com-
mercial utilization of resins from Grindelia campor~ Pp. 1321-1339. in:
E. E. Whitehead, C. F. Hutchinson, B. N. Timmermann, and R. G.
Varady (eds.) Arid Lands Today and Tomorrow. Wesiview Press, Boulder,
Colorado, US.
Larrea tridentata
Belmares, H. and A. Barrera. 1979. Polymerization studies of creosote bush (Lar-
rca tridentata) phenolic resin with formaldehyde. Journal of AppEcd Polymer
Scicnec 24 1531-1537.
Belmares, H., A. Barrera, M. Ortega and M. Monjaras. 1980. Adhesi~res from
creosote bush (Larrca tridentata) phenolic resin with formaldehyde. Charac-
teristics and application. Journal of Applied Polymer Scicnec 25:2115-2118.
Sapium sebiferum
Chadha, Y. R. (ed.~. 1972. Sapium. Wcalth of In~a. 1X:229-231. CSIR, New
Delhi, India.
Scheld, H. W. and J. R. Cowles. 1981. Woody biomass potential of the Chinese
tallow tree. Economic Botany 35:391-397.
Scheld, H. W., J. R. Cowles, C. R. Engler, R. Kleiman and E. B. Shultz, Jr.
1984. Seeds of the Chinese tallow tree as a source of chemicals and fuels.
Pp. 81-lol in: E. B. Shultz, Jr. and R. P. Morgan (eds.) FUCIJ and ChemicalJ
from Oil~ced`. Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado, US.
Jojoba
Baldwin, A. R. (ed.) 1988. Procecding~: 7th Intcrnational Confcrcnec on Jojoba and
ite Usc`. American Oil Chemists Society, Chicago, Illinois, US.
Bhatia, V. K., A. Chaudhry, A. Masoh an, R. P. S. Bisht and G. A. Sivasankaran.
1988. Sulphurization of jojoba oil for application as extreme pressure
additive. Journal of thc American Oi! Chemi~t~ Socicty 65~9~:1502-1507.
Guayule
Frangois, L. E. 1986. Salinity effects on four arid zone plant~ (Parthenium aryen-
tatum, Simmond~ia chinen~i~, Kochia pro~trata and Kochia brcuifolia). Journal of
Arid Enuironmcn~ 11:103-109.
Hoffman, G. J., M. C. Shannon, E. V. Maas, L. Grass. 1988. Rubber produc-
tion of salt-stressed guayule at various plant populations. Irrigation
Scicr~cc 9:213-226.
OCR for page 124
124
Mans, E. V., T. J. Donovan and L. E. Frangois. 1988. Salt tolerance of irrigated
guayule. Irrigation Scicr~cc 9:199-212.
Miyamoto, S. and D. A. Bucks. 1985. Water quantity and quality requirements
of guayule: current assessment. Agricultural Water Management 10:205-219.
Chrysothamnus
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Reed
de la Cruz, A. A. 1978. The production of pulp from marsh grass. Econorruc
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Graneli, W. 1984. Reed Phragrrutc~ awiralis as an energy source in Sweden.
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Typha
Morton, J. F. 1975. Cattails (alpha spp.) - a weed problem or potential crop?
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Saccharum grif~thii
Ahmad, R. 1987. Saline Agriculture at Coastal Sandy Bcit. University of Karachi,
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Hibiscus
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Sastri, B. N. (ed.~. 1959. Hibisew. The Wealth of India. V:75-98. CSIR, New
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Ayars, J. E., R. B. Hutmacher, R. A. Schoneman, S. S. Vail and D. Felleke.
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CalophyIlum inophyilum
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Balanites roxburghii
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Mangrove Toxicants
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RESEARCH CONTACTS
Essential Oils
V. Chandra, National Botanic Gardens, Lucknow 226001, India
P. K. Dutta, Aromatic and Medicinal Plants Division, Regional Research
Laboratory, Bhubaneswar 751 013, Orissa, India.
Earl Graven, Head, Department of Agronomy, University of Fort Hare, Alice
5700, Ciskei, South Africa.
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128
Gums, Oile and Resin
General
V. Chandra, National Botanic Gardens, Lucknow 226001, India.
M. Forti, The Institutes for Applied Research, Ben Gurion University,
PO Box 1025, 84110 Beer-Sheva, Israel.
E. Rodriguez, Phytochemical Laboratory, School of Biological Sciences, Univer-
sity of California, Irvine CA 92717, US.
Dhaincha
R. G. Wyn Jones, Center for Arid Zone Studies, University College of North
Wales, Bangor, Wales, LL57 2UW, UK.
V. Chandra, National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow 226001, India.
Grindelia
Stephen P. McLaughlin, Bioresources Research Facility, University of Arizona,
250 E. Valencia Road, Tucson, AZ 85706, US.
Creosote Bush
Hector Belmares, Centro de Investigascion en Quimica Aplicada, Aldama Ote.
371, Saltillo, Coahuila, Mexico.
Chinese Tallow Tree
Robert Kleiman, USDA Northern Regional Research Center, 1815 North Uni-
versity, Peoria, IL 61604, US.
H. W. Scheld, PhytoR~source Research, Inc., 707 Texas Avenue - Suite 202D,
College Station, TX 77840, US.
E. B. Shultz, Jr., Box 1106, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63130, US.
Jojoba
Hal C. Purcell, Jojoba Grower's Association, 3420 East Shea - Suite 125,
Phoenix, AZ 85028, US.
David Palskill, Department of Plant Sciences, University of Arizona, Tucson,
AZ 85721, US.
John Rothfus, USDA Northern Regional Research Center, 1815 North Univer-
sity, Peoria, IL 61604, US.
Chrysothamnus nauseosus
D. J. Weber, Department of Botany and Range Science, Brigham Young
University, Provo, UT 84602, US.
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129
Guayule
Joseph Beckman, Firestone Tire and Rubber Company, 1200 Firestone Parkway,
Akron, OH 44317, US.
D. A. Bucks, US Water Conservation Laboratory, 4331 East Broadway, Phoenix,
AZ 85040, US.
S. Miyamoto, Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, 1380 A&M Circle, El
Paso, TX 79927, US.
Pulp and Fiber
Cotton
James E. Ayars, USDA-ARS, WMRL, Fresno, CA 93700, US.
A. Mantell, Institute of Soils and Water, Agricultural Research Organization,
The Volcani Center, Bet Dagan, Israel.
Akhtar Nawaz, Department of Soil Science, University of Agriculture,
Faisalabad, Pakistan.
James D. Rhoades, USDA Salinity Research Laboratory, 4500 Glenwood Drive,
Riverside, CA 92501, US.
Reed
Armando A. de la Cruz, Department of Zoology, Mississippi State University,
MI 39762, US.
Wilhelm Graneli, Institute of Limnology, Box 3060, S-22003 Lund, Sweden.
E. R. R. Iyengar, Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute,
Bhavnagar 364 002, India.
M. A. Zahran, Botany Department, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt.
Esparto Grass
Director, Institut National de Recherches Forestieres, Ministere de ['Agriculture,
Route de la Soukra, B.P. 2, Ariana, Tunisia.
Typha
J. F. Morton, Morton Collectanea, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL
33124, US.
Kenaf/Hibiscus
Charles Adamson, USDA Plant Introduction Center, Route 1, Sharpsburg, GA
30277, US.
Marvin O. Bagby, USDA Northern Regional Research Center, 1815 North
University, Peoria, IL 61604, US.
L. E. Frangois, US Salinity Laboratory, 4500 Glenwood Drive, Riverside, CA
92501, US.
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130
Ply
M. J. Balick, New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY 10458, US.
J. F. Morton, Morton Collectanea, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL
33124, US.
Bioactive Derivatives
Calophyilum inophyIlum
S. Mehrotra, Pharmacognosy Section, National Botanical Research Institute
Lucknow 22600, India.
R. C. Saxena, Department of Pharmacology, King George's Medical College,
Lucknow 226003, India.
Balanites roxburghfi
A. Ghanim, Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur 342 003, India.
Azadirachta indica
S. A. Radwanski, Land Resources Consultancy, 361 Wimbledon Park Road
London SW19 6PE, UK.
G. E. Wickens, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Surrey, TW9 3AB, UK.
Commiphora unghtii
S. Kumar and V. Shankar, Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur
342003, India.
Catharanus roseus
P. K. Dutta, Aromatic and Medicinal Plants Division, Regional Research
Laboratory, Bhubaneswar 751 013, Orissa, India.
[andscape and Ornamental Use
Dov Pasternak, Institute for Desert Research, Ben Gurion University, Sede
Boger 84990, Israel.
Stephen D. Verkade, University of Florida, 3205 College Avenue, Fort Laud-
erdale, FL 33314, US.
Representative terms from entire chapter:
saline water
