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Representative terms from entire chapter:
forest genetic
~ ~ ~:::E: ES
::? ~ ~
~:~ ..' '::
:. :.: :,...: :.:
: :,.
~ ~ ~ ~ E: ~ ~ ~ ~ : E: : .~ ::~ ::
7~?seRatio~n~o~f~#s!~#neic~resour~s~#as lad ~tha~!t Of
~ ~ law spies. ~ ~or~in#~)io#~ef~to~
/ to~sr ~ ~
A ~e~ mower fin Weston pappies seeded far plan^# is part Offs
Resin pat. A Me Bay of tag go essays to emit vad~bus
~ Ian ~ ~ -~^^ am ~ Id.
Cody: as A~n~ Or lnte~~0na1 De~l~~n~t.
Int>~a~o~1 eggs to con Mast Meant sons am papacy
those of gove^~n~1 Eddies or i~^n6. Tbe most active organic
moons are the Oxford Forest lapsed (0~) in the [nixed Adorn
Remedy ~ Co~o~n~eblth Foresaw lnshtu~; ~ Cents Iethniqu~e
to~rJ~p~1 <~ ~ Fang; tag 92#o~ ~ Poesy and Forest
Fret Research of the Co~mOn~^lib Went and l~s~a~1 Re
~h Onion (CSlRO) in Austin; and Me Banish Forest Seed
Center (~SC), which is pan of the Banish lnte~atio~1 Development
Amens ~nA\TC^~. The i~n~rnatio~I Divides of these o~ani~tions
/
and many others' are supported and coo~db~ated by the Fig O's Forest
Resources [ivision. guidance in planning international act>'it~s is
^ ~ . ~ ~ _ ~ ~ ~ ~ _ ~ _ .
provided by-the FA O's Panelof Experts on Forest Gene Resources.
J~s7~fi~s l~>Z~d fir #)lz~f~ ~ GO Bomb /
Seve=I Oven agencies/ esoec~lIv in the developed world.
are also active in conserving forest genetic resources Within their national
poundages. The Swedish National Forest Cane Bank, Air Ampler
a nuder of
1~ ~ ~
in ~p-er~
1021 Forest Trees
IN SITU CONSERVATION ACTIVITIES
The extent of in situ conservation of forests worldwide is very difficult
to estimate. Very few natural areas have been set aside specifically for
genetic conservation, but areas set aside for other conservation needs
can serve that purpose. In the United States, for instance, the National
Park system, the National Forest Service's wilderness areas, various
state parks, and private reserves protect forest ecosystems, which in
turn, protect portions of the genetic resources of the contained species.
Similar areas have been preserved in many other countries. Most are
in the temperate zone, but a growing number of natural areas are being
set aside in the tropics. Conserving, managing, or increasing the genetic
diversity within species is rarely a direct objective of the programs,
however, and thus their adequacy for such purposes is seldom evaluated.
Many of the activities affecting in situ conservation of forest genetic
resources have been initiated by the Man and the Biosphere Program
(MAB) of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO), the International Union for the Conservation
of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), and the FAO. The FAO's
Panel of Experts on Forest Gene Resources has been instrumental in
identifying the need for in situ conservation of species used for the
production of wood and wood products (Food and Agriculture Orga-
nization, 1969~. The Panel of Experts has recommended the development
of guidelines for in situ conservation (Food and Agriculture Organiza-
tion, 1972, 1974) and has drawn up operational priorities (Food and
Agriculture Organization, 1977, 1985c).
To encourage and stimulate more field projects on in situ conservation,
the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) and the FAO orga-
nized an expert consultation on in situ conservation of forest genetic
resources in 1980 (Food and Agriculture Organization and United
Nations Environment Program, 1981~. The purpose of the group was
to provide advice on guidelines for the selection and management of in
situ genetic conservation areas, the possibilities of combining general
conservation with other management objectives (such as ecosystem
conservation and production forestry), and needed international actions.
One of the recommendations of the group was a project for the
preparation of a practical manual on in situ conservation of within-
species genetic diversity. This led to the publication of A Guide to In
Situ Conservation of Genetic Resources for Tropical Woody Species (Food and
Agriculture Organization, 1984b).
Several international agencies, such as the FAO, IUCN, UNEP, and
UNESCO, have also carried out studies aimed at outlining a methodology
ibSf!f~f2~S 1~~Z~ {) #~^ TO ~ ~ / Te
situ conservation and at drawing up tentative guidelines or
action In~d~dib~on tithe sn~nual~nen~honed~above~>t~o m~o~e~an~uaIs
_ ~ ~ _
Sc>~f<~ ~< T~!Ibs<(Food and ~,dh~C{garizit~n, 1984a)
and 1< S/f~ O~SS^1~, C/ B)~ #~1 [serfs ha: ~ SONS ~'
/ ~c~f~ ~ seafood find Agriculture 0r~an~2S~n' 1984C). STAR imbrue
na~nua~Issum~ar~e gratis known of~in situ Eqre~s~vcon.se~r~ation and
describe many ofthe elementsth.ata~re necessary 6~7success~fulconse~
~ ~ T~anse~t~geneconservabon~u~ecountbes--Ca~neroon
(food and ^gdcult~re~Org~ni<~tio~1983d), Siala~ysia
: ::
I/
work should be required to verify the economic use of these species,
the~pdvate sector ca~nnotbeexpectedio develop conservation programs/
and because na-tio~na1 govern Tenets cannot afford the expend ~ re'
i~te~nabon~ eEkuis are needed to conserve then.
in the United Stags' About6/000 baa ofes~blished seed orchards and
done banks provide extensive ex situ conservation o~fso~me of tie most
valuable do meshc species Us. Forest Service/ 19S2~. The tio~usan~ds of
hectares of provenance and progeny test gelds and many co~m~nerda~l.
plantains couki also be irapor~nt cow pcnents of any coordinated
~- ~.
co>
~S~f~f-S ~
aft ~ GO S~
(Food and ^gricul~~ O~in~abon, 1931~. Many tropical counties are
now e~syb~lis~hin~ proven an trials far Sting plantain sp~ies,
and a lease proportion of throat plantings will p~ro~bly wolves ink
seedling seed orbs or p~venan!ce connation stands Len this may,
He Pant of ~ sib contain ^~ ~ TV expands.
Torts at forest ax sir conse~adon~ also Clad seed storage St
interna~onal and national centers. Appendix C co~nta~i..ns a partial fist of
such centers. Very ~ of the Citifies are for lon~g~te~ presera~o~n of
e~,l~s=; meanly are ~.~ril~ designed ~sho~r~ storage to
a<
establish provenance trials an!d ex situ consera~tibn strands and to
distribute high~quali~ seed. Most Nominal centers are intereste~d~ph-
~madly in genotypes of flock importance; conservation off all possible
genes is mom point to in~rnadso~al ~i~ns~dfu~hons One conclusion
truant is ines^~a~e is that lone seed stooge of gee spades gently
plays a very mmor rote an ~nseratlon efforts. This must ~ recbRed
. , ,
^ '2~1 .
Bump
. . .
llie~FA O has begun a projecito assist counthes optic Sa~heli<~n and
north Sudani~n regionsininitiahn~reseprch and dev~lop~rie~n~t~ct)>it~s
in the geld oigen~eti~re~so~rceso~f ~ooUvs~edes Most Sells. the
aim is to enhance~o~r create n~t~ni1
. . . . ..
, ~ - ~ -I ~ ~ - -a at ~ - ,,
demands Iffy dusted materials bv de~l~6omen~t Trisects. TO
. . ..
,. ~a, ~... ~,
~ -~ ~
Ton, and im~p~vesme~nt~o~f the most ~isi6~ specks. Each Ret
, ,~ s , ,
pantingly \~n~!/i11 be able ~ Data o!n pa b~va~il~!~1e ge!n~ebc va~r~bili~
fogged ~itb.i~n~ the species it (i~shes~to i~=p~dve. Thins impOes~!j!ot3~t
exploration sand the or~ni>.tio) of fleer Chants between coyotes
#~ Hick thy ~ spedes~ ~ Panda.
1 his second preset 1.n~lq,mat~on on selected 1n~
I/
examina~Son,a task beyond the scope ofibis~po~. The coveragei~s
intended to provide a glotal~ove~
l/5fZf~f2775 /~- /~ ~~ ~ If IS / T~7
participates as a member of UNESCO's Sciences Advisory Panel for
IFospbere R~-serves(Palniberg and E~squinas'^lcizar, 19903.
The~I?
1081 Forest Trees
Another major activity of the FAO is the support of seed collection
and the handling, seed storage, and evaluation of seedlots. The DFSC,
among other seed centers, assists the FAO by providing short-term
seed storage and distribution facilities for international use. It was
originally created at the recommendation of the FAO Panel of Experts.
With the Forest Resources Development Branch, the FAO's core
program in forest genetics has limited but constant funding, which
annually is about 6 percent, or $100,000, of the branch's overall budget.
This does not include salaries or funds to support extrabudgetary and
field projects. Genetic resources activities are also conducted by other
FAO entities, such as the Forest Wildlands and Conservation Branch
and the Plant Production and Protection Division. The division of labor
among the various FAO entities with responsibility for forests and trees
seems to be well defined and to minimize overlap.
The FAO's recently established Commission on Plant Genetic Re-
sources is intended to provide policy guidelines for FAO activities in
the general area of plant genetic resources, including forestry. The
Forestry Resources Division would then implement recommendations
of the commission regarding forestry.
Another FAO activity that includes a forest genetics component is
the Tropical Forestry Action Plan (TFAP) (Food and Agriculture Orga-
nization, 1985c). The program, which is intended to provide a framework
for global action in tropical forestry, specifies five broad priority areas:
forestry in land use, forest-based industrial development, fuelwood and
energy, conservation of tropical forest ecosystems, and institutions. The
plan for conserving tropical forest ecosystems outlines the desirable
actions and funding required for ecosystem conservation and the
conservation in situ of inter- and intraspecific variation of genetic
resources of target species. In particular, the TFAP calls for (1) carrying
out botanical surveys of plant diversity and distribution, (2) developing
methods to protect plant diversity and species variation, (3) developing
conservation data and increasing awareness of the values of genetic
conservation, and (4) increasing research on species of potential eco-
nomic value. It is still too early to evaluate the impact of this program
on global conservation of forest genetic resources. The TFAP has,
however, provided a framework within which international donor
agencies can focus activities, and at a November 1988 meeting, orga-
nizational plans were advanced for research and development programs.
The International Board for Plant Genetic Resources
The International Board for Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR) is an
international, scientific center of the Consultative Group on International
{,zsff~z~f3~z~s Zing 7~ ~& #, Goof? R^~ / 709
~g~cuItu:~1 Research (CC1^~. lit is autonomousand governed by
independent bard of trustees late gas Funded in 19^ Ad its h~ead-
quarte~rs I~tio~ ~ pried ~ Me FAT in bone up its move to
separate ounces In mat CltV in 1~. For a number of gears the FAO
provided some staff and.\ubsidi.zed office space to the 1~BPCR/ and
doting mat pedod tie EGO p moon ~ ~ ~eneLc Sours was
coterminous ~iththatof ~elBPOR. Whenit ~screa~'th~elBPGR
ha~dabo~ut~s~ixnabonal~p~ro~rams Witch ~hichto ~ork~;cur~ntlyit~orks
~ith~ll~Oscoun~tries.lth.a~ybeeninst~ume~ntalin thein~itiaLo~ of many
nabonalprogra~msan~d the e~bli~h~en-t ~! bane bongs. and it all
t~inin~andre~ssearch.
The o~
^ ~ ~ ~
^ ~a~~ ^~ Comas A Isle ~ fain It ~ ~Le~ Gaff is fig
clea~d~ind~b~ed. Ed Sap ma ~^n~sr~b~ss~~st
loamy aged ~sto~de~ded asps Octet: lames UP. BY Nodal !~G~~ic
Ha,
~ a.
psalm. Ace L's pawn covers redesign/ production systems
~'~ ^
Ions ~ larch age o~~es Is find training Cares and
Nippon ~ lOP~O7s ~~ ko~hops. Of in Flesh
egg is demoed to Age a quaker to Ban ~2a' and a -~f ~
Ash,
. . . .
estibIish~nent off a fadlityin~llkai~bd by the Assod~bon of Southeast
gas Nabobs(/~SIVAl<)i~d the Canada Tree Seed~Center to bassist Shea
ASH me ^ s in develop ~ beed~technology age ant td forest
rene%val~lb sou~beast 73ii.~Cdnt _ for genetic resources and their
m ^ tenance in situ and ax Mu are radical components of the seed
centers pot. The l[JUC~i~n general does not caky out pa s;
rather~itp~o~d~essuppo~ tosden~stsi~n developing counties to car By
out pried thafxna~h dbe awns offs foes~by development prc~;am.
The DD~RC's projected budget R~ 1988-1939 ~asabout$120 milIion'93
percen~tof ~ldcb alas ~ grant ham the Canadian government
I~6f~f~f3~6 ~- fit ^~- ~ GO as / !~9
The C{PT~i!S:~a de~pa~men!t ofthe Fre~nch~
1201 Forest Trees
Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization
In Australia, forest genetics work is conducted through CSIRO's
Division of Forestry and Forest Products Research, Program on Austra-
lian Tree Resources, Canberra. About 75 percent of the CSIRO's funds
are appropriated by the Australian Parliament; contributions by industry
and other groups account for most of the remainder. Total research
expenditures by the CSIRO in 1988 amounted to roughly $362.6 million,
of which nearly 23 percent ($82.8 million) was allocated to plant
production and processing, the category into which forest genetics
activities likely fall. The committee was not able, however, to obtain a
more precise estimate of CSIRO's expenditures related to forest genetic
resources.
The Tree Seed Center, a key unit of the Program on Australian Tree
Resources, is a focal point for many projects that require access to
Australian forest genetic resources for use in other countries. The center
collects and distributes high-quality, source-identified seed of commer-
cially promising Australian woody plants for research purposes, provides
professional advice on the choice of species and seed supply, and
provides technical information on species of value and makes the
materials widely available.
During 1982-1985, the center undertook 45 major collecting programs,
about half of which involved the collection of Eucalyptus seed. The major
activity focused on individual tree collections from superior provenances
of proven species for tree breeding purposes. One project, Australian
Trees and Shrubs for Fuelwood and Agroforestry, funded by the
Australian Center for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR), has
meant a new direction for the center. This project involves the exploration
and collection of seed of lesser known Australian trees and shrubs with
potential for use in agroforestry and fuelwood plantings in developing
countries. The program supports conservation of species both directly
through seed storage and ex situ plantings and indirectly by drawing
attention to their potential for utilization. It also provides a stimulus to
sample genetic resources of non-Eucalyptus species. The center's work
in this area has concentrated mainly on nitrogen-fixing Acacia and
Casuarina (she oak) species.
The center collaborates with Australian and international donor
organizations in arranging and distributing the seed for international
provenance trials of important species. Trials of Acacia mangium and A.
aneura, for example, have been established with the participation of 40
organizations and 11 countries. The CSIRO and the Queensland Forestry
ifs !~~Z~ a ~^ #~ ~!~!L F~ / 727
Oepa~rt=~e-nt' fifth support 6= the ACIAR, are developing a~da~t<-~se
system for siding and selectively Ens the result of geld dials,
especially~th~o~ -using ~e~ll~doc~n~ted seed Jo provided byte TO
Am. ~ -~_
the Management p~ctice~s~used gas aIso~cJuded. ~
The C~S~lRO~ hasSn~oted~at-th~e~ is~l~ess~pres~su~ on naO=l~standssof
o!no~i~lly im~~rta~nt~.spede in Austria Man in ct~r~counides~,~but
~ sip Amps am s!~l~est~is~hed as partsofla~e-~ unsexes managed
by the ~abo~ni1 P~rk~Seri~s. The CSIRO bag also noted that Bags Or
constraint to the most eaves co~nse~adon Andre of Asian
genedc esoures~in~sothe!r coun~t~es~s.~e~. the lances off a roped
i~temationa~1~ ~r~suth activities
Ih~e pities of the~DESC~, ! a ~s~t) deve~lop~men~t~assis~nce toga=
ni~^n Glanced by O~1~D^> ~i3ha~d.~in lags under~the~p~isect
name Da~sh/F^O ~Fbres-t~! Reseed Center The ~OPSC is. bond in
H~=lebae!~. Denmark. ` - - - - -
. . .~altio~gh~ nostrils activifies~.~tzk~ place
~devel~ping~!~co~unid~es,~ph mildly t~sou~the~st~^sia and Can ~ I ^ media.
Procreant of~large q~andties off high~quaL~ty~seed~!i~ssb~ne~o~its again
Eves. He Manly gags been~f0=si3~g~ on three i.mbo~nt Spies:
~ ~, Pi~s~,k~s~ff, find !G!~~ J~
^ #
122 / Forest Trees
Oxford Forestry Institute
The OFI is a world center for forest research and development. The
need for adequate supplies of correctly named, site-identified seed trees
grown for industrial and nonindustrial purposes led the OFI to establish
international provenance testing projects for some 50 species in Central
America and parts of Africa. The projects cover exploration, taxonomy,
collection, seed storage and distribution, field trials, establishment of
conservation stands, evaluation, and conservation and development of
genetic improvement strategies for a number of tropical species.
Since 1963, the OFI has made collections in the entire Central American
region for provenance and progeny trials, especially of pines. Since
1980, it has also made collections of tropical broadleaf trees from arid
and semiarid zones in Central America. Seed from OFI collections are
distributed free of charge for trials all over the world. The evaluation
of such trials has already provided a great deal of information about
genetic variation within the collected species.
The emphasis in all OFI genetic projects is on breeding for use in the
tropics. The species OFI initially worked on were largely tropical pines,
Pinus caribaea, P. oocarpa, and P. tecunumanii. Recently, it has expanded
its work to include P. patula, P. kesiya, P. merkusii, and P. greggii, among
the pines, and to a lesser extent, other gymnosperms, including Agathis
(kauri), Cupressus (cypress), and Widdringtonia (African cypress) species
and Abies guatemalensis. Among the hardwood species with industrial
uses, projects are being developed for Cedrela (Chinese cedar) species,
Cordia alliodora (Ecuador laurel), and Liquidambar styraciflua (species of
sweet gum) from Central America. For agroforestry use, Gliricidia septum
and several species of Leucaena and Prosopis are included in initial species
assays, and in east Africa several species of Acacia (A. albida, A. tortilis,
A. senegalensis, and A. nilotica) are being collected in various cooperative
projects. Some 25 tree species from the Central American dry zone,
mainly legumes, are also being studied.
For all of the above species, a two- or three-stage sequence of projects
is followed. The first stage begins with initial collection of materials for
identification and study of phenotypic variation. A second stage is a
more formal ecogeographic study using rangewide collections and
widely distributed trial plantations to establish initial provenance trials.
A third stage is sometimes necessary for more intensive sampling of
selected individuals or populations. Selections from the initial prove-
nance trials are also used with materials from the third stage to establish
local breeding populations.
l~5f/~f~s /~ Off !~7 Tab Gregg R~s/?e
The models~o~fthe OF~l/soperptio~ngls~l~ar~itstrq~Ricq~l~pine projects
{Pica> amp an, P I and P. -
^ ~ ~ ~ at, Pay ~ ~
~nded~plo~,sof~!~hich bbout15 sites age consi~dered~representpuve
and getable ~rde~iled data analysis over several environments. about
one id of the ~odginal~soun~s mere considered useful~+~resa~/in~>
and with ~subs~nbaI in!t~popu~tiona1 neck vacation and at least 25
ages Pled par po^Iad~/ a su~cien!t breeding gases is On sided
~^ arm.
~ a,
The impact offs these cr~e~s~ on the s~enedc;. rehouse base fist mixed.
Intoned above -l-he
..
. ~ ,
PI ~hs~ been ~411~ gamble and ~exiAts~.in~ Enough sdivetse
test for breeding populations that its ~ne~c vadition~is~ currently ~e11
conserved. . Past If ~ P. I; And APE. ~&~ All ply rebut
a ~ ~p~pula~bon~s are missing Am col~lechons~. Bead Be Mae Gaps All
Pus Bogy and in most of Be come ha;rd~~d ~colle~ons/
e~spedal\~of populations at ~eed~s of spices ~here~s~many
local variants ~ being lost Portage ~uncglle~bl~e~.
The 0 ~ hags Usov~n~i~n~h~ousetedEn~sy~(and~otherpro~ssionals
on outside~fundt~g) but~tie~ instate lb~gelys!~d~ependsss'~on~sho~$etm
Gra~ntsand~ben~e,fu~ndingheco=~sicon~i~ton~pbog~ar1~con~ndi?.
There ~ 11 pro~ssion~Isinthe Ce~e~tics~s~d~liee~Breedi~ELnk~salJ
on non>~un~esi~nded~ ("ma") probes ~e~ unlit is respond floor
all prompts anon Neck Issue development ~ it Opted with Only
nati~onaJ governments and in~=abonal avenges, ibis ~1 Sups! seed center
~ deve1~opi!n~ ~u!n~e-s' Is used otiose seed cent= in its Tepee=
croi~ects. and has Econ~n~v made all mated Ion freely
available to all sConsidedng To sit costs rawly $1 elision to es~bEsh
the pine Pals by its standard procedure' and that its Ending cycle is
~ ~ ~ >>r pawn He ~ ~ a ^^ in ~
view of prospect pd~odties. BuilSi~g~ ~i~n~st#~e and- d~e~I~opi~ng perk
so~nneI in the counties Them it Form is not a mai~orscomp~e~nt of a
paroled and hence> Be SOFT does its own seed coon Laid di~s~but~n.
One off its other Mentions is, hoppers academic; inns partings' ~ OF1
offers intensive courses Sign Oxen and abroad ~ a wide And of subjects.
[-S. Dam of dreg ~ ~ ~ ~ APE
Hi.
I:
TO advises of the U.S. Department of ^~#ul~e's Foist Seam
delude esearh and ~nedc imp~# pawns endued ~
national Blasts. Rewash is proudly aimed at secedes of Thigh amp
124 / Forest Trees
mercial value, but there is a growing emphasis on maintaining diversity
in forests. The Forest Service also provides international assistance in
forestry to USAID's overseas missions.
The Forest Service has collected and maintained varieties of Pinus
tueda (loblolly pine) since 1943. Storage facilities for tree germplasm are
located at its laboratories. These are not long-term storage facilities,
however, and there is no national inventory of what tree germplasm is
in storage. When the Forest Service identifies endangered populations
of forest tree species, it collects germplasm and, when possible, grows
it at a site with similar environmental conditions. Most U.S. national
parks have set aside land as genetic management areas.
Individual states also have independent conservation programs, and
several states have a tree improvement program that includes genetic
resources components. State activities generally do not have an inter-
national aspect, but they can serve as models for larger efforts. California,
for example, has an innovative project to conserve conifer genetic
resources. The Conifer Germplasm Conservation Project is designed to
provide information and resources needed for long-term protection of
the diversity of California's forests. As part of this program a major
effort will be to complete seed collections in California from the range
of Pseudotsuga (Douglas fir) and Pinus ponderosa (ponderosa pine).
Intensive seed collection also will be made for Picea brewerana (Brewer's
spruce), a rare and little known species found in a few locations in
northern California. Related aspects of the project will include research
on the geographic patterns of genetic variation in the above-mentioned
fir, pine, and spruce species, restoration of several ongoing gene
conservation collections that have fallen into disrepair, and a computer-
based catalog of lands dedicated to forest gene conservation.
CONCLUSIONS
l
Funding levels for forest tree genetic resources programs around the
world are inadequate to ensure the continuation of even the current
level of activity. Base program funding is being reduced in some
organizations and was never adequate in others. Support for tree genetic
resources is, therefore, often the product of the personal interests of
individual scientists. The situation is exacerbated by the frequent lack
of defined policies and programs designed specifically to prevent the
loss of valuable genetic resources. It has been roughly estimated (S.
Krugman, U.S. Forest Service Timber Management, personal commu-
nication, 1989) that the total expenditure worldwide specifically for
forest germplasm conservation activities is $5 million annually. If the
7~!f~ff~s I~1~ ~ +~# ~ ~ ~ / ~
You s lands (~ cams madly Tab ~~ she at Pall ala ~
Dames pubic. ~o~h~ 95~ ~d of sprain has ~ dart,
so flue to ~ ~~ data tar wand wand gad Is ~~
126 / Forest Trees
priorities for and methods of conserving forest genetic resources on a
global scale. This situation is due, in part, to the lack of a well-supported
international institution that is specifically mandated to coordinate and
facilitate the conservation and management of forest genetic resources.
The FAO and the IUFRO are serving important functions in this regard,
but a greater effort is needed. The pressures on forest genetic resources
in industrialized and nonindustrialized countries differ in many respects,
but the stability of future forest genetic resources for both could be
enhanced through greater international leadership and coordination.
For the industrialized countries of the temperate and boreal regions,
there are well-established species of widespread commercial use, pop-
ulations of some of which have been widely sampled in parks, test
stands, and in breeding and production stands. Many of those species
are still incompletely sampled for conservation purposes, however, and
for virtually all of them clear programs still do not exist for using
genotypes or populations as introductions or substitutes for their current
breeding populations. The number of supporting populations for those
species could profitably be at least doubled within existing national and
international programs, and systems for testing and breeding enhanced
alternatives could also be profitably established. In that regard, the
number of species with clear potential for future use that could be
managed in breeding or prebreeding operations is at least twice the
number of species currently used, and their inclusion would quadruple
the number of populations used. The flow of genetic materials from
conserved status into advanced breeding populations would also have
to be clearly established for this second set of species if they are to be
used effectively. Hence, those species also may be justifiably conserved.
A third set of species, equal in number to the second set, could also
be tested and conserved for future production forestry. The attention
of the IUFRO and national agencies (with some interregional coopera-
tion) is focused primarily on the first set, somewhat on the second, but
little on the third. Largely independent interest groups also exist for
nonproduction forestry species, which overlap with the third set of
species. They focus on ecosystem conservation, however; very little
research attention is given to the genetics of conservation or to amelio-
rative interventions.
In the nonindustrialized world, pressure is growing for production
forestry, especially for fuelwood in dry areas but also for timber and
other wood products. Breeding is largely just beginning (with a few
exceptions, such as for Eucalyptus), and the structure of breeding
populations has not yet been clearly defined. Hence, a need exists for
founding a structure of primary and alternative breeding populations
l~Si~ff~f~S Z)~# Off ~- ~ Game S~ / 12~7
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those~th~at are beings in~i~a~d ~bv the SCORE, CS1~, Am, FOLIO.
and OFI.~ Bomber/ many of Bose activates am staff fund on Beg
deveJospm~ent off test Plantings ~r pdme>~ Potentially Seal spedes>~pnd
tb~a~t Equips a lame collection and testings alkyd. Stopover' seven
hundred species off pond value' espeoa11y in the abbe anal tier ~~
and Maoists- pi^1areas' are notincl~ud~ed. Those s~pedes ae~at~sh~[
d~s~k off median loss and bothin mu Andrea situ efforts by nau~na
- ~, ~.. ...
c~ ms~are needed to p~rotecithem Steven greater dsk,~h ~ evermore
t~ose~s~pecffo~ ofi~sf~f~f/~1s fief ~ fad
its of fag fat ~ If ~ .
~ ~ -- --- - as -- ~ ~ - ~ <-
lo increase Crest tam resources Sian national and inte~abo~na1 programs
for biological diversity conservation or resource development will ~qqire
new and expanded programs and increased levels of Ending Lon~-
term content of lands is nece~ssa~ to assure He continuance off
efforts that can extend over many years Encased sctivi~^ will create
need far more trained pro~ssiona~l,technical.and support staff.
-e ~} ~ ~f/~Z ~ ~7 i~sf~f~f~s fig ~\ fat /~f?
En, Bind /~ Aces ~,f lags ~ s ^ 3~ ~) pus ~ Elf
~ {~ ~ ~i~&d~ ~.F~n~f ~ ~e~f<~z
pan S>O~) ~ >~ZSza) ~) f~) S~ ~f~o~Z >~ Or #muff,
h/~!o&~Zifre~fiy/~ offer ~r~.,s ~ &~fi~&~f
With the cant crisisin the availability of genetic ~natedal at alI
1281 Forest Trees
these levels of use and management, a more secure global system is
needed to ensure future access to the extant genetic resource. Nationally
based organizations must take responsibility for any populations that
originate entirely within the country's borders and for which the uses
and benefits are also contained therein. They may require support and
assistance to do so, but for their own local benefit. If the benefits and
uses extend beyond national boundaries, however, then international
interest in conserving and using those resources exists, and direct
cooperative support is warranted. The benefits may be realized in terms
of global health and ecosystem support, and more direct products and
services, in which case the assistance of international agencies as well
as cooperation may be needed to ensure that all appropriate technologies
are used.
