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Nutrition During Lactation (1991)

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Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 1991. Nutrition During Lactation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1577.
×

Index

A

Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), see Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)

Activity level

during lactation, 100

and milk volume, 6, 94

research needed on, 238

Adipose tissue, in lactating women, 201-202

see also Fat

Adolescent mothers

breastfeeding rate and duration of, 4, 33

determinants of breastfeeding in, 44-45

dietary intake by, 67, 70, 71

milk volume in, 87

Adolescents

iron intake by, 229

vitamin A intake by, 229

Age

and breastfeeding rate and duration, 32, 33

gestational, 86, 116-118

and milk volume, 87

and RDAs, 214

Agent Orange, in human milk, 178

AIDS, see Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)

Albumin, in human milk, 136

Alcohol consumption

and infant health, 9-10, 176-177

and milk volume, 89

recommendations on, 15, 104

research needed on, 242

Alkaline phosphatase, in human milk, 139

Allergies

in breastfed vs. formula-fed infants, 167-168, 180

elimination diet for, 12, 182

Amenorrhea, 10, 198-200

American Academy of Pediatrics, recommendations of, 131, 157, 161

American Indians, dietary intake by, 67, 70, 71, 73

Amylase, in human milk, 139

Anemia, iron deficiency, 159

Anovulation, 10, 198-200

Anthropometric measurements

changes occurring during lactation, 202-203

in lactating women, 54, 58-62, 63

and milk volume, 98-99

and successful lactation, 5

use of, 53-54

Antibodies, in human milk, 119, 134-137, 140

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 1991. Nutrition During Lactation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1577.
×

Antiinfectious agents, in human milk, 133-137, 139, 166

Anti-inflammatory agents, in human milk, 138, 166

Antimicrobial factors, in human milk, 133-137, 139, 166

Antiprotease, in human milk, 139

Anxiety

and milk volume, 88

research needed on, 241

Apoproteins, in lactating women, 54, 58

Arsenic, in human milk, 178

Ascorbic acid, see Vitamin C

Assessment, see Nutritional status, assessment of

Atherosclerosis, effect of infant feeding on development of, 172

Atopic dermatitis, 168

Attitudes, and breastfeeding rate, 22

Autocrine control, of milk production, 84

B

Basal metabolic rate (BMR), during lactation, 100

Benefit, indicators of, 51-52

Beriberi, 126

Biceps skinfold thickness, 60, 62

Bile salt-dependent lipase, in human milk, 132, 139

Bioavailability, of nutrients, research needs, 239

Biochemical indicators

in lactating women, 54, 55-57

and successful lactation, 5

use of, 52-53

Biotin

in human milk, 116, 128

in lactating women, 57

Birth weight

cigarette smoking and, 89

and milk volume, 85-86

and nutrient utilization, 154-155

Black mothers

breastfeeding rate and duration of, 4, 29-30, 32, 33

determinants of breastfeeding in, 39-42

Black women

calcium intake by, 229

magnesium intake by, 229

vitamin A intake by, 229

Blood lipids, 54, 58

BMR, during lactation, 100

Body mass index, 60

and milk volume, 98

Body weight, see Weight

Bone mass, lactation and, 205-206

Bone metabolism, during and after lactation, 204

Bone mineralization, effect of lactation on, 204-206

Botulism, infant, 174

Breads, recommended daily servings of, 230

Breast(s), development and physiology of, 83-84

Breast abscesses, continued breastfeeding with, 169

Breast cancer, effect of breastfeeding on, 10, 206-208

Breastfeeding

beliefs about, 45-46

capability for, 10-11

current statistics for, 32-39

determinants of, 39-46, 240

exclusive, 3, 24, 37, 179

extent of, 24, 63-64

external constraints on, 46

frequency of, 14, 85, 104

health care in support of, 12-14, 240

history of, 28-32

lactation vs., 28

minimal, 25

partial, 3, 24, 37

reasons to support, 22-23

at work, 44

Breastfeeding duration

adolescent mothers, 33

age and, 32, 33

black mothers, 29-30, 32, 33

current statistics on, 4, 32-39

defined, 24

determinants of, 39-46

employed mothers, 38-39, 40-41

geographic differences in, 35

Hispanic mothers, 37

marital status and, 32, 33

parity and, 32, 33

Southeast Asian mothers, 38

white mothers, 32, 33

WIC mothers, 36

Breastfeeding practices, recommendations for, 14

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 1991. Nutrition During Lactation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1577.
×

Breastfeeding rates

adolescent mothers, 33

age and, 32, 33

black mothers, 29-30, 32, 33

current statistics on, 4, 32-39

day care and, 22

decline in, 22, 29-30

determinants of, 39-46

educational differences in, 30-33, 45

employed mothers, 22, 38-39, 40-41

ethnic differences in, 29-33, 39-43

geographic differences in, 32, 34, 35

Hispanic mothers, 32, 33, 37

history of, 4, 29-32

income and, 29, 30, 32, 33

limitations of data on, 36-37

marital status and, 32, 33

Objectives for the Nation and, 21

parity and, 32, 33

social attitudes and, 22

Southeast Asian mothers, 38

white mothers, 32, 33

WIC mothers, 29n, 32-36

work and, 22

C

Cadmium, in human milk, 178

Caffeine

and infant health, 10, 176

recommendations on, 15, 104

research needed on, 242-243

Calcium

absorption during lactation of, 204, 225

age and RDA for, 214, 224-225

amount in human milk, 116, 283

body content and output in milk of, 204, 219

dietary sources of, 231

estimated vs. recommended intake of, 224-225

intake by black women, 229

intake by low-income women, 229

long-term demand for, 218, 219

margin of safety in RDA for, 224

maternal intake and milk content of, 8, 128

mean daily intake of, 68-70, 223

milk content and increment in RDA for, 217

nutrient density for, 223

and osteoporosis, 204-206, 225

RDA for, 204, 223

in serum, 55, 204

supplementation of, 232

Carbohydrates, in human milk, 114, 124, 133-134

β-Carotene

blood of lactating women, 57

colostrum, 115

human milk, 125

Case fatality studies, 258-259

Caseins, in human milk, 121

Cells, in human milk, 114, 137

Centers for Disease Control (CDC), recommendations concerning breastfeeding and HIV, 171

Cereals, recommended daily servings of, 230

Child spacing

breastfeeding and, 200

and infant morbidity, 166

and infant mortality, 174

Chloride, in human milk, 116, 129, 283

Cholesterol

and atherosclerosis, 172

levels in lactating women, 54, 58

maternal intake and milk content of, 124

Chromium, in human milk, 116

Chronic illnesses, protective effect against, 168-169, 243-244

Cigarette smoking

and infant health, 9-10, 177

and milk volume, 88-89

recommendations concerning, 15, 104

research needed on, 242

Circumference measurements, of lactating women, 61

Cocaine in human milk, and infant health, 177

Coffee, effect on iron content of human milk, 176

see also Caffeine

Cognitive development, and infant feeding method, 165-166

Colic in breastfed infants

cigarette smoking and, 88

maternal diet and, 12, 168, 180, 182

Colostrum, 115

vitamin E content of, 126

vitamin K content of, 126

zinc content of, 130

Committee on Nutritional Status During Pregnancy and Lactation, 2, 24

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 1991. Nutrition During Lactation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1577.
×

Complement, in human milk, 136

Copper

in human milk, 116, 129-130

in infant nutrition, 160

serum, 53

Cortisol, in human milk, 138

Cotinine, 177

Crohn's disease, infant feeding method and, 169

Cytomegalovirus, transmission via breastfeeding, 9, 169, 181

D

Dairy products

avoidance of, 232

and colic of breastfed infants, 12, 168

Day care, 44

and breastfeeding rate, 22

DDE, in human milk, 178

DDT, in human milk, 178

Demand feeding, 86-87, 104

Dermatitis, atopic, 168

Developed countries, see Industrialized countries

Developing countries

energy reserves and milk volume in, 98-99

gastrointestinal infections in infants in, 166

infant mortality in, 172-174, 263-276

maternal nutrition and infant growth in, 164-165

milk volume in, 81, 82

patterns of infant growth in, 161-162

Development, of infant, see Infant growth and development

Diabetes mellitus, 169

Dichlorodiphenyl ethane (DDE), in human milk, 178

Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), in human milk, 178

Dietary intake

changes during lactation in, 62-63

data from nationally representative samples on, 64-67

data from nonrepresentative samples on, 65, 66-67, 68-73

data from various population groups on, 73

determination of usual, 62-73

difficulties in measuring, 62

estimated vs. recommended, 220-228

extent of lactation and, 63-64

longitudinal data on, 65

and milk volume, 5-6

recommendations on, 12, 64, 66-67, 229-231

research needed on, 18

with restrictive eating patterns, 13, 15

see also Energy intake

Dietary restriction, see Restrictive eating patterns

Dieting, 13, 15, 104

Dioxins, in human milk, 178

Drug use

and infant health, 9, 10, 175-176, 177

recommendations on, 15, 16, 181

E

Eczema, human milk and168, 180

Educational differences, in breastfeeding rate, 30-33, 45

EGR activation coefficients, 158-159

Electrolytes, in human milk, 116, 129

Elimination diet, 12, 180, 182

Employed mothers

barriers to breastfeeding for, 44

breastfeeding rate and duration of, 22, 33, 38-39, 40-41

determinants of breastfeeding in, 43-44

Energy balance, research needed on, 18, 238

Energy demands, of lactation, 213

Energy intake

breastfed vs. formula-fed infants, 162

by lactating women, mean values for, 68-70

RDA for, 215, 231

weight and, 214

see also Dietary intake

Energy reserves, and milk volume, 98-99

Energy restriction, see Restrictive eating patterns

Energy supplementation, and milk volume, 94-98

Energy utilization

infant nutrition, 154-155

during lactation, 99-100, 215

research needed on, 239

Engorgement, 84

Environmental contaminants, in human milk, 10, 16, 177-179

Enzymes, in human milk, 138, 139

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 1991. Nutrition During Lactation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1577.
×

Epidermal growth factor, in human milk, 132, 138

Erythrocyte glutathione reductase (EGR) activation coefficients, 158-159

Ethnic differences, in breastfeeding rate and duration, 29-33, 39-43

Exclusive breastfeeding, 3, 24, 37

recommendations on, 179

Exercise

during lactation, 100

and milk volume, 6, 94

research needed on, 238

F

Famine, and milk volume, 92

Fasting

during lactation, 15

and milk volume, 92, 104

Fat

body, 124, 201-202

see also Adipose tissue; Lipids;

Obesity

Fatty acids

in human milk, 6

origins in human milk of, 120-121

and vegetarian diet, 123

Fatty acid synthetase, in human milk, 139

Fibronectin, in human milk, 136

Fluid intake

and milk volume, 6, 101-102

recommendations on, 12

Fluoride

in human milk, 116, 131

infant nutrition, 160-161

supplementation of, 16, 160, 161, 180

Folate

amount in human milk, 116, 127-128, 216

biochemical values for, 56

body content of, 219

dietary sources of, 231

difficulty in measuring, 119

estimated vs. recommended intake of, 228

increment in RDA for, 216

infant nutrition, 158

long-term demand for, 218, 219

maternal nutrition and milk content of, 8, 127-128

mean daily intake of, 71-72, 222

nutrient density for, 222

RDA for, 222

reserves of, 218, 228

Food allergies, in breastfed vs. formula-fed infants, 167-168, 180 , 182

Food guides, summarized, 229-231

Food supplementation, and milk volume, 94-98

Formula, supplemental

and infant nutrition, 154

for slow weight gain, 16

G

Gastric filling and emptying, in breastfed vs. formula-fed infants , 165

Gastrointestinal infections, in breastfed vs. formula-fed infants, 166-167

Gastrointestinal maturation, of infant, 165

Geographic differences, in breastfeeding rate and duration, 32, 34 , 35

Gestational age

and milk composition, 116-118

and milk volume, 86

Glucoconjugates, in human milk, 133-134

Glucose level, in lactating women, 52

Glutamic pyruvic transaminase activity coefficient, erythrocyte, 56

Glutathione peroxidase

in human milk, 139

and selenium, 131

Glutathione reductase activity coefficient, erythrocyte, 56

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone, in ovulation, 198

Growth, of infant, see Infant growth and development

Growth charts, 162-163, 241

Growth factors, in human milk, 138

H

Health care plan, recommendations for, 12-14, 240

Hemorrhagic disease of the newborn, 156-157

Hepatitis B virus, transmission via breastfeeding, 169, 181

Heroin, use by lactating women and infant health, 177

Hispanic Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 37

Hispanic mothers

breastfeeding rate and duration of, 32, 33, 37

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 1991. Nutrition During Lactation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1577.
×

determinants of breastfeeding in, 42-43

Hormones, in human milk, 138

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), transmission via breastfeeding , 9, 170-171, 243

Human T lymphocytotropic virus type I (HTLV-1), transmission via breastfeeding, 9, 170

25-Hydroxycholecalciferol, in infant nutrition, 155-156

I

Illness

infants, see Infant morbidity

research needed on, 241

Immune function, research needed on infant's, 238-239

Immunoglobulin A (IgA), in human milk, 119, 132-136

Immunoglobulin G (IgG), in human milk, 136

Immunologic composition, of human milk, 134-137, 140

Immunologic diseases, chronic, 168-169

Immunoreactive parathyroid hormone (iPTH), serum levels of, 204

Income, and breastfeeding rate, 29, 30, 32, 33

Inducers, in human milk, 138-140

Industrialized countries

energy reserves and milk volume in, 98

energy restriction and milk volume in, 92

folate content of milk in, 127

gastrointestinal infections in infants in, 166

infant mortality in, 174-175

maternal nutrition and infant growth in, 164-165

milk volume in, 81, 82

patterns of infant growth in, 161

Infant growth and development

assessment of, 162-163

breastfed vs. formula-fed infants, 8-9, 16, 161-163, 179

cognitive, 165-166

gastrointestinal and metabolic responses, 165

long-term, 163-164

maternal nutrition and, 164-165

patterns of, 161-162

recommendations on, 15-16, 181, 241

Infant health, 3

long-term effects of breastfeeding on, 243-244

recommendations concerning, 16, 181

Infant morbidity, 9

allergies, 167-168

atherosclerosis, 172

chronic diseases with immunologic basis, 168-169

infectious agents in human milk, 169-171

obesity, 171

protection against infectious diseases, 166-167, 173

short-term, 166-168

Infant mortality

abstracts of studies on, 252-260, 263-276

chronological list of studies on, 250-251

developing countries, 9, 172-174, 263-276

industrialized countries, 9, 172, 174-175

research needed on, 242

Infant nutrition

copper in, 160

fluoride in, 160-161

folate in, 158

indices needed for, 239

iron in, 159-160

maternal nutritional status inferred from, 53

nutrient stores and, 154

recommendations on, 179, 180-181

riboflavin in, 158-159

supplementary foods and, 154

vitamin A in, 156

vitamin B12 in, 157-158

vitamin D in, 155-156

vitamin K in, 156-157

zinc in, 160

Infectious diseases

protection against, 133-137, 139, 166-167, 173

research needed on, 238-239

transmitted via human milk, 9, 169-171

Insecticides, in human milk, 10, 16, 177-178

Insulin

human milk, 138

lactating women, 52

Interferon-α167

Iodine

amount in human milk, 116, 131-132, 217

increment in RDA for, 217

maternal intake and milk content of, 6, 8

mean daily intake of, 223

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 1991. Nutrition During Lactation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1577.
×

nutrient density for, 223

RDA for, 223

supplementation of, 141

iPTH, serum levels of, 204

Iron

amount in human milk, 116, 129, 217

body content of, 219

coffee consumption and, 176, 242-243

deficiency in, 159-160

increment in RDA for, 217

infant nutrition, 8, 16, 159-160

intake by adolescents, 229

long-term demand for, 218, 219

mean daily intake of, 68-70, 223

menstruation and, 218

nutrient density for, 223

RDA for, 223

recommendations on, 16

reserves of, 218

supplementation of, 159-160, 180

L

β-Lactalbumin 132

Lactation, vs. breastfeeding, 28,

see also Breastfeeding

Lactation performance, 25

maternal nutrition and, 237-238

Lactoferrin, 132, 133, 134

Lactogenesis, 83

Lactose

amount in human milk, 116, 124, 280

intolerance, 232

ovulation and, 124

variations in milk content of, 117, 118

Lactose synthetase, in human milk, 139

Lead, in human milk, 178

Let-down, 84

alcohol consumption and, 89

stress and, 88

Leukocytes, in human milk, 119, 137

Linoleic acid, in eczema, 168

Linolenic acid, in eczema, 168

Lipases, in human milk, 139

Lipids

amount in human milk, 116, 281-282

blood values in lactating women, 54, 58

maternal intake and milk composition of, 123-124

origins in human milk of, 120-121

types in human milk, 114

variations in milk content of, 118

Lipoprotein lipase

human milk, 139

lactating women, 202

prolactin and, 121

Liquid diets, 15, 104, 232

Lymphocytes, in human milk, 137

Lymphoma, 169

Lysozyme, in-human milk, 133, 134, 135-136, 139

M

Macrophages, in human milk, 137

Magnesium

amount in human milk, 116, 217, 284

deficiency of, 226

dietary sources of, 231

estimated vs. recommended intake of, 225-226

incremental RDA for, 217

intake by black women, 229

maternal intake and milk content of, 127

mean daily intake of, 71-72, 223

nutrient density for, 223

RDA for, 223

serum, 55

Malnutrition, and milk volume, 91-94

Manganese, in human milk, 116, 130

MAR, 65n

Marijuana use by lactating women, and infant health, 177

Marital status, and breastfeeding rate and duration, 32, 33

Mastitis

continued breastfeeding with, 88, 169, 181

and electrolyte level of milk, 129

Maternal health, effects of lactation on

breast cancer, 10, 206-208

chronic illness, 244

obesity, 10, 201-204

osteoporosis, 204-206

return of ovulation, 10, 198-200

sexuality, 200-201

Maternal nutrition, see Nutritional status

Maternity leave, and breastfeeding rate, 22

Mature human milk, 115

Mean adequacy ratio (MAR), 65n

Medications

and infant health, 9, 175-176

recommendations on, 16, 181

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 1991. Nutrition During Lactation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1577.
×

Menaquinone, 156

Menstruation

iron loss through, 218

return of, 10, 198-200

Mercury, in human milk, 178

Metabolic rate

breastfed vs. formula-fed infants, 165

during lactation, 100

Methylmalonic acid, urinary, 157

Micronutrients, mean dietary intake of, 65, 71, 72-73

Milk composition

antiinfectious agents, 133-137

anti-inflammatory agents, 138

carbohydrates, 124

classes of constituents, 113-114

colostrum, 115

difficulties in measuring, 118-120

electrolytes, 129

enzymes, 138, 139

hormones, growth factors, and inducers, 139-140

lipids, 123-124

literature survey of data on, 279-284

mature human milk, 115

minerals, 128, 129-132

nonnutritive substances, 132-140

nutritional status and, 6-8, 121-132

origin of constituents, 120-121

preterm milk, 116-118

protein, 121-123

transitional milk, 115

variations in, 115-118

vitamins, 124-128

Milk-ejection reflex, see Let-down

Milk intake

by infant, 81

see also Milk volume

Milk production, 8

potential for, 5, 83

see also Milk volume

Milk volume

age and, 87

alcohol consumption and, 89

birth weight and, 85-86

breast development and physiology in, 83-84

cigarette smoking and, 88-89

dietary intake and, 5-6

and electrolyte level of milk, 129

energy balance and, 90-100

energy reserves and, 98-99

energy restriction and, 91-94

energy supplementation during lactation and, 94-97

energy supplementation during pregnancy and, 97-98

energy utilization during lactation and, 99-100

fluid intake and, 101-102

gestational age at delivery and, 86

illness and, 88

infant factors influencing, 84-87

maternal factors influencing, 87-102

measurement of, 81

normal range of, 5, 81-83

nursing frequency and, 85

nutritional status and, 5, 90-100

oral contraceptive agents and, 89-90

parity and, 87

protein intake and, 100-101

self-regulation by infant of, 86-87

stress and, 88

substance use and, 88-89

weight loss and, 6, 93-94, 104

Mineral(s), in human milk, 114, 128, 129-132

Mineral intake

mean values for, 68-70, 72-73

and milk composition, 6

research needed on, 18

Mineral supplements, recommendations on, 12

Minimal breastfeeding, 25

Molybdenum, amount in human milk, 116

Monosialogangliosides, in human milk, 133-134

N

NAR, 64n

National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys (NHANES), 60

National Survey of Family Growth, 30, 31, 32, 89-90

Nationwide Food Consumption Survey, 64-67

Native Americans, dietary intake of, 67, 70, 71, 73

Neutrophils, in human milk, 137

Niacin

amount in human milk, 116, 127, 216

increment in RDA for, 216

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 1991. Nutrition During Lactation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1577.
×

mean daily intake of, 68-70, 222

nutrient density for, 222

RDA for, 222

Nicotine, see Cigarette smoking

Night waking, in breastfed vs. formula-fed infants, 165

Nitrogen balance, in lactating women, 52-53

Nitrogen compounds, in human milk, 114, 121-123

Nursing frequency, 14, 24

and maternal dietary intake, 63-64

and milk production, 85

recommendations on, 104

Nutrient adequacy ratio (NAR), 64n

Nutrient densities, 4, 220, 221-223, 224

Nutrient intake, see Dietary intake

Nutrient output

daily, 213-214, 215-217

long-term, 214-220

Nutrient utilization

infant nutrition, 154-155

during lactation, 99-100, 215

research needed on, 239

Nutritional monitoring, recommendations for, 16-17

Nutritional risk, identification of women at, 11, 17-18, 237

Nutritional screening, recommendations for, 12-14, 240

Nutritional status

assessment of, 4-5, 50-62

biochemical measures of, 54, 55-57

blood lipids and, 54, 58

effect of breastfeeding on, 10

changes in body weight and, 54-61

changes in skinfold thickness and, 62, 63

indicators of benefit for, 51-52

indicators of risk for, 51, 237

infant, see Infant nutrition

and infant growth, 164-165

and milk composition, 6-8, 121-132

normative indicators of, 51

research needed on indicators for, 17, 237

and return of ovulation, 198-200

use of anthropometric indicators for, 53-54

use of biochemical indicators for, 52-53

O

Obesity

breastfed vs. formula-fed infants, 171

breastfeeding effect on maternal, 10, 201-204

and weight loss during lactation, 15

Oligosaccharides, in human milk, 133-134

Oral contraceptive agents

and milk volume, 89-90

and vitamin B6 content of milk, 127, 226

Oral elimination-challenge trial, 12, 180, 182

Osteocalcin, serum levels during lactation, 204

Osteoporosis, 204-206, 225

Otitis media, 167

Ovulation, effect of breastfeeding on, 10, 198-200

Oxaloacetate transaminase activity coefficient, erythrocyte, 56

Oxytocin

alcohol consumption and, 89

cigarette smoking and, 88-89

in human milk, 138

in lactogenesis, 84

P

Pantothenic acid

difficulty in measuring, 119

in human milk, 116, 128

supplementation of, 128

Parathyroid hormone, immunoreactive, 204

Parity

and bone mass, 205

and breastfeeding rate and duration, 32, 33

and milk volume, 87

and weight gain, 203

Partial breastfeeding, 3, 24, 37

PCBs, in human milk, 178

Peroxidase, in human milk, 139

Pesticides, in human milk, 10, 16, 177-178

Phosphoglucomutase, in human milk, 139

Phospholipids

in blood of lactating women, 58

maternal intake and milk composition of, 124

Phosphorus

amount in human milk, 116, 217

increment in RDA for, 217

maternal intake and milk content of, 128

mean daily intake of, 68-70, 223

nutrient density for, 223

RDA for, 223

Phylloquinone, 156

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 1991. Nutrition During Lactation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1577.
×

Physical activity

during lactation, 100

and milk volume, 6, 94

research needed on, 238

Plasma volume, in lactating vs. nonlactating women, 52

PLP, see Vitamin B6

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), in human milk, 178

Postpartum care, and breastfeeding rate, 22, 240

Postpartum period, variations in milk composition in, 115, 117

Potassium, in human milk, 116, 129, 282

Preterm infants

and human milk composition, 116-118

and milk volume, 86

zinc and vitamin A in, 120

Progesterone

in lactogenesis, 83

and oral contraceptive agents, 90

Prolactin

cigarette smoking and, 88

energy restriction and, 92, 93, 96

in human milk, 138

in lactogenesis, 83, 84

and lipids in human milk, 121

Proteases, in human milk, 139

Protein(s)

amount in human milk, 116, 122, 215, 280-281

body content of, 219

long-term demand for, 218, 219

measurement of, 122

metabolism in lactating women, 52

nonnutritive functions of, 132, 134-137

nutrient density for, 221

types in milk, 114, 121-122

Protein intake

increment in RDA for, 215

mean values for, 68-70, 221

and milk composition, 122

and milk volume, 6, 100-101

RDA for, 221

research needed on, 18

Psychological benefits, 23, 242

Pyridoxal 5-phosphate (PLP), see Vitamin B6

R

Racial differences

breastfeeding rate and duration, 4, 29-30, 32, 33, 37, 38

determinants of breastfeeding, 39-43

nutrient intake, 229

Radionuclides, in breast milk, 179

RDAs, see Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs)

Recommendations

breastfeeding all infants, 11

breastfeeding practices, 14, 104

health care plan, 12-14

identifying risk of depleted nutrient stores, 11

infant growth and nutrition, 15-16, 180-181

infant health, 16, 181

maternal diet, 12, 13, 140-141, 181, 233

maternal weight, 14-15, 104

milk volume, 104

nutritional assessment, 74

nutritional monitoring, 16-17

physical activity, 104

research, 17-18, 237-245

substance use and abuse, 15, 104

Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs), 64

age and, 214

energy intake and, 231

estimated intake vs., 64-74, 220-228

incremental vs. absolute values for, 214

margin of safety in, 224

nutrient secretion in milk vs., 213-214, 215-217

Research needs and recommendations, 17-18, 21, 54, 71, 137, 167, 171, 174, 175, 176, 200, 201, 206, 237-245

Respiratory syncytial virus infections, 167

Restrictive eating patterns, 13, 232

allergies and colic, 12, 180, 182

and lactation performance, 238

and milk volume, 91-94

and nutrient intake, 229-232

weight loss, 13, 15, 104

Retinol-binding protein, in lactating women, 57

Retinyl esters, in human milk, 125

Riboflavin

amount in human milk, 116, 126-127, 216

increment in RDA for, 216

infant nutrition, 158-159

mean daily intake of, 68-70, 222

nutrient density for, 222

RDA for, 222

urinary, 56

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 1991. Nutrition During Lactation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1577.
×

Rickets, 155

Ross Laboratories Mothers Survey, 29, 31-38

Rotavirus, 167

Rubella virus, transmission via breastfeeding, 169, 181

S

Salmonella, in breast milk, 169

Selenium

amount in human milk, 116, 130, 217

biochemical values for, 55, 130

increment in RDA for, 217

maternal intake and milk content of, 6, 8, 130-131

mean daily intake of, 72-73, 223

nutrient density for, 223

RDA for, 223

Self-regulation, of milk intake, 86-87

Sexuality, in postpartum period, 200-201

Shigella, in breast milk, 169

SIDS, 174, 257, 258

Skinfold thickness

measurements of, 60-61, 62, 63

and successful lactation, 5

Social attitudes, and breastfeeding rate, 22

Socioeconomic status, and breastfeeding rate, 29, 30, 32, 33

Sodium, in human milk, 116, 129, 282

Solid foods

and infant nutrition, 154

effect on human milk intake, 86

Somatostatin, in human milk, 138

Southeast Asian mothers

breastfeeding rate and duration of, 38

determinants of breastfeeding in, 43

Special Supplemental Food Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC)

breastfeeding rates in, 29n, 32-36

food packages by, 22

studies of dietary intake by participants of, 67, 72, 73

Stress

and electrolyte level of milk, 129

and milk volume, 88

research needed on, 241

Substance use and abuse, maternal

and infant health, 9, 10, 176-177

and milk volume, 88-89

recommendations concerning, 15, 242-243

Sucking strength, and milk volume, 85

Suckling

inadequate, and electrolyte level of milk, 129

and return of ovulation, 198

Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), 174, 257, 258

Sulfhydryl oxidase, in human milk, 139

Sunlight, infant exposure to, 16, 155-156

see also Ultraviolet light

Supplements, recommendations for, 12, 13, 15, 16, 227, 232, 233

Surgeon General's Workshop on Breastfeeding & Human Lactation, 21

T

Taurine, in human milk, 122-123

T cells, in human milk, 137

Teenage mothers, see Adolescent mothers

Test weighing, 81

Thermogenesis, during lactation, 100

Thiamin

amount in human milk, 116, 126, 215

dietary sources of, 231

estimated vs. recommended intake of, 227-228

maternal intake and milk content of, 126

mean daily intake of, 68-70, 222

nutrient density for, 222

RDA for, 222

urinary, 56

Thioesterase, in human milk, 139

Thymic-dependent lymphocytes, in human milk, 137

Thyroid hormones, in human milk, 138

α-Tocopherol, see Vitamin E

Transitional milk, 115

Transketolase activity coefficient, erythrocyte, 56

Triglycerides

in blood of lactating women, 54, 58

origins in human milk of, 120, 121

Triplets, breastfeeding of, 83, 214

Tumor necrosis factor-α138

Twins, breastfeeding of, 83, 214

U

Ultraviolet light, exposure to, 13

and vitamin D content of milk, 125

see also Sunlight

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 1991. Nutrition During Lactation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1577.
×

Urinary methylmalonic acid (UMMA), 157

V

Vegetarian diet

fatty acids in, 123

recommendations with, 13, 140, 232

studies of dietary intake by women eating, 67, 70, 71

vitamin B12 deficiency with, 8, 157, 158, 181

Vibrio cholerae, 167

Vitamin(s)

difficulties in measuring, 119

human milk, 6, 114, 124-128

research needed on, 18

supplements, 12, 16

Vitamin A

amount in human milk, 116, 125, 215

biochemical values in lactating women, 57

body content of, 219

increment in RDA for, 215

infant nutrition, 156

intake by adolescent women, 229

intake by black women, 229

intake by low-income women, 229

long-term demand for, 218, 219

maternal intake and milk content of, 125

mean daily intake of, 68-70, 221

nutrient density for, 221

preterm infants, 120

RDA for, 221

reserves of, 218

supplementation of, 125

Vitamin B6

amount in human milk, 116, 127, 216

deficiency in, 226-227

dietary intake and levels in milk of, 8, 127, 226

dietary sources of, 231

estimated vs. recommended intake of, 226-227

increment in RDA for, 216

margin of safety in RDA for, 224

mean daily intake of, 72-73, 140, 222

nutrient density for, 222

oral contraceptives and, 127, 226

plasma, 56

pyridoxal5-phosphate (PLP) and, 226-227

RDA for, 222

research needed on, 18, 238

Vitamin B12

amount in human milk, 116, 128, 216

deficiency in, 157

increment in RDA for, 216

infant nutrition, 157-158

maternal intake and milk content of, 8, 128

mean daily intake of, 72-73, 222

nutrient density for, 222

RDA for, 222

serum, 56

vegetarian diet and, 140, 157, 181

Vitamin C

amount in human milk, 116, 126, 215

increment in RDA for, 216

maternal intake and milk content of, 126

mean daily intake of, 68-70, 222

nutrient density for, 222

plasma, 56

RDA for, 222

Vitamin D

age and RDA for, 214

amount in human milk, 116, 125, 215

difficulty in measuring, 119

increment in RDA for, 215

infant nutrition, 155-156

infant supplementation of, 156, 180

maternal intake and milk content of, 8, 125

maternal supplementation of, 125, 141, 232

mean daily intake of, 72-73, 221

nutrient density for, 221

RDA for, 221

recommendations on, 13, 16, 140, 141

Vitamin E

amount in human milk, 116, 126, 215

biochemical values in lactating women, 57

colostrum, 126

estimated vs. recommended intake of, 227

and immune system, 138-140

increment in RDA for, 215

maternal intake and milk content of, 126

mean daily intake of, 72-73, 221

nutrient density for, 221

RDA for, 221

supplementation of, 126

Vitamin K

amount in human milk, 116, 126, 215

colostrum, 126

deficiency in newborn, 156-157

increment in RDA for, 215

infant nutrition, 156-157

maternal milk intake and, 157

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 1991. Nutrition During Lactation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1577.
×

maternal supplementation of, 126, 157

mean daily intake of, 221

nutrient density for, 221

RDA for, 221

supplementation at birth, 8, 16, 157, 180

W

Weight

infant at birth, 85-86, 89, 154-155

mother and milk volume, 5, 98-99

mother and successful lactation, 5

Weight changes of mother, during lactation, 14-15, 54-61, 74, 202-203

Weight for length, in breastfed vs. formula-fed infants, 162

Weight gain

breastfed vs. formula-fed infants, 8-9, 16, 161-163, 179

mother during lactation, 14-15, 59

mother and milk volume, 98-99

parity and, 203

see also Obesity

Weight loss, infant, 161

Weight loss, maternal

amount of, 5, 6, 58, 59, 74

long-term, 203

mother and milk volume, 6, 93-94, 104

recommendations on, 14-15

Whey proteins, 121

White blood cells, in human milk, 119, 137

White mothers, breastfeeding rate and duration of, 32, 33

WIC, see Special Supplemental Food Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC)

Work, see Employed mothers

World Health Organization (WHO)

recommendation concerning breastfeeding and HIV, 171

recommendation concerning breastfeeding and oral contraceptive agents , 90, 122

X

Xanthine oxidase, in human milk, 139

Z

Zinc

absorption during lactation of, 225

amount in human milk, 116, 130, 217

biochemical values for, 53, 55

dietary sources of, 231

estimated vs. recommended intake of, 225

increment in RDA for, 217

infant nutrition, 160

margin of safety in RDA for, 224

maternal intake and milk content of, 130

mean daily intake of, 72-73, 223

nutrient density for, 223

preterm infants, 120

RDA for, 223

supplementation of, 130

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 1991. Nutrition During Lactation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1577.
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Nutrition During Lactation Get This Book
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On the basis of a comprehensive literature review and analysis, Nutrition During Lactation points out specific directions for needed research in understanding the relationship between the nutrition of healthy mothers and the outcomes of lactation. Of widest interest are the committee's clear-cut recommendations for mothers and health care providers.

The volume presents data on who among U.S. mothers is breastfeeding, a critical evaluation of methods for assessing the nutritional status of lactating women, and an analysis of how to relate the mother's nutrition to the volume and composition of the milk.

Available data on the links between a mother's nutrition and the nutrition and growth of her infant and current information on the risk of transmission through breastfeeding of allergic diseases, environmental toxins, and certain viruses (including the HIV virus) are included. Nutrition During Lactation also studies the effects of maternal cigarette smoking, drug use, and alcohol consumption.

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