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OCR for page 304
Resources and Strategies
The development of a particular science is a cumulative process,
with each advance building on the past contributions of diverse fields.
Progress is normally the result of steady, patient effort guided and
monitored by select disciplinary peer committees, funded by disci-
plinary programs, and communicated through disciplinary journals.
Hydrologic science has not had the benefit of this organized infra-
structure, however, as it has grown in response to and been constrained
by the evolving engineering and management needs of contemporary
societal water problems: first water supply, then flood control, and
more recently pollution abatement.
Development of hydrology as a science is vital to the current effort
to understand the interactive behavior of the earth system because of
the key role that the hydrologic cycle is now known to play therein.
Not only is such knowledge prerequisite to solving the many unfore-
seen water problems that will result from future global change, but it
is also needed to cope with the ever-increasing complexity of the
more conventional water management problems. Achieving this
comprehensive understanding of the earth system will require the
kind of long-term disciplinary and interdisciplinary effort that can be
sustained only by a vigorous scientific infrastructure. In conclusion
this committee presents those resources and strategic actions that it
believes are necessary to support a viable hydrologic science in the
United States.
304
OCR for page 305
RESOURCES AND STRATEGIES
305
RESOURCES
To advance the science of hydrology, resources will be needed in
the following areas.
· Research Grant Programs
The central role of water in the earth system over a broad range of
space and time scales provides the scientific rationale for a unified
development of hydrologic science. The associated need to create
and maintain a cadre of hydrologic scientists requires development
of a focused image and identity for this science. Establishment of
distinct but coordinated research grant programs in the hydrologic
sciences would address both of these issues.
Support for research in hydrologic science in the United States is
scattered among various agencies of the federal government, as detailed
in Appendix A. In keeping with the pragmatic origins of the science
(summarized in Chapter 2), the "action" agencies, such as the U.S.
Geological Survey, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA),
the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the National Weather
Service, and the Agricultural Research Service, manage water-related
research programs oriented to their own specific missions. The basic
science fraction of this research, quite properly, is small in comparison
with the applied. The amount of funds spent in-house is large with
respect to external grants, and there is little coordination of effort at
the interagency level.
Support for basic research in hydrologic science is concentrated
within the National Science Foundation (NSF) but is diffused there
among the divisions of the Geosciences Directorate, each with a mandate
oriented toward its own interests. This partitioning not only slights
important hydrologic areas, such as aqueous chemistry and the earth's
vegetation cover, but also ensures that there is no cultivation of a
coherent research program in hydrologic science, and that the science
achieves no established identity.
· Fellowships, Internships, and Instructional Equipment
The development of education in the hydrologic sciences will re-
quire the involvement of scientists, educators, and others in federal,
state, or local agencies, who will contribute at all levels from kin-
dergarten through graduate school.
At the graduate level, this committee recommends establishment
of special research fellowships in the hydrologic sciences. These should
be designed to train students for research in a specific branch of
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306
OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES
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OCR for page 307
RESOURCES AND STRATEGIES
307
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hydrology and to increase the number of students equipped to inves-
tigate interdisciplinary problems. Travel fellowships will enable students
to enroll in specific courses, to interact with key scientists, and to
participate in large-scale, coordinated experiments. Fellowships are
especially important in increasing participation by women, ethnic
minorities, and the handicapped, as are internships for the retraining
of mature scientists from allied disciplines.
At the undergraduate level, there is a strong need for providing
modern, sensitive instructional equipment for students' use in the
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308
OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES
field and to back this up with logistical support for field trips and
field classes.
Summer or academic year institutes for kindergarten through twelfth
grade teachers can provide a basic science and mathematics background
taught in the context of hydrology. Under the title of environmental
science, or earth science, or general science, interesting hydrologic
topics can be developed to fit into everyday instruction in science
and mathematics at all levels. A key idea for these institutes is the
training of resource teachers who will then conduct workshops in
their own schools (or districts) for other teachers. Summer institutes
for especially talented science and mathematics students should be
established at colleges and universities to stimulate interest in careers
in the hydrologic sciences by providing hands-on problem-solving
activities.
These activities should be supported primarily through grants from
federal agencies i.e., the EPA, the Department of Energy, the Department
of the Interior, the NSF, and others depending on the connection of
the subject matter to their specific missions. However, partial support
from state and local governments and industry is both possible and
advisable.
· Coordinated Field Experiments
Multidisciplinary field experiments with coordinated observations
are needed for answering different types of scientific questions and
are useful for instruction in the art and science of field observation.
These include short-term, large-scale, multicollaborator studies, sometimes
called campaigns or given acronyms such as GEWEX (for Global En-
ergy and Water Experiment); long-term studies of processes, sometimes
called base-line studies, such as those of watershed erosion formerly
conducted by the Soil Conservation Service; and actual, controlled,
small-scale experiments.
Campaigns Simultaneous measurement of many hydrologic processes
by scientists working within the context of an agreed-upon plan repre-
sents a powerful means of generating new hydrologic insights. This is
particularly true when the field program has the participation of theore-
ticians right from the start of planning and when an intensive effort is
made to anticipate how results will be shared and used by various
analysts. These investigations (e.g., the Global Atmosphere Research
Program/Atlantic Tropical Experiment (GATE) and the Tropical Ocean
and Global Atmospheric (TOGA) Program) are widely used by the other
geosciences, particularly to characterize mesoscale and larger phenomena,
but are just coming into use in hydrology (e.g., HAPEX and FIFE). Even
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RESOURCES AND STRATEGIES
309
the largest of these field programs can and should be compatible with
the best independent and individual science; such a program serves as
an umbrella under which individual investigators carry out their work.
Base-Line Studies Some excellent field stations, maintained by federal
agencies, now participate in long-term observations in various fields
of science. For example, several are part of the national network of
the Long-Term Ecological Research (LTER) Program being carried
out under the leadership of the NSF's Directorate for Biological, Be-
havioral, and Social Sciences. Although hydrology is fundamental to
many of the research questions studied at the LTER stations, hydrologists
are underrepresented among participating scientists; substantial op-
portunity currently exists for collaboration in ongoing field experiments.
There is a current lack of communication among hydrologists in the
federal sector and their counterparts in the universities concerning
the facilities, resources, and scientific potential of these sites and others.
Improved communication is essential to foster the one-on-one contact
that is the foundation of developing collaboration. Formalized agency
programs supporting faculty and student involvement in field experiments
and instruction at these facilities are badly needed.
Observation of Transients Many hydrologic processes are distinguished
by extreme episodes of short duration that may be catastrophic in
their effect on society (e.g., floods, landslides, hurricanes, and blizzards).
Too often these events are investigated weeks or months after their
occurrence when the evidence of chronology and mechanism has been
degraded. Timely study of these isolated phenomena could be facilitated
if funding agencies had a mechanism for releasing funds on extremely
short notice to put investigators into the field.
It should be the responsibility of universities and government agencies
to inculcate the necessary planning and observational skills for all
these modes of research through a steadfast, long-term commitment
to the teaching and financial support of field work in the hydrologic
sciences.
· Long-Term Observations
Continuous, long-term records of hydrologic-state variables (e.g.,
soil moisture, temperature, atmospheric humidity, and concentration
of dissolved and suspended substances) and hydrologic fluxes (e.g.,
precipitation, streamflow, and evaporation) are essential, among other
things, to quantify the variability of these quantities. Such records
can reveal secular trends, periodicities, and the probability distribution
of the random residuals information that has value in such areas,
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310
OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES
respectively, as identification of global change (the Mauna Loa car-
bon dioxide record), isolation of mechanisms, and estimation of the
risk of flood and drought.
There is no substitute for such long-term data records in science
and engineering. Unfortunately, however, their uninterrupted collection
and cataloging are an unglamorous task. Therefore, the funds to
support this vital task are traditionally high on the budget-cutter's
list of targets.
The committee must renew the plea here for unwavering support
of the collection and storage of long-term hydrologic records. These
resources are like a patient's medical record: useless during apparent
health, but invaluable when illness appears. The only certainty is
that if records are not kept, they will not be available when needed.
· Access to Data Bases
The immediate, unrefined products of observation and experimen-
tation are scientific data. These are obviously available to those who
collect them, but their primary value is often realized by others at a
later date and in a quite different scientific context. For hydrologic
science to move forward it is essential that data sets, once acquired,
be properly identified and described (i.e., purpose, location, instruments,
spatial and temporal coverage, and so forth), be cataloged and archived
(including archival maintenance), and be made available to the scien-
tific community at reasonable cost and effort. Resources are needed
for these tasks.
STRATEGIES
To further the recognition and establishment of hydrologic science
as a distinct geoscience, hydrologists can take many actions, either
individually or through their scientific societies. These include the
following:
· Make use of relevant scientific societies as platforms for communi-
cation, advocacy, organization, and education. Societies such as the
American Geophysical Union, the American Meteorological Society,
and the Ecological Society of America can draw attention to the prob-
lems and needs of hydrologic science through such activities as preparing,
disseminating, and advocating positions on issues of hydrologic sci-
ence that are of public interest; sponsoring graduate fellowships;
generating educational material for use in secondary schools; pub-
lishing review articles about hydrologic science directed at readers
from allied sciences; and facilitating the organization of international
scientific research programs.
OCR for page 311
RESOURCES AND STRATEGIES
311
:1::~ ~ ::: ~ ~ ~~:~LON:G-TER~M :DATA AND :::T~H~E~ G:~R:E::E~HOUS:E~ EFFECT: ~
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~~ ~ Oc:ea:n og rap h y: n u rtu:red i:: a i: yo:u :n go ~ ~:p:ostd onto ra I :~1~ :resea~rc h e r i: :w: it~hil~ :a~:: ~ m~i~:s~s to n:.l:~ i:i
~ _% · . . ~ ~ ~ . ~ . , ~ , . ~ , ~ ~ ~ , .
ues~p~lte ~In~e~ In~crea~s~l~ng~l~y:: recog~n~:~lz~ec~:~ :Importa~nce:: oT ~ca~la~ ~ re:c~oro~:s~:~ol~::::l~o~n~g~ ~
, ~ ~: ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
Il~:lI:du~:~a~tion,::~on~l~yl::~a~l~ha~ndf:w~l~:~:of~d~e~d~icateid~re~se~a~rcfi~faci~liti~e~s~hav~e~s~u~:ccessfu:tl~y~::
, ~ ~ ~ ~
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ : m a i n t a i n ~ e d ~ : ~ ~ ~ : h i g ~ - q ~ a a ~ l ~ ~ i t y ~ d a t a ~ ~ ~ c o l ~ l e ~ c t i ~ o n ~ I : s i t e s ~ ~ ~ 0 v e r ~ ~ I I ~ o n ~ g ~ p e r ~ i o d ~ s ~ . ~ ~ : ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ : ~ R e s e : a ~ ~ r c ~ h ~ e : r s ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ . ~: ~ :~: ~ :: ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ :~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
~a~t:~t~h~ese:~s~: i te:s~: :h~ave: ~e~xp~e r ~ie n ced ~I: n :st~i:~tuti::o~na I :~re~ I uctan~c~e:~:to~ ~com~m~i~t~f~f~:n~d:~s~:: ~:~
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ :: ~ . . , ~ ~ ~ ,: ~ . ~ ~ ~ ~,~ ~ ~ ~ , ~ ~, ~ ~ :, ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
~ye~ar::~ ~atte:r:: yea:r :~to::~:~:actl~v~lty ~tnat tre~q~uentI~y~ ~'s~::~te~rmeo:~ "monltorln~g~"~:~:tn ~a~:~:~:~: ::
~ , . . ~ , . , ~ ~ , , . ~ ~ ~
peJorative :sense. tm~pna~sis 15~: p~lacec::l~ns~teac~:~on: ::sn~ort-term ~s~tun~le~s~ex~-
pected~lil~lto: bri~ng~ ~q~u~ic~k :~res:~u~lts~::::~that~::~:~can~:~l~be :u~s~ed :l~to~::~l~:b~o~i~ste~r :~:requ~est:s: :~tor~::::~:~:~
~::inc~reases~::i~n~: th~e:~a:n~n~ua~l:~b:u~d~get~.~:~:~:~: ~ ~:~
~:~ :I:I~:~T:h~e:::~:p~roblem:: ~ w~i~t~hi~:thi~s ~s~hort-te~r~m:~app:roac~h~i~s ~th:at ~:i~tl~:~is~n~ot::~re:sponsive~ ~:~
~:~to t:h~e~ dat~a needs ::for~:~i~:nve:~st~iga:t~i~n~g~ en::viron~me~nta~l~c~h:a::n~ges~lt:h~at::opera~te~o~R ~ ~ ~:~
:la~rg~e~ :~s~:p~atia:::l ::l~sca~:les a:nd~llong~::it:im~e~ ~scale~s :: ~:~W~h::a:~:~ w~o~uldl~:~a:~n~y: two-~ito~l:l:th~re~e- ~:~ ~:
~ ~ ~ ~ . ~ ~ t::~: ~ :~
~year piece o~ tn~e ~ grape ~ l~n tne ~ M:auna Lo~a cu~2~: reco~ro te~l~l :~ us ~a~oout~::green~- ~:
~:hou~sel~:wa~r~m:~i:~ng~?~Recog:nli~t;~on:~ :must be~gi~ven~:i::to: the~fac~t~:~that~c~r:itic:al::;:::i~s~s~ues
~of:~ ~glo~b~al hy~lrolo~gy:~: ca~n~:n~ot ~b:e: r e~so:lv:ed:~:::by~i:n~st:i~tutio~nal~com~m~::itme:~n~t:~to~
: ~ : s u p ~ p ~ o : ~ r t : t : h a t ; s ~ ~ I I ~ ~ ~ I i ~ m ; ~ t e ~ d ~ : : t o I ~ I t : h e ~ I l a ~ ~ b o r a t o r y - ~ ~ r e : s e a ~ r c ~ h ~ I ~ t i : ~ m e I ~ s c : a ~ I ~ e . ~ I ~ ~ ~ C : o ~ m : m : i ~ t -
~ , ~ , ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ :~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~: ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
:: men:t~ :~ano: tne clarity ot:: vl~sion:: :~tnat~::l n~s~p~i~:red~t~h:~at~:smalt grou~:p~ ~at: ~th~e~:~:Sc:~rip:p~s
I n~stitution tn ree: ~eca~ues: :~ag~o~:~:mu~st:::now~:::~ta~e~:t:n:el~r p~l~ac~e~ :~l:g~l::n~ tne ~ pr:l-~:
orl~t~les ~ ot~nose~:~::w~no~:: p~lan:~a~o ~::su~pp~ort~ n~yo~:ro~lo~g~l~c :researc:~: ~:pro~g~r:a~ms::: ~ot~
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OCR for page 312
312
OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES
350 _
~ 340 _
is
0
!;7 330 _
E
A
_
o
cot
' 310 _
300
. ~ A A ~
1955 1960 1965 1970 1975
YEAR
1980 1 985
FIGURE 7.1 Concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) at Mauna Loa Obser-
vatory, Hawaii, expressed as a mole fraction in parts per million of dry air. The dots
depict monthly averages of visually selected data adjusted to the center of each month.
The horizontal bars represent annual averages. SOURCE: Data were obtained by C.
D. Keeling, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, La Jolla,
California, and are from files in the Carbon Dioxide Information Center, Oak Ridge
National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee.
· Cultivate interest in hydrologic science among the appropriate
mission-oriented agencies of the federal government. There is a need
to argue for the allocation of a greater fraction of water research
money to be spent by the agencies on basic hydrologic science. There
is further need to seek interagency planning and coordination of how
these monies are used.
· Consider the establishment of a separate journal for hydrologic sci-
ence. The primary existing outlet for hydrologic science in the United
States is Water Resources Research, which is arguably the premier journal
in the world for a broad spectrum of water research from science to
application and policy. It is not widely read in the broader geosciences
community, however. On the one hand it is questionable whether
the market can yet support a new and separate journal for hydrologic
science, but on the other hand the visibility and identity fostered by a
separate scientific journal may be necessary to attract the work of
scientists from allied fields who want their work to be seen by their
peers.
OCR for page 313
RESOURCES AND STRATEGIES
313
· Stimulate joint meetings and symposia among the relevant scien-
tific societies concerning issues of hydrologic science in order to fos-
ter interdisciplinary understanding and cooperation.
· Review, in five years, the progress toward achieving the goals elabo-
rated in this report, assessing the vitality of the field, surveying the
changes that have occurred, and making recommendations for further
action.
SOURCES AND SUGGESTED READING
Andre, J. C., J. P. Goutorbe, and A. Perrier. 1986. Hydrologic atmospheric pilot experi-
ment (HAPEX) for the study of water budget and evaporation flux at the atmo-
spheric climate scale. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 67:138-144.
Becker, F., H. J. Bolle, and P. R. Rowntree. 1988. The International Land-surface Clima-
tology Project. ISLSCP Report No. 10. World Meteorological Organization, Geneva,
lOO pp.
World Meteorological Organization. 1988. Concept of the Global Energy and Water
Cycle Experiment. WMO/TD-No. 215. WMO, Geneva.
OCR for page 314
Representative terms from entire chapter:
hydrologic sciences
