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OCR for page 275
rid
Education in the Hydrologic Sciences
Higher education in hydrology, especially at the graduate level,
has long been the province of engineering departments in most uni-
versities. Doctoral and master's degree programs administered by
these departments have been directed toward the traditional con-
cerns of water resources development, hazard mitigation, and water
management as predicated on societal needs. The research focus in
these departments has properly been the analysis and solution of
problems related to engineering practice, on the premise that these
problems contribute palpably to the technical knowledge base required
for water resources allocation, the management of floods and droughts,
and pollution control. Current societal needs, as expressed through
legislative action or executive orders, are as important to the choice
of research problems and their methods of solution as are the flow of
scientific ideas and technological breakthroughs.
This well-developed and successful line of inquiry differs mark-
edly from that pursued in the pure sciences, such as chemistry. The
difference, in fact, is exactly analogous to that between the disciplines
of chemistry and chemical engineering. Chemistry is the science that
deals with the composition, structure, and properties of substances
and the reactions that they undergo. Chemical engineering deals
with the design, development, and application of manufacturing processes
in which materials undergo changes in their properties. The first
discipline is a science, dealing with puzzle solving (i.e., motivated by
a question), whereas the second is an application of science, dealing
with problem solving (i.e., motivated by the solution). Hydrology
275
OCR for page 276
276
OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES
has a long and distinguished history of problem solving, but where
is the antecedent science of puzzle solving?
The education of hydrologic scientists offers challenges as great
as those in engineering hydrology, but the spirit of the enterprise
is different, just as it is between education in chemistry and in chemical
engineering. In scientific hydrology, as in chemistry, research is done
in the context of the three chief stages of development of any pure
science: careful observation of phenomena (the natural history stage),
quantification and conceptual modeling (the empirical stage), and
quantitative prediction (the exact stage). The choice of research problem
is occasioned by its level of development within the hierarchy of the
science, by the availability of new methods with which to solve it,
and by the desire to understand a hydrologic phenomenon more deeply.
The solution of the problem advances the development of the science
and expands the conceptual framework that gives it meaning. It is
this kind of internally driven intellectual pursuit that motivates the
pure scientist and that must be instilled by the educational process
that forms her or his professional outlook. That is the challenge to
hydrologic science, and it differs from the challenge to engineering.
It is a challenge that must be met at the graduate and undergraduate
education levels, in precollege education, and in educating and training
an increasingly diverse student population.
GRADUATE EDUCATION IN THE HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES
As a result of this challenge, graduate education in the hydrologic
sciences should be pursued independently of civil engineering. The
problem is made clear by the disciplinary structure of earth system
science as illustrated in Figure 5.1. The warp of this intellectual
fabric consists of the three traditional geoscience threads: solid earth
science, atmospheric science, and ocean science. The weft contains
multidisciplinary threads among which hydrologic science is dominant
by virtue of its central role in cycling energy and matter. Some uni-
versities have recognized this by housing "water science" programs
in departments such as geography or geology. However, few offer a
coherent program that treats hydrology as a separate geoscience. It
is a premise of this report that hydrology~xpanded in scope, importance,
and potential—must escape mere inclusion as an option under engi-
neering, geology, or natural resources programs. Establishment of
specialized Ph.D. and master's degree programs is, therefore, necessary
to enhance the identity of hydrology as an established science. Graduates
are needed who are considered first and foremost as hydrologists,
not as civil engineers or geologists who know something about hy-
OCR for page 277
EDUCATION IN THE HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES
(Solid) Atmos.
Earth Science
Science
1 '
Ocean
Science
Hydrologic
Science
~-
Ecology
Biogeochemistry |
Mathematics |
FIGURE 5.1 The disciplinary structure of earth system science.
277
drology. A solid program of course work with unified requirements
would constitute an integral part of a graduate program and thereby
ensure that degree candidates in the hydrologic sciences have a common
background in fundamental, scientific hydrology.
Besides these professional considerations, there are institutional
constraints that lead to the conclusion that a hydrologic sciences pro-
gram should not be "hosted" by a single department in another
discipline. Consider, for example, the case in which hydrology is
viewed as a subdiscipline within a geological sciences department.
In the more traditional geology departments, students encounter se-
rious difficulties in preparing for comprehensive examinations because
of departmental policies that impose a geological focus on these ex-
aminations. Geologists, like other disciplinary scientists, tend to be
conservative when defining requirements pertaining to the main ele-
ments of their subject. These narrow requirements are appropriate
for students in, say, petrology, geochemistry, or petroleum geology,
but they do not serve students well who specialize in the hydrologic
sciences. The committee for a Ph.D. comprehensive examination is a
departmental committee, usually with limited flexibility in crossing
departmental boundaries; often this is also true of the research com-
mittee. A similar problem can occur in civil engineering departments,
OCR for page 278
278
OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES
where graduate students who do not have an undergraduate degree
in engineering may be required to complete a suite of core courses in
the undergraduate engineering curriculum, irrespective of issues related
to professional accreditation and to the detriment of a specialization
in hydrologic science.
There are three potential options for structuring a graduate hydrology
program that is not a subdiscipline in a host geological sciences, ge-
ography, or engineering department. One option is a separate department
of hydrologic science. The other two options involve less formal,
multidisciplinary programs, in one case autonomously degree-granting
and in the other, degree-granting through participating departments.
Each option offers advantages and disadvantages with respect to the
needs of university administration, faculty, and students.
The first option is perhaps the ideal one: establishing a graduate
department. It is probably also the least realizable in most universi-
ties, at least in the near future, given the usual resistance to the creation
of new academic units with autonomous status and dedicated facilities.
Nonetheless this approach best serves the goal of establishing hydrology
as an integral geosciences discipline, with a distinct identity separate
from engineering. This option also avoids certain pitfalls of
multidisciplinary programs, which are described below. Very few
universities, however, will have the commitment and resource base
necessary for introducing a new department. In most cases, such an
academic unit would probably be limited to a few core faculty members
with adjunct professors from other departments. Creation of a sepa-
rate department is a goal to strive for, however, at a few key univer-
sities where current, well-established hydrology programs make this
option viable. An additional resource base might be available with
federal funding for a center of excellence in hydrology, or some
comparable concept. In most universities, however, multidisciplinary
programs are the more feasible and realistic approach.
A multidisciplinary, interdepartmental program has some unique
advantages over a separate department. Hydrologic science is, by its
very nature, interdisciplinary (see Figure 5.1) and hence is well suited
to such a format. The courses taught presently in hydrology at academic
institutions show its diversity, since they are offered typically in a
range of departments and programs (e.g., civil engineering, forestry,
geology, geography, and soil science). Moreover, faculty members
with strong interests in hydrology, although they may not teach more
than one course in the area, are also found in a diverse array of
disciplines (e.g., aquatic ecology, limnology, and meteorology).
. . .. . . . .
Adding to this interdepartmental flavor is the breadth expected of
doctoral candidates who wish to do research in the hydrologic sciences.
OCR for page 279
EDUCATION IN THE HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES
279
For example, if research focuses on global climate and hydrology, the
perspective to be developed in a student is that of the geophysicist
who elucidates the dynamical, thermal, and hydrologic interactions
among the atmosphere, ocean, and land surface. This comprehensive
effort involves theoretical analysis, numerical modeling, laboratory
experiments, and the analysis of observation. For research on ground
water hydrology, the required perspective is a quantitative focus on
the analysis of ground water flow and mass transfer, with an under-
standing of the fundamental role that geology plays in determining
the nature of the subsurface environment. And for research on the
chemistry of hydrologic processes, the perspective to be developed in
the student is that of the applied chemist who is comfortable work-
ing with field scientists (or with engineers) and who appreciates the
relationship between pure chemical research and the behavior of open,
natural water systems. These three examples illustrate the need for a
broad range of educational inputs to graduate education in the hydrologic
sciences.
But the interdepartmental option has some disadvantages. One is
that students often fail to achieve a disciplinary perspective or a feeling
of attachment to a professional discipline. Moreover, many of the
courses, when taken from a set of departmental rosters, are tailored
to the needs of the departments and not to the field of hydrology.
The hydrology graduate student may be inadvertently short-changed.
From the faculty perspective, allegiance is split between the program
and the home department, two units whose goals are not necessarily
compatible. The multidisciplinary approach also creates an addi-
tional layer of administration. Nevertheless, this is probably the most
appropriate approach for many academic institutions.
For a multidisciplinary, interdepartmental program, both degree-
granting and non-degree-granting options must be considered. The
degree-granting option is advantageous for the student. It minimizes
the problems of satisfying department course and comprehensive ex-
amination requirements that may not be closely relevant to hydrology
studies. It also provides a higher probability of receiving financial
resources (e.g., research and teaching assistantships) than when these
are linked to member departments whose first priority in granting
financial aid is to support their own students. This is, of course, also
true for resources such as laboratory and office space, or equipment.
Although the degree-granting option may be preferable from the
students' perspective, it is not practical to envision the creation of a
degree-granting academic unit in the hydrologic sciences on most
campuses. Interdepartmental graduate programs that grant degrees
are confederations that must compete with degree programs in the
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280
OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES
member departments for resources, students, and faculty loyalties.
Usually this competition will not turn out favorably for the multi-
disciplinary program, since it has neither the professional strength
nor the tradition of faculty support that has been garnered by the
disciplinary programs. The onus of attempting to overcome these
obstacles to survival is lessened if a graduate program in the hydro-
logic sciences offers degrees only through member departments.
The advantages of a multidisciplinary, non-degree-granting graduate
program are in reducing conflict, both between the program and the
participating departments and among the participating departments,
over admission requirements, resource allocation, faculty time and
effort, facilities, and extramural support. These issues would not
generate controversy because they would be treated by each department
individually, with concurrence required only in respect to the general
design of the interdisciplinary graduate program to which all departments
have contributed. The disadvantages of the program not granting a
degree are in the loss of direct visibility as an academic unit, an
increase in the bureaucracy attending academic planning, and a reduced
opportunity for faculty interaction in research and teaching. These
disadvantages must be weighed against the benefits from lessened
conflicts before deciding how the hydrologic sciences program should
be structured.
STRUCTURING THE GRADUATE PROGRAM
A solid program of course work with unified requirements would
constitute an integral part of any graduate program in the hydrologic
sciences and thereby ensure that degree candidates would have a
common background in fundamental scientific hydrology. The course
program would introduce students to a broad range of hydrologic
processes and would form the basis for further specialization in sur-
face water or ground water hydrology, global climatic processes, hy-
drometeorology, hydrogeochemistry, or surficial processes. This formal
core curriculum should be rounded off with multidisciplinary seminars
addressing issues related to environmental quality and including scientists,
engineers, economists, and water managers.
Table 5.1 lists four general areas of course work that can serve as
the basis for a core curriculum in the hydrologic sciences at the graduate
level. Each topic entered under one of the four areas can be the
subject of a single course or can be included with other topics in a
single course the precise structuring of the curriculum will vary
among programs. In most cases, a field course that integrates the
contents of the classroom courses may be desirable in order to obtain
OCR for page 281
EDUCATION IN THE HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES
TABLE 5.1 A Set of Topics for Graduate Programs in
the Hydrologic Sciences
General Areas
Individual Topics
Fluid motions
Hydrologic phenomena
Hydrologic techniques
Hydrologic policy
Flow in porous media
Geophysical fluid mechanics
Open-channel flows
Theoretical or dynamic meteorology
Aquatic biology and ecology
Aquatic chemistry
Boundary-layer meteorology
Climatology
Fluvial geomorphology
Geochemistry
Ground water hydrology
Hillslope hydrology
Microbiology
Soil physics
Snow hydrology
Surface water hydrology
Computer simulation
Data analysis methods
Field research methods
Optimization and decision analysis
Remote sensing
Software development
Statistical inference
Stochastic processes
Natural resource economics
Water law and institutions
Water resource management
Water quality management
281
a more direct appreciation of hydrologic processes than can be had
from classroom materials, laboratory exercises, and weekend field
trips. A field course could be designed to allow students to develop
a better understanding of runoff generation processes, survey differ-
ent hydrologic regimes, illustrate the water infrastructure of a state,
or introduce and demonstrate methods of field data collection.
The first step in establishing a graduate program in the hydrologic
sciences should be the convening of interested faculty and administrators
on a campus to form a working group that will develop an academic
plan. This plan should consider such elements as:
OCR for page 282
282
OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES
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OCR for page 283
EDUCATION IN THE HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES
283
· the institution's current effort to provide graduate education in
hydrology, focusing on its strengths and weaknesses as a coherent
program;
· graduate hydrology programs at comparable universities;
· the current and potential capability of the present faculty to
address critical and emerging areas of hydrologic research such as
are specified in this report;
· programmatic areas in the hydrologic sciences that are essential
but not addressed currently;
· the potential for cooperation in research and teaching among
the host departments;
· administration of the graduate program as a department, inter-
departmental degree-granting program, or non-degree-granting pro-
gram;
faculty recruitment needs;
· facilities and space needs (laboratory and field);
· technical staff support needs;
admission requirements for Ph.D. and M.S. programs;
degree requirements; and
student recruitment.
Once an academic plan is established, procedures can be devel-
oped to implement the plan. Typically, once a program has begun, a
campaign to recruit students commences. Prospective students would
apply for admission to an appropriate academic unit. After entering,
the students would be assigned a major adviser with whom to consult
about a specific academic program as soon as possible to secure ini-
tial approval of the program. Graduate students would be expected
to take courses in several disciplinary areas, but these courses would
have to conform to the requirements of the hydrologic sciences pro-
gram. Flexible academic curricula should be developed to enable
graduates from the pure sciences and other fields to obtain graduate
degrees in the hydrologic sciences without an excessive number of
remedial courses.
Because of the multidisciplinary nature of the hydrologic sciences,
students from widely different backgrounds are likely to be attracted
to the discipline. Some will come from the basic sciences because
they find the analytical complexity of hydrologic problems exciting.
Others will have a background in other environmental sciences, but
without substantial preparation in mathematics. Still others will have
worked as field-oriented scientists or on field projects. The graduate
program must recognize this diversity. Outlined below is a list of
components of an undergraduate-level preparation for study at the
OCR for page 284
284
OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES
graduate level, but it is recognized that some potentially excellent
students will not have completed all of the following requirements:
· substantial background in one of the earth, life, or atmospheric
sciences, e.g., biology, forestry, geography, geology, meteorology, and
.. .
SOll SClenCe;
· courses in the supporting pure sciences, e.g., physics and chemistry;
· mathematics through differential equations, linear algebra, statistics,
and probability theory;
· experience with measurement of natural phenomena, preferably
in field situations as well as in controlled laboratory settings;
· familiarity with computers, including programming in higher-
level languages, mathematics and statistics software packages, graphics,
and text processing; and
· experience in writing short research papers, based not only on
familiarity with Published papers, but also requiring analysis of data.
Extramural support for a new graduate program in the hydro-
logic sciences is essential, in the form not only of research grants
but also of research fellowships. Ideally, the National Science Foun-
dation and other funding organizations could institute a program of
predoctoral fellowships with an emphasis in hydrology. Such a program
would attract students to the hydrologic sciences and train them spe-
cifically; impart a degree of autonomy to the graduate program at the
Ph.D. level; and represent money spent efficiently, without overhead
costs but with a focused objective. Perhaps most important, it would
help to build a national base of highly trained, multidisciplinary sci-
entists in a critical area of significant potential impact on society.
UNDERGRADUATE EDUCATION IN THE
HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES
Few undergraduate programs exist in hydrology, and most profes-
sionals gain entry to the field from engineering or from the geosciences.
This point is illustrated in Figure 5.2, which shows the distribution of
academic backgrounds of hydrologists employed by the Water Resources
Division of the U.S. Geological Survey in 1986, when the division had
2,055 professional employees. Of these, 85 percent held the title of
hydrologist. Figure 5.2 shows that about half of the Water Resources
Division's professionals classified as hydrologists had majored in geology,
civil engineering, and environmental (or sanitary) engineering. Not
shown are trends in this background with time, but it is probable
that the geology and civil engineering portion has decreased signifi-
cantly during the last decade or two.
The existence of an undergraduate population prepared for and
OCR for page 285
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OCR for page 286
286
OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES
interested in graduate work in hydrologic science depends on what
happens to potential hydrologists during their undergraduate studies.
Indeed, the geosciences and civil engineering have suffered a precipitous
decline in undergraduate enrollment in recent years. The number of
majors declined by two-thirds from 1982 to 1987, while graduate de-
grees remained fairly constant, with some increase in the late 1980s.
The number of undergraduate degrees in civil engineering fell by 27
percent between 1983 and 1989. This sharp decline in undergraduate
degrees in the traditional contributing disciplines is beginning to have
an impact at the graduate level, thus affecting the overall health of
the hydrologic sciences.
Thus the hydrologic sciences face a potential recruitment problem
created, at least in part, by new, rather general trends among young
people that reduce the number aspiring to a scientific career. Such
trends intensify the competition for students, and the hydrologic sciences
must face this fact. The recruitment problem may become especially
acute because of increasing demands and opportunities that will require
an increase rather than a decrease in the number of hydrologic researchers.
The task of enlarging the pool of undergraduate students in the
hydrologic sciences may be hindered more by students' inadequate
mathematics and science background than by lack of interest. As a
case in point, a survey by the American Geological Institute showed
that, of the 340,000 freshmen planning for degrees in the natural sci-
ences and engineering in 1980, only 206,000 were degree recipients in
these areas four years later. This attrition is at least partly explained
by the increasing difficulties students face as they enroll in courses in
these majors, the primary obstacle being the required capabilities in
physical science and mathematics. This obstacle, in turn, results from
a de-emphasis in these areas in precollege education and the failure
of universities to establish mathematics and science entrance requirements.
The students who could master such courses, were they exposed to
them earlier, either lack the motivation to enroll voluntarily in science
and mathematics or are convinced psychologically that such courses
are beyond their abilities. The solutions to this problem lie in an
enhanced science and mathematics curriculum at the precollege level,
with encouragement for students who did not acquire this background
to believe that college-level courses in mathematics, chemistry, and
physics are within their abilities.
New demands and opportunities will also create an ever-increasing
call for data collectors, laboratory analysts, technicians, and field as-
sistants. In particular, the need for spatially broad, detailed, and
sophisticated data collection systems, already considerable, may greatly
expand with intense national interest in water quality and climatic
OCR for page 287
EDUCATION IN THE HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES
287
change. The personnel needed for such activities are hydrologists
with degrees below the Ph.D. level. The quality of their preparation
will determine the quality of data generated for both applied and
scientific purposes. (It should be noted that undergraduate studies
determine this preparation for B.S.-level and
, to a large degree, for
M.S.-level hydrologists.)
This fact brings up another serious educational problem the lack
of field and laboratory experience at the undergraduate level, a
situation that has reached crisis proportions. The almost complete
disappearance of laboratory education can be attributed to many factors,
most of them related to funding. Laboratory courses demand both
facilities and high faculty-to-student ratios, but many universities lack
the resources to finance facilities and the teaching assistants, technicians,
and machinists required to support them. The philosophical framework
of science education also has changed, emphasizing intellectual instead
of technical skills. Moreover, faculty members whose expertise and
effort are centered on field or laboratory experimentation, instrumentation,
and technical methods are perhaps at a disadvantage when considered
for advancement because they usually publish fewer papers.
Finally, the nearly universal demand for computer literacy has left
students with little time for commitment to laboratory and field courses.
This is a problem at all levels that has existed long enough to become
self-perpetuating through the next generation of faculty. The conse-
quences of this deficiency are both profound and disturbing. Students
have become separated from the realities of the physical world they
seek to master, studying only conceptual models in which the rich
complexity of nature is replaced necessarily by the convenience of ad
hoc simplification. In the absence of experimental validation, these
models tend to take on an aura of reality in the minds of their users,
which may lead to scientific error and stagnation. If a major rejuve-
nation of the "observational" components of higher education were
to occur, it would serve to improve the quality of professionals entering
hydrologic science and also perhaps to attract larger numbers of ex-
perientially motivated students to the field.
In spite of the importance of the above needs, the role played by
undergraduate studies in the hydrologic sciences often is underestimated.
Perhaps this happens, in the United States and elsewhere, because of
the almost complete absence of academic departments devoted to
scientific hydrology. There is no department responsible for basic
requirements. However, the increasing urgency of the needs related
to the hydrologic sciences calls for a special effort to satisfy them.
Obviously, one way to do that is to create, at enough universities, the
appropriate department of hydrologic sciences that includes under-
OCR for page 288
288
OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES
graduate majors. However, as discussed above, such a task is diffi-
cult and probably unachievable; at best, its aims would be implemented
too slowly to satisfy near-future needs. Another approach is to increase
the duration of studies leading to M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in the hydrologic
sciences. However, such an action might make graduate studies less
attractive and, therefore, be counterproductive. A more reasonable
course of action is to include activities designed to influence under-
graduates as a major part of the programs administered by interde-
partmental committees (or groups) assisting with and organizing graduate
work in the hydrologic sciences.
The undergraduate experience in science and engineering can be
modified in several ways to facilitate the education of hydrologic
scientists who will emerge from these disciplines and to promote
multidisciplinary science. For example, faculty in related disciplines
can enhance awareness of hydrology and guide students to graduate
programs or professional positions in hydrology. Another possibility
is increased acceptance of engineering-based hydrology courses as
electives in liberal arts and science degree-granting programs. The
few existing hydrology departments also can help by adding to their
program one or two courses from other disciplines or by revising
water-related courses in ways that will attract students from other
sciences. Some specific activities designed to influence undergradu-
ates could include (1) development of a course list outlining undergraduate
preparation for a career in scientific hydrology; (2) dissemination of
such a list among undergraduate science and engineering advisors
(and an attempt to get them to use the list); (3) organization of a solid
(perhaps senior-level) course in scientific hydrology; (4) sponsoring,
at the university level, periodic public lectures about some of the
interesting problems investigated in scientific hydrology; and (5) initiating
and administering a multidisciplinary undergraduate major in scien-
tific hydrology.
SCIENCE EDUCATION FROM KINDERGARTEN
THROUGH HIGH SCHOOL
The discussion above makes clear that the success of graduate pro-
grams in the hydrologic sciences will depend on the quality of un-
dergraduate preparation in pure science and mathematics, which, in
turn, depends critically on the educational background obtained in
precollegiate years. Like the statistics quoted above for geosciences
and civil engineering majors, those for science education among high
school students show a dismal trend.
OCR for page 289
EDUCATION IN THE HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES
289
Less than 50 percent of high school graduates in the United States
have completed more than one year of mathematics and one year of
basic science. Less than 10 percent have taken a physics course.
Students in Europe, the USSR, and Japan take considerably more
mathematics and science courses than do North Americans.
This decline in high-quality, well-attended science programs has
been a concern for many years to educators and leaders in business
and industry. Recognition of the need for stronger science education
programs has led to a reexamination of curricula in primary and
secondary education in all states during the past decade. Parents
and educators are showing a renewed interest in science, which comes
at a time when student interest also is growing. Student enthusiasm
for science-oriented programs has never been higher than it is today,
and the demand for new technical employees in science, engineering,
and computer-assisted technology continues to accelerate.
Intensive, high-quality learning experiences in science in prepara-
tion for college require support from parents willing to continue their
own education; from schools willing to upgrade their curricula and
expand the diversity of science courses; from universities willing to
assist in teacher education and staff development; and from businesses
and research agencies willing to share their technical expertise and
equipment with the schools. Program improvement can be achieved
gradually by changes in school district policies or state laws and
more rapidly by school-level planners utilizing, on an ad hoc basis, a
diverse spectrum of opportunities to improve science education.
Early in the 1980s, a California study of the attitudes and educa-
tion of teachers regarding science education provided the following
information:
· Only 5 percent of California school districts employ full-time
science specialists.
· Student participation in science activities averaged 44 minutes
per week in elementary schools.
· Over 40 percent of the elementary school teachers surveyed rated
their own ability in science as below average when compared with
other subjects. The felt they did not have the skills to teach science
processes and concepts.
· Forty-five percent of the elementary school teachers and admin-
istrators predicted that less money for instructional materials will be
spent on science because state funds provided for instructional materials
may be spent on any subject area districts or schools see fit within
established guidelines.
· Although teachers expressed their support for the "hands-on"
OCR for page 290
290
OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES
concept, most continue to use textbooks (56 percent) or teacher-made
written materials (57 percent) as the basis for their science instruc-
tional programs.
· Although science kits or systems have been purchased by many
schools or districts, only 5 percent of the teachers use them exten-
sively.
· Many teachers expressed the feeling that other subjects took
. .. . .. .
priority In nme over science.
Given these realities at the elementary school level, what is the
probability of seeing a high-quality science background developed in
students at the high school level? It is obvious that staff develop-
ment for both teachers and administrators will play a pivotal role in
the improvement of science education. Hydrologists have a challenge
and an excellent opportunity to influence and accelerate that devel-
opment.
WOMEN AND ETHNIC MINORITIES IN THE
HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES
That the United States faces a shortage of technically trained per-
sonnel in the next decade and beyond is a problem well recognized
in the scientific and engineering communities (Widnall, 1988; TFWM,
1989~. Traditionally these fields have been dominated by white males.
As the rate of white males entering these professions continues to
decline, however, attention has turned to those populations who have
been underrepresented and underutilized in science and engineering-
women and minorities. If the nation is to be able to meet its needs
for scientific personnel into the next century, greater numbers of women
and minorities will have to be recruited and retained in science and
engineering professions (TFWM, 1989; NRC, 1989b).
The hydrologic sciences face perhaps an even greater challenge in
meeting national needs for technically trained personnel than do other
scientific disciplines. As the demand for master's-level hydrologists
in government and industry increases, individuals who may have
otherwise pursued a Ph.D. often opt to enter the work force. Universities
find it difficult to compete with the high salaries and hands-on experience
offered by consulting firms. Thus it is necessary not only to recruit
more young people to fill the ranks of the hydrologic sciences as the
traditional source of students dwindles, but also to recruit and train
master's-level hydrologists to meet the nation's growing need for
these skills.
While the challenge is to improve recruitment and retention of
persons of all types of background, women and racial and ethnic
OCR for page 291
EDUCATION IN THE HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES
291
minorities face certain obstacles that require particular attention. The
underrepresentation of these populations in science and engineering
is well documented. The growth in the employment rate for women
scientists more than doubled the rate for men between 1976 and 1986
but has slowed in recent years. In 1986, while women accounted for
44 percent of the U.S. work force, they accounted for only 27 percent
of all scientists (including social scientists) and engineers. The num-
ber of women planning careers in science or engineering peaked in
the late 1970s and is now declining. While blacks constitute 12 percent
of the general population, only 2 percent of all employed scientists
and engineers are black. Hispanics, America's fastest growing minority,
account for 9 percent of the population but only 2 percent of all
employed scientists and engineers (TFWM, 1989~.
The pattern of underrepresentation is mirrored in the numbers of
graduate degrees earned by women and minorities. In 1987, women
received 16.7 percent of all doctorates in the physical sciences and 6.5
percent in engineering, according to the National Research Council's
Doctorate Records File (DRF), which includes data on individuals
receiving Ph.D.s from U.S. universities (NRC, 1989a). This picture is
only a little less discouraging than that for minorities achieving advanced
degrees. From 1985 to 1987, the number of American ethnic minori-
ties earning science and engineering B.S. degrees rose 21.6 percent.
At the master's level, the increase was 9 percent, and at the Ph.D.
level the number of degrees awarded remained static over the two-
year period (Vetter, 1989~. About 1 percent of the doctorates awarded
in science and engineering are earned by black Americans, and about
2 percent are earned by Hispanics (TFWM, 1989~. While in 1977
blacks earned 684 science and engineering doctorates, in 1988 that
number had fallen to 311 (Vetter, 1989~.
The hydrologic sciences follow the national trend of under-
representation of women and minorities in their ranks. This committee's
1988 survey of the backgrounds of hydrologists demonstrates the case
with respect to women (see Appendix B). Of the 2,200 persons who
responded to the survey, 11 percent were female and 89 percent were
male. Of the males, 54 percent held Ph.D. degrees, while only 28
percent of the women did. Data from the DRF's 1987 survey of earned
doctorates (NRC, 1989a) indicate that of the 18 Ph.D.s earned in hydrology
and water resources, 11 were earned by U.S. citizens and individuals
with permanent visas; of these 11, 5 were awarded to women and
none to minorities. In 1988 a total of 24 doctorates were awarded in
hydrology and water resources, of which 14 were awarded to U.S.
citizens or individuals having permanent visas (NRC, 1989a). Of the
14 recipients, 13 were white, 1 was Hispanic, and 4 were women.
OCR for page 292
292
OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES
The reasons that women and minorities traditionally have not chosen
careers in science and engineering are diverse- some are clear, while
others are subtle and not well understood. Sex-related inequalities in
measures of career success, such as academic rank, tenure, and salary,
may influence young women to seek careers in other professional
fields where they perceive less inequality. Women in science and
engineering fields have lower rates of recruitment and retention than
do men. After expressing an initial interest in science or engineering
studies, women, more often than men, switch to nonscience or
nonengineering fields. Typically such decisions are based on sociocultural
or attitudinal factors rather than academic talent. Although the rate
of attainmnent of Ph.D.s remains lower for women than for men in
most fields of science and engineering, there is no indication that this
attrition is due to a lack of academic performance. Research indicates
that, especially for women, the attrition from science and engineering
majors is seldom related only to academic talent and achievement
(NRC, 1989b).
Women's decisions to marry and have families often are said to
lead to career decisions that benefit their families but damage their
careers, decisions that males are seldom, if ever, forced to make. Women
scientists and engineers more frequently attribute part-time employ-
ment and time spent unemployed and not seeking work to family
obligations; also, married and single female academics are less geo-
graphically mobile than their male counterparts, which may hinder
their potential for career advancement. However, data show that
marriage and parenthood do not result in lower publication rates or
lower rank and salary among women (NRC, 1987~. Although the
unique demands of marriage and parental responsibilities on women
are not the sole cause of low rates of recruitment, retention, and
success of female academics, they are likely contributors. To reduce
the loss of women in engineering and the sciences, academia must
develop more flexibility to accommodate the unique set of demands
faced by women.
Other, more subtle explanations for the lack of women in the sciences
and engineering, particularly in academia, have been reported. Women
graduate students often believe they are subject to inappropriate treatment
by male faculty and student colleagues. "Inappropriate treatment" is
defined as "any treatment that emphasizes the student as a woman
first and a student second and stresses the social nature of an interaction
instead of the professional or educational nature." Widnall (1988)
reports that there are still male faculty members in science and engi-
neering who state publicly that women do not belong in graduate
school. Zikmund (1988) states that the negative experiences of women
OCR for page 293
EDUCATION IN THE HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES
293
on faculties and in college administrations are not random and that
the well-being of academic women is still being sabotaged in subtle
ways. A large percentage of women responding to a Massachusetts
Institute of Technology survey believed their gender was a significant
barrier to receiving academic resources. The current environment
that women face in graduate school thus may be a major reason for
the small number of women today in science and engineering programs.
An increased willingness on the part of faculty to challenge professional
colleagues who make prejudicial or inappropriate remarks about women
and minority students could help to reduce these types of negative
experiences.
The challenge for the sciences is to increase the number and diver-
sity of students at all educational levels. Although successful approaches
to this problem will necessarily be as diverse as the disciplines, institutions
in which they are housed, and individuals who pursue them, there
are some fundamental principles that have been demonstrated to work.
In its 1989 report, Changing America: The New Face of Science and En-
gineering, the congressionally mandated Task Force on Women, Mi-
norities, and the Handicapped in Science and Technology lists ac-
tions to be taken to increase the participation of underrepresented
populations in science and engineering, and identifies exemplary programs
of this nature (TFWM, 1989~.
Experts in the field believe that increasing the participation of
underrepresented populations should be approached as a systems
problem, requiring coordinated changes in policies and procedures
rather than isolated, radical interventions without continuity. Effec-
tive programs must be implemented in all sectors of education, beginning
at the prekindergarten level and continuing through employment (NRC,
1989b). At the precollege level, emphasis on the usefulness of math-
ematics and science training has been shown to make these subjects
more attractive to female students (NRC, 1984~. Expectations should
be raised for all students, with hands-on science education provided
in a forum free of cultural and gender biases. Counselors should
encourage all students to consider science and engineering careers
and emphasize the importance of mathematics and science proficiency
in the job market of the future (TFWM, 1989~.
At the college and graduate levels, educational institutions should
improve recruitment and retention programs. The use of role models
and mentors in education has been demonstrated to be effective in
recruitment and retention programs (TFWM, 1989; NRC, 1989b).
Currently, however, female and minority faculty members are most
likely to be found among the untenured junior faculty and thus not
available for significant amounts of time to serve as mentors. Recruitment
OCR for page 294
294
: ~
OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES
~~::~ it: ~ T:HEi~:C:HANGl~:NG~ ~PR^FIL~E~OF T:HE:~H:YDROLOGIC::~:~:OM:M~U~N~ITY~ ~~ ~~ ~:~:~ al ~
~ .: ~ . ~ ~ ~ ~ ,: _ ~ . ~ . ~ ~
I:~n~1~962,~t:h~e F~ederal~Lou:ncil tor~£ie:n£e~ an~d~l~chn~o~logy~publis~hed:~
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. ~ . ~ ~ . . . ~ . ~
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~ ;backg:rolmd~ll~m~ore~ ~~:evenly~::~d'4tri~b~uted~:~amon~g~thei~pu~blic:: :~a:~nd: private Sac-: :~: ~
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: ~~ nerd n~:~o~:ri~e:nted)~:~than~;their~:~ma~e~:~cLol lies.:::: ~~::~ ~ ::::::
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OCR for page 295
EDUCATION IN THE HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES
295
and retention of underrepresented students in science and engineer-
ing departments would be further enhanced by the presence of women
and minorities at all ranks, a signal to such students that they would
be respected and treated fairly.
The availability of financial support is another key factor In successful
recruitment and retention programs. Students who are aware of the
availability of financial support in science and engineering disciplines
are more likely to pursue such careers. Some successful recruitment
and retention programs offer forgivable educational loans to students
from underrepresented groups who agree to pursue faculty careers
(TFMW, 1989~.
Although the fundamental problem of encouraging students to pursue
careers In science and engineering is not unique to the hydrologic sciences,
active pursuit of solutions to the problem is essential to the well-being
of the field. At this time, with the increasing need for hydrologic scientists
around the world and the expanding opportunities described In this
report, the discipline cannot afford to ignore the importance of getting
underrepresented groups involved In the hydrologic sciences.
SOURCES AND SUGGESTED READING
Chow, Ven Te. 1959. Open-Channel Hydraulics. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Chow, Ven Te. 1964. Handbook of Applied Hydrology: A Compendium of Water Re-
sources Technology. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Holden, Constance. 1989. Wanted: 675,000 future scientists and engineers. Science 244:1536-
1537.
National Research Council (NRC). 1984. Sex Segregation in the Workplace: Trends,
Explanations, Remedies. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.
National Research Council (NRC). 1987. Women: The Underrepresentation and Career
Differentials in Science and Engineering. National Academy Press, Washington,
D.C.
National Research Council (NRC). 1988. Doctorate Recipients from United States Uni-
versities: Summary Report 1987. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.
National Research Council (NRC). 1989a. Doctorate Recipients from United States Uni-
versities: Summary Report 1988. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.
National Research Council (NRC).1989b. Responding to the Changing Demography: Women
in Science and Engineering. Planning Group to Assess Possible OSEP Initiatives
for Increasing the Participation of Women in Scientific and Engineering Careers.
Office of Scientific and Engineering Personnel, National Research Council,
Washington, D.C.
The Task Force on Women, Minorities, and the Handicapped in Science and Technol-
ogy (TFWM). 1989. Changing America: The New Face of Science and Engineer-
ing. Final Report. National Science Foundation, Washington, D.C.
Vetter, Betty M. 1989. Minorities gain, but white women lose ground. AAAS Ob-
server, September 1, p. 10.
Widnall, S. 1988. Voices from the pipeline. Science 241:1740-1745.
Zikmund, B. 1988. The well-being of academic women is still being sabotaged by
colleagues, by students, and by themselves. Chronicle of Higher Education, September
1, p. A44.
Representative terms from entire chapter:
hydrologic science
