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OCR for page 27
~2
Areas of Research
Despite the excellence of some individual researchers and centers of
forestry research, the quantity and coherence of research do not match
even current needs. Changes in public perceptions and uses of forests call
for new information not now provided in sufficient depth. Not only is an
increase in depth and quantity needed, but the quality of this research must
also be high. Unprecedented opportunities to understand forest structure
and function presented by ecosystem ecology and molecular biology are
not being pursued with enough talent and vigor. Opportunities also exist to
better understand human-forest interactions, economics and forest policy,
and wood as a raw material. Increased funding is recommended in the
following five major areas: (1) biology of forest organisms, (2) ecosystem
function and management, (3) human-forest interactions, (4) wood as a raw
material, and (5) international trade, competition, and cooperation. These
five areas represent the broad cross-section of forestry research seen by
the committee as central to addressing present and future societal concerns
pertaining to forests and many global environmental issues. Most of the
research needs described in this chapter have importance for tropical as
well as temperate-zone forestry. Rather than divide research needs into
"tropical" and "temperate" categories, we intend to highlight fundamental
research areas that need to be strengthened. Research needs specific to
each section discussed in this chapter are listed in Appendix B.
27
OCR for page 28
28
FORESTRY RESEARCH
BIOLOGY OF FOREST ORGANISMS
Forests are inhabited by thousands of noncommercial animal, plant,
and microbe species that coexist with commercial tree species. Many of
these organisms perform for the commercially important species critical
ecological functions such as nitrogen fixation, pollination, propagule dis-
persal, mitigation of forest pests, and enhancement of nutrient uptake.
Forest management activities affect the habitats of all these organisms.
Our understanding of ecosystem function and our ability to improve forest
productivity, to ameliorate the effects of environmental disturbances, and
to restore ecosystems are hindered by our limited knowledge of the basic
biology of forest organisms. Thus, research not only on trees, but also
on other plants, animals, and microbes presents opportunities to advance
science and better the human condition.
Physiological and Genetic Bases of the Mechanisms Underlying
Forest Health, Productivity and Adaptability
Forest environments are changing at an accelerating rate; yet, for the
most part, we do not know how forest organisms will adapt and respond
to these changes. Societal demands on forests also continue to increase,
and we must gain fundamental knowledge to allow development of cultural
practices and tree varieties or genotypes that sustain and enhance produc-
tivity. These issues require fundamental understanding of the physiological
and genetic mechanisms controlling the growth and development of key
forest organisms and the interactions occurring among these organisms.
This information is needed, for example, to understand and predict how
tree genotypes will respond to environmental stresses (such as air pollution
and a warming climate) and to identify traits that are particularly beneficial
or useful in specific situations.
Selected microbes, insects, animals, and forest plants other than trees
are important for forest sustainability or the maintenance of biological di-
versity. Basic physiological and genetic information about them is crucial.
By providing a physiological and genetic understanding of the mechanisms
governing adaptive responses of these organisms, we will have a solid basis
for designing cultural practices that will maximize sustainability, productiv-
ity, and survival.
The great diversity of forest organisms and the variety of their inter-
actions makes it difficult to narrow the selection of specific organisms or
processes that merit in-depth genetic and physiological analyses. However,
concentrated analyses of a few model systems have been essential for re-
cent progress in biology, and the selection of a few key forest organisms
could enhance forest research. Already established and easily manipulable
biological model systems such as Drosophila or Arabidopsis can be used
OCR for page 29
AREAS OF RESEARCH
29
by forest researchers to identify genes or gene functions. Information ob-
tained from these established systems can be directly or indirectly applied
to numerous forest organisms. Ultimately, however, the mechanisms or
processes must be verified and characterized in the forest organisms of
interest themselves.
Molecular Genetics of Forest Organisms. Forest trees have been diffi-
cult objects for genetic studies because of their large size and long genera-
tion times. The new technology of recombinant DNA makes it possible to
study the genetic structure of organisms and populations in detail. These
techniques provide new opportunities to study the molecular bases of a wide
variety of genetically regulated processes in growth, metabolism, develop-
ment, response to environmental stimuli, and evolution. These methods
can contribute to the understanding of the mechanisms that underlie host-
pathogen interactions, the responses of forest trees to pests and abiotic
stress, and interactions with other forest organisms.
Studies of the molecular interactions of hosts and pathogens can help
to identify specific genes involved in the resistance to disease or in other
aspects of defense response. Breeding and selection of certain forest tree
species have produced lines that are resistant to major diseases such as
fusiform rust and white pine blister rust. Although progress has been slow,
good material is available and the promise for the future is bright if the
techniques of molecular biology can be applied. Similarly, the technology
can be applied to the study of the genetic properties of pathogens and pests
themselves to provide information that could lead to the development of
better biological control agents (see Pest Management).
Molecular Markers for Stress Responses in Forests. Much concern has
been expressed about the health of our forests in the face of environmental
pollution and the prospects of global change, including changing climate.
Little is known about the molecular physiology of stress responses in forest
trees and other organisms. If the molecular events in stress responses
become better understood, it will be possible to identify the key factors in
the responses of forests to environmental stress. In this way, it will become
possible to monitor the health of forest trees, diagnose problems, determine
the biological bases for declines in specific forests, and take remedial action
to improve forest health.
Genetic Markers. In agronomic crop plants it is generally accepted
that genetic markers will be a significant aid to improved breeding by early
selection of desirable traits. The useful genetic markers called restriction
fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs) are based on the establishment
of a specific set of DNA probes obtained by recombinant DNA techniques.
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30
FORESTRY RESEARCH
These markers are used to establish detailed genetic maps of important
species that permit accelerated breeding strategies. Breeding can be accel-
erated when linkage between genetic markers and important traits can be
determined.
Once detailed maps are established, genes that confer useful properties
-such as those for improved wood properties, disease resistance, or stress
tolerance can be located and identified. More importantly, the technology
provides the opportunity to begin to dissect quantitative traits into genetic
factors that could have major effects on specific phenotypes, but that
have not been analyzed because appropriate phenotypic markers have
been absent. Detailed genetic markers will also be of major value in the
identification of relationships of diverse genetic material, whether in testing
of seed sources or in establishing the interrelationships of organisms at the
population level.
Genetic markers and genetic maps will also be useful in studying popu-
lation genetics and evolution of forest organisms. For example, monitoring
gene frequencies in a given population can provide valuable information
on the effects of a shrinking population as a result of reduced habitat.
In addition, genetic markers can be used to shed light on the behavioral
ecology of forest organisms. In particular, an organism's behavior can now
be accurately linked to its reproductive success through genetic profiling or
fingerprinting.
Genetic Engineering
Genetic engineering of forest organisms will
make possible the use of genetic material that is not currently in the
natural breeding population of a particular forest species. For trees, it
makes possible the use of genetic material from other plants, microbes,
and animals that could confer resistance to diseases, pests, and toxic chem-
icals, as well as the ability to detoxify pollutants, respond to environmental
stresses, and a wide variety of other characteristics that might not exist in
the native species. To make genetic engineering of trees possible, new tech-
nology must be developed and much basic information must be obtained
about the molecular processes that may need to be modified. Other forest
organisms might be engineered to improve biocontrol agents, nutrient up-
take, and pollution control. We must also continuously evaluate potential
hazards that might arise from the large-scale use of genetically engineered
organisms.
~ maximize the usefulness of genetic engineering, genes must be
preserved and studied. The best way to do this is through the preservation
of biological diversity. The loss of biological diversity through habitat
destruction, together with its other undesirable consequences, may cause
existing gene pools to be inadequate for species improvement by genetic
engineering.
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AREAS OF RESEARCH
31
Cell and Tissue Culture of Forest liees. Cell and tissue culture con-
tinue to play important roles in the cellular biology of forest trees and in
micropropagation for commercial forestry. Limitations of the methodology
of tissue culture constitute the major research barrier to the development
of DNA transfer methods that are needed for genetic engineering. Greater
effort is needed to overcome the problems of tissue-culturing many forest
tree species. In addition to its usefulness in genetic engineering, tissue
culture can provide methods for investigating biochemical, physiological,
and developmental characteristics of plant cells that could not be studied
in the intact plant.
Evaluating the Potential Risks of Genetically Modified Organisms us
Forests. Applications of biotechnology in forestry require insights into
natural ecosystems (NRC, 1989b). Organisms that are genetically modified
need to be evaluated to ensure that they pose no unacceptable risk to the
environment or to human health. Emphasis should be given to evaluating
the impacts of the unique properties of modified versus unmodified organ-
isms. Considerable research will be required if we are to learn about the
biological processes and interrelationships within forests so that the safety
of modified organisms can be evaluated responsibly. A great deal of work
is and will continue to be needed to educate the public on both the value
and the safety of the new technologies. In addition, forest scientists will be
needed to assist regulatory agencies in developing and evaluating scientifi-
cally sound guidelines for monitoring the release of genetically engineered
organisms in agriculture and forestry so that our forests will be adequately
protected.
Biotechnology and the Forest Environment. Biotechnology has the po-
tential to help solve many problems of forest environments through treat-
ment of waste products of the forest products industry, improved efficiency
of growth and processing of trees, and the use of molecular technology in
monitoring the responses of forests to environmental stress. For example,
lignin-degrading enzymes from fungi or isolated genes and their products
might be used to degrade lignin wastes and reduce the impact of pulp mills
on local environments (Tien and Kirk, 1983~. Similarly, biotechnology may
improve the efficiency of tree growth by modifying the trees themselves
or their symbiotic microbes. In addition, the impact on the environment
of growing trees for wood in intensive wood-production systems could be
reduced if the properties of wood could be modified to increase yields
through more efficient processing. In this way, less land could produce the
same amount of wood so that the impact on local or regional environments
would diminish (see Wood as a Raw Material).
OCR for page 32
32
Long-Term Site Productivity
FORESTRY RESEARCH
Sustainable productivity is an emerging scientific topic in the fields of
natural resources and agriculture. Soil, pests, and environmental change
and degradation have escalated concerns about our ability to maintain cur-
rent yields of food and fiber (let alone to increase yield). These concerns
have clarified our inadequate knowledge of the basis of productivity. Na-
tional concern exists about the relationship between forest management
activities and timber production, especially harvesting and site preparation,
and about the capacity of the land to generate other benefits on a sustained
basis. Our lack of understanding of the biology, culture, and protection
of urban forests is also severely limiting management of those forests and
policy-making for our future use and enjoyment of them.
Pest Management
Agricultural scientists have shown that one of the most efficient, long-
lasting solutions to disease and insect problems is the use of resistant
varieties. Disease- and pest-resistant trees have been developed through
sexual hybridization and selection, but this is a slow and inefficient process
for tree improvement. Forest scientists need to increase the pace of their
search for resistance to major tree diseases and insect pests. New biotech-
nology methods need to be developed as tools for identifying and utilizing
new sources of resistance.
Integrated pest management is an ecological approach that utilizes bi-
ologically effective, environmentally safe, and economically sound methods
of managing pests. Although it is not a "new" scientific issue, it is receiving
increasing attention as practical problems and social concerns constrain
traditional chemical approaches to pest control. The use of insecticides,
fungicides, herbicides, and biological control are all involved in the devel-
opment of a comprehensive strategy for minimizing pest problems. The
desire for environmentally sound methods of pest management is intensi-
fying, and the philosophy underlying the chemical targeting of organisms is
increasingly questioned. The development of integrated pest management
methods for forest resources is a major scientific challenge.
Biological Pest Control. Agriculture has experienced problems over
the past years in the utilization of broad-range chemicals for the control of
various plant pests. Foresters would thus be wise to anticipate the many
ecological and practical problems that stem from the use of fungicides, her-
bicides, and insecticides for the control of forest pests and to minimize the
use of such chemicals in forest management. Biotechnology will provide
opportunities for alternative approaches to the control of pest populations
OCR for page 33
AREAS OF RESEARCH
33
that are generally more specific and therefore less environmentally dis-
ruptive than broad-range chemical approaches. For example, some viruses
reduce gypsy moth populations specifically while being safe for other insects
and other forest inhabitants (including humans). Such viruses are being
developed for the control of several key forest insect pests, but much more
information is needed on these and other microorganisms (bacteria, fungi,
protozoa, viruses, and so forth) affecting other forest pests. The effective
utilization of such microbial pest control methods requires an intimate un-
derstanding of the nature of these microorganisms and their interactions
with target and nontarget pests.
In considering biotechnological solutions to pest control, biological
control solutions other than the introduction of pathogens, parasites, and
predators should also be pursued. Many of these additional biological
control solutions are based on such biological strategies as biochemical
signals utilized by the pests (pheromones, anemones, and others) and
biochemical mechanisms of natural plant resistance to pests. Basic research
will be needed to identify such signals and determine how they can be
incorporated into pest control strategies.
ECOSYSTEM FUNCTION AND MANAGEMENT
Many of the emerging issues in science have a great impact on societal
problems, especially problems in the area of natural resources and envi-
ronment. In effect, the old distinction between basic and applied sciences
is being dissolved, and scientific agendas are evolving around critical envi-
ronmental issues such as the effects of global warming and of loss of the
ozone layer and biological diversity. Hence, the scientific issues identified
in this section are strongly linked to issues of resource management. Much
scientific effort, however, needs to be devoted to developing basic knowl-
edge and tools that are the scientific foundation for solving problems in
natural resource management.
Essentially all of the major scientific challenges require changes in the
way researchers organize themselves as well as improvements in technology,
such as remote sensing. It is essential that ecosystem research teams be
holistic and interdisciplinary. While scientists working individually or as
small groups can contribute to solutions, the major problems, such as
global change or even the development of alternative silvicultural systems,
require the perspectives and contributions of many disciplines.
Ecosystem ecologists and their colleagues have developed and tested
hypotheses about forests on the basis of a systems view of their structure
and function. Their promising preliminary work needs to be augmented
by greater inclusion of manipulated ecosystems, such as managed forests,
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34
FORESTRY SEARCH
and by greater application of ecosystem principles to the management of
forests and other renewable natural resources.
Forest Ecosystem Research
Research on the structure and function of forest ecosystems has pro-
vided much of the information that is provoking major changes in our
view of forests and how they work and has provided many concepts that
are helping to resolve conflicts among resource values, such as timber and
wildlife. Much of this research has been carried out by scientists outside
of the field of forestry with funding from the National Science Foundation
and private foundations.
We need to drastically expand the effort devoted to basic research on
both natural and intensively managed forest ecosystems. During the past
20 years, such research has been extremely productive of concepts that
have revolutionized perspectives on forests such as (1) the structure and
dynamics of the below-ground subsystem, including the complex interactions
among trees and microbial and fungal communities and the very high rates
of turnover and energy use; (2) the scale and intensity of interactions
between forest canopy and atmosphere, including the canopy's major roles
as condensing and precipitating surfaces; (3) the numerous and critical
linkages between forests and associated streams and rivers, including the
roles of riparian zones and streamside forests in aquatic productivity and
groundwater pollution control; and (4) the rich array of organisms and
processes associated with older natural forests.
Current efforts to develop new forest management systems (see Alter-
native Silvicultural Systems) are drawing heavily on this small body of basic
research. Greatly expanded efforts are needed to extend this knowledge
to all important forest ecosystems and to deepen our understanding of
subsystems and processes, such as those below ground.
Landscape Ecology
Many current forest management problems involve concerns on large
spatial scales and must be viewed, at least in part, at the level of a
landscape. The preservation of habitat for wide-ranging species, such as
large ungulates (for example, elk) or predators (for example, grizzly bear)
was an early problem requiring a larger scale perspective. The northern
spotted owl in the western United States and the red-cockaded woodpecker
in the eastern United States are more current examples. The cumulative
effects on water quality and fish habitat, such as undesirable hydrologic
and sediment responses resulting from excessive short-term cutting within
a particular drainage area, also require a landscape perspective. Another
current and important example is forest fragmentation, as in the division
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AREAS OF RESEARCH
35
of forest landscapes into small-scale patchworks that are less than optimal
for wildlife or particularly susceptible to forest catastrophes, such as wind
damage.
The developing area of landscape ecology deals with the significance of
forest patch size, patch types, the importance of edge or boundary phenom-
ena, and isolation or connectiveness between forest patches of similar types.
Expanded research on forest landscape phenomena is critically needed for
developing the theoretical basis of landscape ecology and for strengthening
the applications of its current concepts.
Further, analytical tools and models are badly in need of development,
including the application of geographic information systems (GIS) and ex-
pert system technology to habitat classification systems and other inventory
and monitoring tasks. Remotely sensed imagery from satellites will be
increasingly used for complex predictions of growth, yield, and ecosystem
and global change.
Global Change
Global change is one of the most important emerging scientific chal-
lenges facing mankind. Global change includes basic changes in climate
associated with increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases and pollu-
tants, reduced concentrations of ozone in the stratosphere, deforestation,
soil erosion, and declining water quality. The scientific challenges are im-
mense and include the prediction of the direction and intensity of changes,
the assessment of the ecological and social consequences of predicted
change, and the identification of appropriate societal responses such as
measures to mitigate impacts and adaptations to them. Furthermore, these
assessments have to be made at scales from local to global and over very
long periods of time.
Issues of global change are numerous: How will global change affect
the composition, growth, productivity, and distribution of forest ecosystems?
How will climatic change affect the emissions of greenhouse gases and
natural hydrocarbons from forest ecosystems? Are there feasible mitigation
or adaptation strategies for minimizing the effects of global change on
forests in a region? How will global change affect the quantity and quality
of water from forested watersheds? Resolving or even understanding these
issues in sufficient detail that appropriate forest policy can be implemented
should be the central focus of much forestry research.
Biological Diversity
The basic concern about loss of biological diversity is the accelerating
and irreplaceable depletion of genes, populations, species, and ecosystems.
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36
FORESTRY RESEARCH
Associated with this depletion is the possible disruption of essential eco-
logical processes, the loss of products currently or potentially obtained
from natural resources, and the loss of options for biological and cul-
tural adaptation to an uncertain future. Changes in aesthetic quality are
also of increasing concern to society as the natural environment becomes
progressively more uniform and biologically impoverished.
Issues of preservation of biological diversity include some old ones
(such as how to maintain game and anadromous fish populations), some
new ones (such as what to do about threatened and endangered species),
and some that are generally unappreciated (such as the need to maintain
invertebrate diversity and local populations of organisms). Conservation
biology is the label sometimes applied to this rapidly expanding area of
science that includes both theoretical and empirical research. Although
biological diversity has often been thought of as a "set-aside" issue, it is
increasingly clear to many scientists and managers that biological diversity
cannot be dealt with solely by creating reservations. Scientific attention is
being directed to the role of the entire landscape matrix, including lands on
which commodity production is dominant, in maintaining diversity. Hence,
the relationship between reserved and commodity lands is a subtopic of
increasing interest.
Questions associated with the preservation of biological diversity in-
clude the following: What elements of biological diversity in a region are
most at risk and where are they located? How do changes in global climate
and atmospheric chemistry and deposition interact with habitat modifica-
tion to affect biological diversity? How is the loss of diversity at one level
of the hierarchy (such as that of the gene or the species) either associated
with or compensated by changes in diversity at other levels (such as that of
the ecosystem or the landscape)?
Alternative Silvicultural Systems
Development of silvicultural systems based on sound biological and
ecological principles is a major challenge for applied forest research, which
must be directed toward new treatments of individual stands and land-
scapes. Silvicultural systems that provide forest products while also allowing
for recreation, more structural diversity, and the production of food will
be useful in many settings. Examples are systems that incorporate coarse,
woody debris, integrate tree and food crops, and create multistructured
stands. Successional and ecosystem concepts can provide the theoretical
support for such systems. Dramatically improved knowledge of landscape
structure and function is also needed if we are to develop ecologically
sound alternative silvicultural systems. Major forest issues that impinge on
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AREAS OF RESEARCH
37
new silvicultural systems including biological diversity, global change, cu-
mulative effects, and the protection of fish and wildlife ultimately require
resolution at the landscape level.
Intensive Management for Wood Production
Large tracts of forest land, particularly those owned by the forest
industry, will continue over the foreseeable future to be managed primarily
for wood production. Many areas of public land are also especially well
suited for wood production, which, if concentrated there, relieves the
pressure to manage less suitable lands intensively. Even these selected
tracts, however, will experience management changes brought about by
societal demands. Research questions revolve around two issues: (1)
incorporating capacity to generate multiple products along with wood, and
(2) learning how to manage forests for wood production without the use
of historically successful forestry tools, particularly clear-cutting, chemicals,
and fire. The search is on for biologically sound and economically efficient
practices that are acceptable to the public.
A close tie exists between silvicultural complexity and harvesting com-
plexity. When timber is grown under silvicultural systems requiring mul-
tiple harvests, multilayer stands, and the leaving of woody debris on site
for wildlife, the job of removing marketable trees becomes extremely dif-
ficult and costly. Developing harvest systems and machines to do this
job efficiently and safely will require the application of research. Simi-
lar statements can be made about site preparation, slash abatement, and
regeneration.
Another requirement for complex silvicultural systems is detailed site-
specific planning among silviculturists, forest engineers, fish and wildlife
biologists, and other resource specialists. For example, the hazards of
certain forest tree diseases, such as annosus root rot, little leaf disease,
and Phytophthora root rot of Fraser fir, have been shown to be reduced
by site selection studies involving analyses of soil characteristics as well
as preplanting sampling of soil for presence of the pathogen. Forestry is
suffering from a lack of properly trained personnel under present operating
conditions, a problem that will only get worse as the silvicultural systems
become more complex.
HUMAN-FOREST INTERACTIONS
The needs of people drive the use and the misuse of forests. Our
efforts to understand how people think about and act on forests have
been minimal, and yet most controversies and shortages ultimately arise
from human activity. The role of forests and forestry in rural development
is recognized as important, but the research base is inadequate in both
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AREAS OF RESEARCH
A_ _ _ r __ . ~
39
and structure in sociobiological systems is critical to understanding the per-
sistence and change of these rural institutions and ultimately the cultural
Sync or community. Setter understanding of the human community asso-
ciated with forests is required for guiding forest management and providing
a perspective for sustainable resource development.
Urbanization of the Forests and Urban Forests. Cities are encroaching
upon forest boundaries. Conversely, all cities contain trees and many
contain forests. These interactions have several effects. First, citizens
are becoming more active and involved in the decision-making process
about forest management and forest use, often influencing consideration
and implementation of alternative forest plans. Second, human habitation
within the forest and at its edge is on the rise. Homes built in forests
for year-round living are increasing in number. Expectations for public
services such as water and fire protection are altering practices of forest fire
management. Urban residents who define forests as backyards or vistas are
turning forests into parks, with trails, gardens, and recreation superseding
forest harvesting practices. Major questions include, At what rate are forests
being urbanized? How and where is it occurring? What constraints are
being placed on harvesting rates? How are forest management plans and
policies changing to accommodate multiple values of the forest expressed
in the urbanization of those forests?
Urban forests-wooded tracts of lands in cities and metropolitan
areas provide habitat for wildlife, scenic outdoor space for people, and
economic value to cities. Urban forests are far more extensive than most
people realize, covering an estimated 69 million acres (Grey and Deneke,
1986~. Such forests are of special significance in our highly urban society.
Eight out of ten Americans now live, work, and spend most of their leisure
time in and around urban areas. Urban forests are particularly important
to those Americans who have limited access to more rural areas, including
those who are old, young, disabled, disadvantaged, low in income, and short
on time, as well as members of minority groups who fear discrimination in
more distant areas. Yet these places are little understood. Urban forests
are often a diverse component in an even more complex ecosystem. Char-
acterized mainly by trees, but including other plants, animals, and climatic
and soil conditions, these places provide habitat for wildlife and people,
clean and cool our air, deflect or absorb noise, produce oxygen, and reduce
carbon dioxide emissions.
A broad spectrum of benefits and opportunities provided by urban
forests ranges from sitting in the cool shade of an urban park to hiking
in the '~wild" parts of forest preserves and studying nature in arboretums,
conservatories, and zoological gardens. ~ee-lined corridors linking larger
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40
FORESTRY RESEARCH
tracts provide a forest setting for increasingly popular "linear activities"
such as walking, jogging, bicycling, and skiing.
Urban forests present special problems that need to be solved if we
are to succeed in providing and protecting this essential part of the human
environment. Both education and research are needed specifically for
urban forests. We need to gather information on individual tree species and
other organisms as distinct from stands or forests. These data will answer
management needs for maintaining these organisms. More knowledge
is needed in selecting the best tree species for each urban forest site
and in controlling the growth of trees, especially under power lines and
in landscape plantings near buildings. We need to know more about
which insects and diseases should be controlled and how best this can be
accomplished. Pruning, tree removal, and disposal are major issues. Urban
forest management practices need to be acceptable to the public as well
as to the managers. We need more research on construction damage and
how to reduce it substantially; large numbers of trees are being killed or
severely damaged because their roots are injured during construction.
Regional Resource Systems. Forestry policies-like those of agricul-
ture, fisheries, mining, tourism, and the protection of natural resources-
can no longer be developed in isolation from other potential uses of
resources. Forestry at the expense of agriculture, or agriculture at the
expense of fisheries, or any primary resource production process at the
expense of resource protection ignores the systemic relationships that ex-
ist. Conversely, few parks and preserves are large enough to protect a
given species within their bounds. Such enclaves depend on the resource
management practices about them to achieve their goals. Thie twenty-first
century forester, farmer, government warden, and park manager will need
to recognize the interdependence of each of their forms of natural resource
management on the others. To succeed, resource management must be
considered in the context of an ecosystem, where resource development,
conservation, and protection are considered simultaneously. Competition
for resources will give way to cooperative management strategies, where
conservation and resource management are linked in sustainable resource
systems (Field and Burch, 1988~.
Leo concepts underlying the thinking within a regional planning pro-
cess and action plan are ecosystem management principles and planning
at the landscape or regional level. Research must further define these
concepts and their utility for forest management. In addition, a behavioral
science-human ecological research perspective on this topic will enhance
the future of forestry practices.
Recreation and Aesthetics. Social science research oriented toward
recreation should be continued. However, the form and focus of the
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AREAS OF RESEARCH
41
research should be shifted. The emphasis has been on wilderness and back-
country research at the expense of understanding recreation in the general
forest system. Further, the nature of the research has been problem-
driven, particularly by conflict among different groups that use forests
for recreation. For example, few studies exist of the natural history of a
recreation activity, of forest recreation at the urban fringe, and of recreation
in agroforestry areas. Finally, most forest sociology research has been more
applied than basic and more often appears in nonrefereed publications.
Natural Resource Sociology in an International Con text. Natural re-
source sociologists are participating in greater numbers in international
studies of human-forest interactions, including community studies and in-
ternational tourism. The systematic study of agroforest~y and social forestry,
in particular, is in its infancy. Benefiting from studies in anthropology and
rural sociology, forestry, agriculture, and aquaculture will become inte-
grated as a mosaic of resource activities at the community level and will
say much about conservation strategies in the future.
Extension of Forest Sociology. Extension specialists are a primary con-
duit through which scientific knowledge about forestry is shared with clien-
tele groups. Currently forestry extension specialists are likely to have been
educated in the physical and biological sciences and to have worked with
the technical aspects of forestry. Contemporary issues and future problems
will embrace resource-dependent communities, social conDict and conflict
resolutions over multiple values of forests, urbanization of the forest and
urban forests, and public involvement in planning for and making decisions
about forests. Within this context, the issues associated with the clientele
groups interested in forestry are becoming more diverse. The range of
extension specialists must be expanded to embrace broader disciplinary
backgrounds and to improve communication. Similarly, social scientists
working on forestry problems must apply their research results to problem
solving, help extension specialists understand the human factors in forestry,
and help develop examples of the benefits and negative impacts of changes
in forestry practices.
WOOD AS A RAW MATERIAL
The Need for a Major and Sustained Commitment to Forest Products
Research in the United States
Wood is a leading industrial raw material in the United States, ac-
counting for about 25 percent of the value of all major industrial materials.
On a tonnage basis, it exceeds all other structural materials combined.
Similarly, it is the principal source of industrial fiber. The demand for
forest products is growing: The global demand for timber products grew
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by 90 percent in the past three decades (USDA Forest Service, 1982) and
is projected to grow another 45 percent by the year 2000 (FAO, 1986~.
The U.S. demand is projected to increase to 20.8 billion cubic feet by
the year 2000 (Haynes and Adams, 1985~. These increased demands, if
imposed on limited supplies, will result in increased prices of products and
will thereby have a particularly devastating effect on the affordability of
housing, furniture, paper, and other forest products.
The reasons for the popularity of wood as a versatile industrial material
are well known. Wood is far less demanding of energy than other industrial
materials, such as steel, aluminum, plastics, brick, and concrete. Solar
energy produces this industrial raw material, and a large fraction of the
energy required to process it into useful products is provided by using the
residues of its own manufacturing operations, thus minimizing requirements
for fossil fuels.
The United States grows more wood than it consumes, but it has been
a net importer of forest products ever since 1916. As U.S. dependence
on foreign wood products increases, the importation of forest products
becomes a significant and growing negative contribution to the nation's
balance of trade problems.
If the supply of industrial roundwood from forests in the United States
declines, the forest products manufacturing sector of the domestic system
may have to sustain itself on foreign raw material. An alternative scenario
is for the entire system to diminish to match the smaller supply of raw
materials. If the United States is to participate significantly in meeting its
own requirements for forest products, it must either increase its production
of industrial roundwood, create a favorable climate for the manufacture of
products from imported roundwood, or both. Other sections of this report
address the problems associated with the first alternative. This section deals
with the problems associated with maintaining a manufacturing sector that
can utilize both domestic and foreign raw material supplies.
At present, the United States is not only failing to supply its own
raw materials, but it is also losing ground in manufacturing. For example,
the United States has lost the market in machinery used in the manufac-
ture of wood products. In the manufacture of pulp and paper, most of
the major process and product breakthroughs over the past 15 years have
come from overseas; these include continuous digester pulping, high-yield
thermomechanical pulping, oxygen-bleaching, and control of dioxin in ef-
huents. South American countries are now replacing the United States
as the world's low-cost producer of pulp and paper products, and other
developing countries are entering these markets. If the United States is
to reverse the trend toward dependency on foreign suppliers for forest
products, its research efforts must be substantially expanded and improved,
and the production of competent research scientists in the field of wood
science and technology must be increased.
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43
Although the United States is a net importer of wood, it has been
successful in exporting some of its products (such as softwood plywood)
when substantial investments have been made in research and development.
Similar opportunities exist for other products. Historically, the United
States has been a leader in research in wood science and technology, but
that leadership has been declining from a peak immediately after World
War II. Significantly, the Wallenberg Award for breakthrough research in
forestry and forest product research has been presented only once to a U.S.
researcher.
The reasons for the decline in research in wood science and technology
are numerous. Despite the benefits of wood as a material, federal research
investments are very modest. For example, in 1982, the funding of materials
research by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, which focused mainly on
wood and some agricultural crops, was reported to be about $30 million
dollars, or only 3 percent of the $1 billion dollars spent on materials
research overall. In addition, federal in-house research on wood science
and technology is essentially concentrated in a single laboratory the Forest
Products Laboratory in Madison, Wisconsin. Federal monies have had
little effect on the development of regionally based forestry research at
universities. A modest but promising effort to broaden the base of federally
conducted research after World War II through the establishment of a
Forest Utilization Service at each experiment station was abandoned.
The number of undergraduate programs in wood science and tech-
nology at universities is declining. Currently, 23 universities in the United
States offer some type of program in wood science and technology; because
of declining enrollments, four of these have practically abandoned under-
graduate education. Graduate education and research, however, continue
to various extents at all of the 23 institutions. Doctoral programs are of-
fered in 22 of the 23. All institutions face difficult prospects on several
fronts. The number of students who are U.S. citizens, for example, is de-
clining to such an extent that a significant portion (usually 50 to 60 percent)
of the graduate enrollment is currently composed of foreign students (N
Moslemi, Chairman, Accreditation Committee, Society of Wood Science
and Technologr, University of Idaho, Moscow, personal communication,
19904.
In addition to problems in the supply of graduate students, research
laboratories in the field of wood science and technology are generally in
need of modernization. Available funding is almost always inadequate to
meet this need.
A number of research areas will contribute appreciably to such topics
as the recycling of the substantial amounts of wood and fibers that are cur-
rently discarded in landfills. Research on enhancing export opportunities
can yield significant results in increased exports from the United States.
Biotechnology relating to wood also has substantial potential. Combining
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wood with nonwood materials to develop fire-resistant, durable building
and industrial materials is becoming increasingly practicable. These are
only a few examples of the many profitable areas of research that can be
addressed by the wood science and technology community. Such research
has the potential to contribute to a vibrant forest products industry as it
supplies literally thousands of products to U.S. and global markets.
Timber Harvesting Research
Timber harvesting is the economic mainstay of many rural commu-
nities in the United States and the lifeblood of forest operations in that
it provides the funds necessary to build roads and carry out desirable
multiple-use forestry practices. Harvesting is also an essential operation
for industries using wood and fiber because it is the source of raw material.
Additionally, it is the primary silvicultural tool used to achieve a variety of
objectives ranging from reforestation to stocking control, and it is there-
fore a constructive mechanism for maintaining the forest environment and
productivity.
Timber harvesting, along with wood-fiber processing and related man-
ufacturing, also presents tremendous opportunities for economic growth
and development. But retaining the current levels of industrial activity,
let alone realizing growth, will require improvements in timber harvesting
technology. The improvements are necessary because timber harvesting is
currently (1) potentially disruptive and devastating to the forest environ
ment and (2) expensive relative to the total cost of the raw material.
Des ?ite its im portent and useful aspects, current harvesting technology
can cause problems. Heavy machines may compact fragile soils and root
systems, improperly laid roads may cause landslides, and logging may
bring about undesirable visual impacts over the short term. These often
unacceptable problems have reduced harvesting activity in some areas.
Such reductions will eventually reduce activity in wood and fiber processing
and manufacturing industries.
Additionally, the expense of timber harvesting in the United States
adds more substantially to the cost of the raw material than it does in other
countries, potentially putting our wood-based industries at a global disad-
vantage. This, along with our current inability to eliminate unacceptable
environmental disruption, may leave our industries and rural communities
unable to capitalize on economic opportunities.
Current problems in timber harvesting represent three engineering
challenges: (1) Negative aspects of timber harvest and silvicultural oper-
ations must be reduced or eliminated, (2) efficiency of silvicultural and
harvest operations must be increased, and (3) the cost of harvested raw
material must be reduced.
Engineering research is essential to meeting the challenges and cap
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45
italizing on opportunities in timber harvesting and wood-based material
processing and manufacturing. Evidence of the potential long-term ben-
efits of timber harvesting research is seen in the Scandinavian countries,
where technology has been developed, through research, to make timber
harvesting a highly successful component of their profitable export-oriented
wood and wood-fiber industries.
Research to Avoid or Minimize Negative Environmental Impacts Dur~ng
Harvesi'ng Because harvesting damages the forest, it is essential to design
harvesting practices and systems that do not reduce long-term productivity,
add unwanted sediment and debris to streams, reduce desirable wildlife
habitat, or destroy beautiful forest vistas. In fact, our challenge is to
enhance outputs of all valuable forest resources and see that they are
sustainable and complementary, not merely to keep the production of one
output from destroying another. Our goal should be nothing less than
higher timber yields, cleaner water, more fish, more diverse native fauna,
and better recreational opportunities. Timber harvesting practices affect
all of these outputs and must be carefully managed to provide positive
influences. Such a result will require a great deal of research to investigate
consequences of various harvest systems operating over varied topography
and soils, as well as their application in time and space.
Research to Improve the Efficacy of Silvicul~ral and Harvest Machin-
ery and Operations. We must learn how to undertake forest harvest and
silvicultural operations so that the desired outcome is obtained. Whether
through greater mechanization, worker training, better planning, or alter-
native harvest and transportation systems, it is essential that operations
in the forest have results that are precisely those intended by the forest
manager or harvest plan designer.
Greater mechanization in the woods can mitigate environmental dam-
age if logging practices designed for site-specific topography and stand
conditions are used properly. On the other hand, improper use of heavy
equipment will exacerbate the problem. Even with more conventional log-
ging practices, the challenge to research is to provide forest engineers with
information needed to weigh economic against environmental impacts. Re-
search investigating mechanized harvesting must especially consider impacts
on long-term productivity.
A major challenge to forest managers is harvesting on steep slopes,
fragile soils, and other sensitive areas that are oD limits to conventional
ground equipment. Flexible harvest systems (cable, aerial, and mixtures
with ground systems) having low ground impact and capable of perform-
ing logging operations over long distances and irregular terrain must be
developed and tested.
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Research to Reduce Harvesi~ng Costs and Improve Profitability and Safety.
Research into productivity improvement and cost reduction is Important
because the timber supply is changing often to smaller trees and trees
of less desirable shapes and of less desirable species. These changing
attributes are often associated with higher logging costs and, in turn, with
businesses having greater difficulty remaining profitable and competitive.
People are the most important part of any organization, and the logging
industry faces an especially serious safety and training problem. Workers'
compensation bills, which can approach the value of gross payroll, dictate
a strong need for greater emphasis on training and safety. New logging
machinery requires sophisticated operator skill. Major improvements in
training and safety in the logging industry are possible over the next decade.
INTERNATIONAL TRADE, COMPETITION, AND COOPERATION
Improvements in international trade, competitiveness, and cooperation
in the sustainable production of goods and services from forest resources
depend on information. Detailed knowledge about forests and natural
resources worldwide is limited at best. Information about international
trade is also sketchy, yet trade policies that facilitate economic growth
while sustaining the natural resource base are urgently needed. Forest
resource inventory and commercial supply characteristics of participants in
world markets must be made available if meaningful work on integrated
worldwide supply and demand projections is to be initiated.
Information, Supply, and Demand
Changes in international trade policies, national marketing strategies,
and world markets can have significant impacts on the natural resource
base. Economic models must be developed that can predict and assess
these changes and their consequences on the domestic as well as the
worldwide natural resource base. The role of government policies on
domestic markets, international trade, competition, and cooperation in
production and distribution of forest outputs of goods and services must be
explored.
Economic models must, over time, describe and analyze forest resource
ownership by such characteristics as size, distribution, and managerial
objectives. An important goal here is greater understanding of the potential
for production of nonmarket goods and services from forest environments
and increased ability to assess the value of these products. A corollary
objective is the exploration of domestic and international policies that
encourage trade in nonconsumptive uses of forest resources.
An opportunity exists to obtain matching support for this type of eco-
nomic analysis. This is possible through existing legislation for the creation
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47
of International Trade Development Centers (ITDCs). This legislation
requires interdisciplinary approaches and collaboration between state and
federal agencies. Although many states have established promotion and
contact programs, most find themselves short of analytical underpinning;
implementation of ITDCs, particularly on a regional basis, could help to
fill that void.
Substantial effort is needed to explore the impacts of env~ronmen-
tal constraints on the production and export of wood products. Such
constraints can raise COStS. Increases in prices of wood products force
greater substitution of commodities that depend on nonrenewable natural
resources. Currently, the United States can increase supplies of forest prod-
ucts with less environmental degradation than most other nations. Envi-
ronmental restrictions imposed worldwide could cause developing countries
to depend increasingly on U.S. forest products. Environmental constraints
imposed on U.S. production, however, could cause increased exploita-
tion elsewhere with detrimental environmental consequences. Research
is needed to explore how international trade and debt policies can fos-
ter equity among nations in both benefits and costs of environmentally
sound management of natural resources coupled with sustainable economic
growth.
Basic to trade in any market is the value of items exchanged. We clearly
need to increase our understanding of prices and values in the exchange
of goods and services produced from forests. Many wood products reflect
prices that are consistent with their true value; many do not. Noncommodity
products of forests are often not priced in accordance with their value,
nor are they appropriately recorded in national accounting systems. In-
depth studies are needed to understand the role and value of forests in
broader environmental issues such as water quality, the carbon cycle, ozone
levels, and air pollution. Follow-up studies would provide for the proper
accounting of both market and nonmarket values and associated costs of
outputs of forest environments.
Utilization, Marketing, Employment, and E=hange. Significant gains
can be captured from domestic and international wood utilization research
to make more efficient use of existing wood supplies. More effective use of
forest resources, especially hardwoods, would extend supplies, reduce waste,
and slow deforestation. In a number of situations, technological processes
in the temperate climates of the United States and other industrial nations
may be adapted readily to local conditions and species in the tropics.
Returns-on investments in enhanced utilization of wood supplies can be
high.
Forest-based industry is critical to employment, markets, and inter-
national exchange. Forest industry can contribute to local and national
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FORESTRY RESEARCH
economies in several ways. Employment and income are generated, inputs
for other sectors of the economy are provided, and foreign exchange is aug-
mented. These contributions, however, depend on basic forest resources,
depletion of which can seriously threaten the supply of both wood and
nontimber goods and services. Internationally, this threat is real. Mopical
deforestation and over-exploitation of natural forests, wasteful harvesting
practices and inefficient utilization, and inadequate investment in forest
management and reforestation call for both research and action to manage
and reduce threats to the resource base.
Increased imports impose a high cost on developing nations. Many
of these countries have a sufficient base in land and natural resources
to meet their domestic industrial and consumption needs at a cost lower
than that of import alternatives. These countries and the international
community would benefit from major research efforts aimed at enhanced
management of forests and promotion of appropriate and sustainable forest-
based industries. Major components of this research would be on natural
regeneration and perpetuation of species having high commercial value and
on improved harvesting systems to increase utilization and reduce logging
damage.
International trade, competition, and cooperation depend on prices
and accounting systems that accurately reflect the value of the forest re-
source and its products. A major need exists for research on appropriate
and valid concession and pricing policies, especially in tropical countries.
Existing research demonstrates that some government policies generate
strong economic incentives to accelerate deforestation. Identified research
needs include (1) understanding the level and structure of timber royalties
and other charges; (2) exploring forest concession policies, including their
duration, other license fees, and prescriptions of harvesting methods; and
(3) examining trade-oDs between policies that encourage export of logs
versus those that facilitate domestic processing.
Interdependence and E=ernaliites. The high interdependence of all
natural resource systems makes production and distribution decisions ex-
tremely difficult. Management decisions impose costs and benefits not only
among owners, neighbors, and world markets, but between present and
future generations of humankind. These questions and implications of in-
terdependence and externalities call for research that integrates a number
of disciplines. The stakes here are substantial. They include the quality of
air, water, and soil resources, the biological diversity of natural and man-
aged systems, and the sustained productivity of the world's forests, crop
lands, grazing lands, wetlands, and riparian zones.
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49
International Competition and Cooperation. Population growth and in-
creased worldwide poverty call for coordinated and cooperative remedial
efforts. Population pressure and poverty often result in accelerated de-
forestation, especially in developing countries. Critical research questions
about the impact of growing populations and poverty on international trade
in forest products must be investigated in terms of supply and demand pro-
jections and prospects. An underlying issue here is the question of whether
or not the world's natural resource base can both support population growth
and contribute to the diminution of poverty. With an objective of sustain-
able economic development worldwide, research must identify nations or
resource conditions that promise intrinsic comparative advantage in wood
and forest products.
The United States has traditionally played a major role in exports
and imports of forest products. We need research that would clarify the
role of currency exchange in determining international trade. When the
U.S. dollar falls in value, U.S. products become relatively inexpensive and
exports tend to increase. At the same time, the underlying economic
resources, forest land, and production facilities become more valuable as
assets to be purchased by foreign investors. Research can help to identify
the implications of such prospects. Furthermore, studies can be directed at
such questions as why the United States exports logs and imports finished
products. Answers will offer strategic insight into actions that trading
partners can take to ensure continued gains from increased competition
and cooperation.
Policy Research. Better international trade, competition, and cooper-
ation can be ensured only with resource policies that facilitate attainment
of these goals. Both national and international policies for resource use
and management are relevant. Policies must be preceded by research that
examines some critical questions: (1) What are the effects of major macroe-
conomic entities such as the Federal Reserve on forest resources? (2) Why
are forest resources in developing countries being depleted so rapidly?
(Is it national debt? Agricultural policies?) (3) Reduced deforestation in
tropical countries implies economic advantage for industrialized nations
in the forestry sector how can this conflict of interests be rectified? (4)
What are the forest resource implications of a global carbon tax based
on net national emissions of carbon? Forestry research directed toward
major societal issues can contribute significantly to progress in formulating
policies that ensure sustainable development.
Representative terms from entire chapter:
forest organisms
