Page 869
Index
A
Acid rain
cloud stimulation and, 82, 457, 459, 832-833
forest threats, 425
fossil fuels and, 238
nitrous oxide precursor, 321
sulfur dioxide precursor, 238, 336, 457, 832
Adaptation, 706. See also Costs: adaptation
agriculture, 39, 45, 77-78, 502, 505-506, 509, 516-517, 561-566, 634, 635, 677, 685
animals, 37, 46, 503, 581, 676, 686
assumptions, 517-521
and biological diversity, 40, 78-79, 513, 579, 580-581, 690
to carbon dioxide concentration, 509, 551-555, 616
classes of, 516-517
coastal settlements, 45, 505, 608-609, 626, 635, 636, 685-686
costs of, 34, 85, 505, 541, 680-681, 686
defined, 840
developed nations, 514
developing nations, 565-566, 632, 659, 688
difficulty of, 84-85, 657, 659
economic growth and, 507, 519, 626
ecosystems, 37, 39, 40, 46, 502, 504n, 505, 509, 525, 575, 577, 675, 685, 686
electric power generation, 41, 599, 601-602, 605-606, 654, 675
environmental consequences of, 504n, 659
forestry, 506, 569, 572, 634, 635
forests, 39, 40, 45, 505, 525-526, 571-575, 577, 634, 636, 677
government policies, 512, 538, 631-632
greenhouse gas effects of, 574
human activities, 36, 37, 44, 47, 502, 506, 527-530, 676, 685-686
human health, 41-42, 44, 45, 505, 615-620, 677
human settlements, 41, 608, 611-615
industry, 44, 45, 504, 606-607, 677, 685
investment in, 43, 503, 508, 512-514, 527-528, 530, 535, 537, 685
irrigation, 78, 537, 559, 562-563, 564-565
limitations on, 43-44, 502-503, 654
marine environments, 590-591
markets and, 34, 509, 512, 521-522
natural landscape, 39, 40, 45, 505, 551, 575, 578-582, 635, 677
Page 870
ocean current changes, 47, 507, 521, 589, 676, 686
plants, 37, 46, 503, 564, 577, 581, 676, 686
policy options, 30, 32, 34-35, 43-44, 69-70, 77-79, 550, 574, 674, 690
population migration, 628, 631-632
recommendations, 47, 77-79, 508-514, 690
research, 77-78, 80-81, 508-509, 690
sea level change, 537, 590-591, 611-613, 635
sensitivities, 44-47, 504-507, 541, 653, 675-676, 677
technology and, 37-38, 509, 514, 516, 530-534
temperature increases, 47, 503, 613-614, 653, 655
tourism and recreation, 45, 46, 505, 506, 607-608, 677, 686
uncertainty in, 43, 534-537, 541, 561
water resources, 40-41, 45, 78, 505, 506, 529, 537, 599, 634-635, 636, 677, 690
weather forecasting and, 80, 510, 534, 691
Aerosols
chlorofluorocarbon substitution, 392, 393, 792, 793, 794
cloud stimulation, 435-436
defined, 840
halocarbon propellants, 95
hydrocarbon propellants, 392, 393, 793
sulfate, 22, 59, 121, 451, 472
Africa
deforestation, 11
fertility rates, 417
population growth, 415
refugee migration, 622, 626, 628
water resources, 592
Agriculture. See also Livestock;Rice production
adaptability to climate change, 39, 45, 502, 505-506, 509, 516-517, 561-566, 634, 635, 677, 685
adaptation costs, 505, 506, 543, 550, 675, 678, 686
adaptation policies, 77-78, 509
biomass fuel sources, 348, 393, 805
capital stock replacement, 38, 531
carbon dioxide fertilization, 38-39, 78, 558, 566
carbon sequestration (sinks), 404, 798, 799
cloud seeding, 827
deforestation, 424
energy consumption, 281, 393, 805
greenhouse gas emission, 5, 376, 393-394, 799-800
greenhouse gas emission reduction, 58, 394, 395-398, 402-403, 471, 799, 800
impacts of climate change on, 44-45, 505, 522, 550, 556-562, 599-601, 602, 603, 604, 635
land, reforestation of, 441, 700
mechanization, 804-805
methane emission, 376, 393, 394-395, 799-800, 805
methane emission reduction, 394, 395-401, 404, 799, 800-805
mitigation costs, 60, 400, 401, 403-404, 484, 489, 684, 802-803, 806
mitigation intervention effects, 497
mitigation policy options, 58, 157, 396-397, 399-401, 403-405, 471, 480, 800-806
nitrous oxide emission, 8, 162, 376, 393, 398, 682
nitrous oxide emission reduction, 402-404, 805, 806
precipitation changes and, 34, 39, 44-45, 557, 654
radiative forcing, 161
research, 39, 77-78, 398-399, 404, 509, 557, 690, 799
soil moisture in, 136
technological improvement, 405, 509, 799
temperature changes and, 39, 558, 559, 561
water resources and, 503, 528, 559, 560, 562-563, 602, 654
Agung, Mount, volcanic eruption, 451
Air conditioning
Page 871
automobiles, 385-386, 471, 479, 793, 795
residential and commercial buildings, 210-211, 216, 711
Aircraft
cost of efficiency improvement, 296, 298
energy consumption, 728
exhaust particulates, geoengineering, 59, 61, 453-454, 472
fuel efficiency, 56, 287, 293, 469, 478, 743
new product development, 301, 531
Air pollution
energy conservation reductions, 169, 185n, 238, 320, 321
regulatory reduction, 70, 321, 614
temperature change and, 610, 614
threat to forests, 425
Albedo
atmospheric dust, 449, 450, 453, 460
cloud geoengineering, 450, 454-455, 460, 461n.4, 824, 825, 827, 828, 831
mitigation intervention, 157-158, 447
snow-ice feedback, 106, 113, 135
vegetation, 137
white surfaces, 447
Alternative energy supplies, 75, 76, 368-369
water heating systems, 217
Alternative transportation fuels. See Transportation energy management
Aluminum, 531
production, energy conservation in, 280, 718, 719, 722
Amazon basin, 135-136, 430, 799
American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy (ACEEE), 206, 218, 219
Ammonium sulfate, 833
Animals. See also Livestock
adaptation to climate change, 37, 46, 503, 581, 676, 686
biological diversity, 513
carbon dioxide enrichment and, 38-39, 576
carbon sequestration, 798
impacts of climate change on, 37, 39-40, 47, 576, 578, 584, 586, 587, 589
work animals, 395, 398, 799-800, 801, 804-805
Antarctica
oceanic iron fertilization, 445, 446, 459
ocean nutrients, 443
precipitation, 154
stratospheric ozone, 125, 377, 450, 849
stratospheric temperature, 125
West Antarctic Ice Sheet, 25, 26, 141, 636n.4, 680
Appliances
chlorofluorocarbon substitutes, 384-385, 471, 479
conservation supply curves, 714-715
efficiency improvements, 55, 212, 216, 217, 219, 384-385, 468, 476
energy consumption, 201, 208, 209, 215-216, 218-219, 710
regulatory standards, 209n, 219, 227, 233, 240
Archimedes principle, 819, 821
Arctic Ocean, 680
oil reserves, 604-605
Asia
deforestation, 11
energy consumption, 236
land use, 798
precipitation, 136
refugee migration, 622
Atmosphere. See also Atmospheric concentration; Stratosphere; Troposphere
carbon dioxide removal, 351, 681, 683
chemical reactions in, 12, 59, 81, 94, 146, 158, 161, 332, 450
chemistry, dust/aerosol geoengineering and, 435-436, 443, 450
chlorofluorocarbon photodissociation, 96
Page 872
chlorofluorocarbon removal with lasers, 59, 61, 433, 457-458, 472, 482
defined, 840
energy absorption and reflection, 13, 14-17, 100-101, 102-103, 664
general circulation models, 20, 111
greenhouse effect, normal, 3, 91, 101
greenhouse gas accumulation, climate effects, 19, 20-21, 22, 26-27, 158, 172, 665, 666
greenhouse gas cycling, 93, 700
greenhouse gas dispersal, 5, 12
greenhouse gas removal, 30, 157-158
heat transfer, 16-17, 28, 154, 664-665
human greenhouse gas emission to, 5-6, 7-9, 27, 89, 91-92, 97n.2, 153, 158-160, 162, 171
nitrous oxide removal, 97
ocean-atmospheric system, 93, 605, 636n.5, 846
temperature
cloud feedback, 842-843
data records, 125
ocean heat transfer, 143
radiant energy transfer, 16, 17, 19, 664
and shoreline ecosystems, 587
and water vapor concentration, 103-104, 158
water vapor feedback, 103-106, 109, 158, 669, 673
Atmospheric circulation, 47, 657
Atmospheric concentration
carbon dioxide, 3, 13, 14, 92, 146, 153, 160, 667
adaptation to, 509, 551-555, 616
anthropogenic contribution to, 3, 27, 89, 92, 93, 94, 97n.2, 146, 330
climate models of, 3-4, 20, 29, 111-113, 124, 125, 669
doubling scenario, 3-4, 20, 37, 102-103, 105, 111-112, 148, 153-154, 330-332, 669
greenhouse warming contribution of, 3, 27, 89, 93, 663
ice core record, 91, 93, 97n.1, 443
ocean fertilization and, 444, 446
past increases, 3, 12, 27, 91, 93, 94, 153, 443, 663-665
chlorofluorocarbons, 3, 13, 27, 92, 95, 146, 153, 160, 381, 458, 663, 665, 667
greenhouse gases, 3, 12, 13, 19, 20-21, 22, 92, 146, 148, 663, 671
hydroxyl radical, 94-95
methane, 3, 12, 13, 27, 92, 94-95, 146, 153, 160, 381, 663, 665, 667
nitrous oxide, 13, 92, 96, 97, 146, 160, 161, 381, 667
sulfur dioxide, 457
trace gases, 666
Atmospheric fluidized-bed combustion (AFBC), 337
Atmospheric lifetime, 666, 672
carbon dioxide, 12, 13, 92, 93, 146, 160, 381, 382, 666, 667
carbon tetrachloride, 146, 381
chlorofluorocarbons, 13, 92, 146, 151, 160, 381, 666, 667
halocarbons, 96, 146, 381, 392-393
methane, 13, 92, 94, 146, 160, 381, 666, 667
nitrous oxide, 13, 92, 97, 146, 160, 381, 667
Atmospheric moisture, 141
Atmospheric pressure, 140
Automated Surface Observing System (ASOS), 131
Automobile industry, 309, 385, 718
Autombiles. See also Transportation energy management
air conditioning, 385-386, 471, 479, 793, 795
carbon dioxide emissions, 312, 334
conservation supply curves, 751
consumer preference for, 314, 322, 473, 731
energy consumption, 286, 288, 310-311, 313, 728
Page 873
infrastructure support, 314, 317n, 318, 367
invention of, 530-531
lifetime and turnover, 33-34, 301
mass transit substitution, 49, 173, 312, 314, 317n, 322, 473, 764
policy options, 75, 301-304, 315-317
vehicle miles traveled, 310, 312, 316
Auto/Oil Reformulated Gasoline Program, 307
Azolla fern, 404
B
"Backstop" technology, 51, 52, 180, 192
Balloons
stratospheric dust delivery, 452, 459, 460, 817, 819-823
sunlight reflection screen, 59, 454, 472, 482, 486, 817, 823-824
Bangladesh, 417, 609, 627, 628, 801
Barrier islands, 584, 587, 612
Benzene, 321
Biogas, 805
Biological diversity
adaptation to climate change and, 40, 78-79, 513, 579, 580-581, 690
deforestation and, 76, 430, 442
impacts of climate change on, 40, 80-81, 576-577, 590, 591
international cooperation, 67
markets and investment, 35, 686
research needs, 80-81, 370, 442
Biomass
alternative fuels from, 57, 306, 307, 308, 323, 364, 367, 370, 371, 393, 446, 470, 478
barriers to implementation, 323, 361, 364, 367
burning, greenhouse gas emission, 96, 305, 395, 700, 805
burning, reduction of, 394, 398, 401, 805
carbon dioxide enrichment and production of, 80, 81, 555, 691
cost-effectiveness of carbon dioxide reduction, 355-356, 486
costs of implementation, 348, 349, 444-445, 459, 482, 779-783
defined, 841
electric power generation, 57, 333, 349, 356, 361, 470, 479, 602, 787, 788, 789
energy supply share, 330, 333, 334, 345, 348-349, 372, 775, 779-783
ethanol fuel produced from, 305, 306, 307, 308, 323, 345
ether gasoline additive, 307
fossil-fuel plant replacement, 57, 259, 470
industrial energy supply, 8, 162, 259, 682
methane emission, 94, 395, 805
methanol fuel produced from, 57, 307, 323, 345, 470, 478
nitrous oxide emission, 8, 162, 682
oceans, growth stimulation in, 59, 61, 433, 442-446, 459, 472, 482, 486
research and development needs, 370, 371
technological improvements, 372, 799
Biosphere, 93
carbon sequestration, 80, 537, 672
defined, 841
hydrologic processes, 135, 136-137
Black abalone, 589
Black sea urchin, 589
Blooms, 653
Boiling water reactor (BWR), 770
Bombay Efficiency Lighting Large-scale Experiment, 241-242n.10
Bonneville Power Administration (BPA), 229-230
Botanical gardens, 580
Bougainvillaea, 580
Brazil
alternative transportation fuels, 304
economic development, 417, 418
electricity production, 236
orange juice industry, 556
Building codes, 75, 233, 240, 472
Buildings, residential and commercial, 166
barriers to efficiency implementation, 225-226
Page 874
building shell efficiency, 216, 219-220, 698-699
capital stock turnover, 37, 532
coastal, climate change impacts, 550
commercial cooking, 55, 212, 217, 468, 476, 714-715
commercial cooling, 55, 212, 215, 217, 468, 476, 714-715
commercial and industrial space heating, 55, 206, 212, 215, 468, 476, 714-715
commercial lighting, 55, 212, 215, 216-217, 468, 476, 714-715
commercial refrigeration, 55, 212, 468, 476, 714-715
commercial ventilation, 55, 212, 215, 468, 476, 714-715
commercial water heating, 55, 212, 215, 217, 468, 476, 714-715
conservation supply curves, 207-208, 210-211, 708-709, 711, 714-715
cost of conserved energy, 207, 211, 212, 213, 215, 221, 708-709, 711, 712
cost-effectiveness of conservation, 205, 208, 213, 483, 683, 710
costs of implementation, 60, 212, 213-214, 220-221, 240, 476, 489, 684, 713
electricity conservation potential, 75, 204-213, 224, 240
electricity consumption, 201-203, 205, 206, 215-216, 219, 220, 225, 237
electricity efficiency measures, 55, 214-216, 468, 476, 714-715
electricity prices, 208, 209-210, 213, 226, 709
energy consumption, 201, 202-203, 205, 225, 261
fuel switching, 56, 221-222, 223, 224, 241n.9, 469, 476
greenhouse gas reduction potential, 60, 203, 213, 213-214, 220-221, 223-224, 239-240, 483, 489, 713
mitigation policy options, 53-54, 55-56, 227-237, 239-240, 468-469, 476, 483, 684
national demonstration projects, 229-233
new buildings, 222-223
nongreenhouse benefits and costs, 237-238
oil and gas efficiency, 56, 220-221, 224, 240, 469, 476
research and development needs, 238-239
residential appliances, 55, 209, 212, 215, 218-219, 233, 468, 476, 710, 714-715
residential lighting, 55, 212, 215, 216-217, 468, 476, 714-715
residential space heating, 55, 206, 212, 215, 468, 476, 714-715
residential water heating, 55, 212, 215, 217, 468, 476, 714-715
white surfaces, 55, 212, 216, 241n.5, 468, 476, 714-715
C
Calcium carbonate, 278
California
agriculture, 37, 531, 594, 803
alternative transportation fuels, 304
climate change and electric demand, 601
co-generation, 264
electric energy conservation, 220, 222, 232-233, 273
geothermal energy, 343
ocean temperatures, 589
population migration, 623
solar energy, 344
transportation management, 311, 322, 324
utility regulation, 213
water resources, 400, 529, 545, 594, 803
California Energy Commission (CEC), 264, 266, 306
Canada
alternative transportation fuels, 304
nuclear power, 768
oil reserves, 604-605
transportation management, 316
Canadian Climate Centre (CCC), 112
Canola production, 564
Page 875
Capital recovery factors (CRF), 720, 786
Capital recovery rate (CRR), 708
Capital stock replacement, 37-38, 271, 531-532
Carbon
carbon dioxide equivalent, 681
deforestation release of, 424, 425
fossil-fuel burning reaction, 332
product of advanced coal burning, 353
volatile organic carbon, 386
Carbon content
gasoline, 307
soil and vegetation, 812
Carbon cycle, 93, 437, 666, 841
Carbon dioxide (CO2). See also Carbon dioxide enrichment
airborne fraction, 840
atmospheric concentration, 3, 13, 14, 92, 146, 153, 160, 667
adaptation to, 509, 551-555, 616
anthropogenic contribution to, 3, 27, 89, 92, 93, 94, 97n.2, 146, 330
climate models of, 3-4, 20, 29, 111-113, 124, 125, 669
doubling scenario, 3-4, 20, 37, 102-103, 105, 111-112, 148, 153-154, 330-332, 669
greenhouse warming contribution of, 3, 27, 89, 93, 663
ice core record, 91, 93, 97n.1, 443
ocean fertilization and, 444, 446
past increases, 3, 12, 27, 91, 93, 94, 153, 443, 663-665
atmospheric lifetime, 12, 13, 92, 93, 146, 160, 381, 382, 666, 667
carbon equivalent of, 681
conservation supply curves, 714-715
buildings sector, 60, 212, 213-214, 220-221, 240, 476, 489, 684, 713
carbon taxes and, 175, 176, 178, 179, 180, 184, 790-791, 836
cloud stimulation, 455-456, 457, 482, 486, 830, 831, 833
cost modeling, 174-180, 181, 836, 837, 838
deforestation prevention, 428, 813
electric power generation, 354 , 355, 477, 479, 711, 789, 790-791
industrial co-generation, 265-266, 722-723
industrial energy conservation, 258, 259, 263-264, 476-477, 478, 718, 720, 721-722, 724, 725
"negative cost," 191
ocean biomass stimulation, 445, 482
parking management, 759
population control, 420
reforestation, 440, 441, 480, 814, 815
sunlight screening, 447, 448, 452, 453, 454, 461n.7, 482, 486, 821, 824
transportation sector, 295, 317, 319, 324, 477, 478, 737, 738, 743, 750, 751
emission sources
agriculture, 398, 402, 404, 801
alternative transportation fuels, 307, 308
anthropogenic, 3, 8, 27, 89, 92, 93, 94, 146, 147, 158-160, 162, 668, 670, 682
cement manufacturing, 165, 256
chlorofluorocarbon substitutes, 392
coal-fired plants, 158-160, 331, 332, 335, 338, 355
deforestation, 8, 11, 76, 162, 424, 428, 682, 843
ecosystems, 39
electric power plants, 256, 334, 351, 711, 789
energy use, 8, 158-160, 162, 180, 682
fossil fuels, 91-92, 93, 165, 178, 179, 256, 330-332, 341, 342, 351, 404
gasoline, 307, 332, 334, 342, 731-732
land use changes, 404
national levels, 9-10
Page 876
natural gas, 158-160, 308, 330-332, 335, 338-339
natural gas power plants, 355, 789
oil burning, 158-160, 331, 332
population growth, 418, 419, 809-811
transportation sector, 286, 287, 306, 307, 323, 334, 731-732, 760
United States, 9-11, 158-160, 164, 165, 168, 334, 688
emissions reductions
buildings sector efficiency, 203, 212, 213-214, 223-224, 239-240, 261-264, 282, 354, 487, 711, 721-722
coal-fired plants, 338, 353, 355-356, 602
co-generation, 264-266, 282, 346, 476, 483, 722-723
cost-effectiveness of, 33, 49, 51, 266, 356, 467, 483, 484, 486
deforestation prevention, 428, 812-813
electric power plant collection, 58, 76, 351-353, 372, 471
electric power plant efficiency, 213-214, 221, 239-240, 354, 355-357, 711
energy efficiency, 60, 192-193, 259
energy supply systems, 356-357
fossil fuels, 76, 220-221, 240, 257-258, 351, 370, 442-443
fuel switching, 221, 256, 257-258
geothermal energy, 343
industrial energy conservation, 256, 257-258, 259, 261-266, 269, 270, 271, 279, 282-283, 717
integrated energy systems, 346, 347
nuclear power generation, 341
renewable energy sources, 342
solar energy, 344
transportation fuel efficiency, 298, 312, 324
United States, 177, 221, 223-224, 239-240, 356-357
global warming potential, 163-164, 167, 381-383
greenhouse warming contribution, 150, 151, 153-154, 376, 378, 380
in methane generation, 94
mitigation policies
cost-effectiveness of, 33, 49, 51, 266, 356, 467, 483, 484, 486
effects on developing nations, 635
energy supply systems, 368, 370
industrial sector, 272, 273, 275, 276, 277
ocean biomass stimulation, 54, 59, 61, 82, 433, 443-446, 459, 472, 481, 482, 486, 683
ocean disposal, 58, 345, 351, 353, 471
reforestation, 77, 437, 439-441, 442, 459, 487-490, 814-815
renewable energy sources, 342
sunlight screening, 450, 459, 824
ocean absorption of, natural, 12, 93, 94, 135, 442-443, 672
plant and tree uptake, 5, 40, 76, 77, 154, 437, 666
precipitation interactions, 137, 555
radiative forcing, 15, 102-103, 105, 148, 150, 668, 670, 681-683
commitment to future warming, 18, 149, 150, 163-164, 670
contribution to warming, 12-13, 158, 167, 666-667
timing of mitigation and, 193, 194
unaccounted-for emissions, 12, 93-94, 666
Carbon dioxide enrichment (fertilization)
and agricultural production, 38-39, 78, 558, 560-561, 566
and biomass production, 80, 81, 555, 691
Page 877
defined, 841
and evaporation, 552, 553, 555
forest adaptation to, 568, 569, 570
and photosynthesis, 39, 551-554, 555, 566, 576, 845
and plant and tree growth, 38-39, 137, 154, 551-554, 555, 569, 576, 636n.1, 841
Carbon monoxide (CO), 158, 321, 576
animals, 798
defined, 841-842
oceans, 433, 437, 443, 444, 446, 459, 666, 672, 695
ocean temperature and, 589-590
trees and vegetation, 77, 429, 433, 437, 439-441, 442, 537, 574-575, 666, 698, 814, 815
wetlands, 554
Carbon tax
carbon dioxide emission reduction, 176, 194
cost of carbon dioxide emission
reduction, 175, 176, 178, 179, 180, 184, 790-791, 836
and nuclear energy, 355
policy options, 180, 194, 195, 272, 310, 367, 368
transportation fuels, 303, 310
Carbon tetrachloride (CC14)
anthropogenic emissions, 146, 147, 386-387
atmospheric concentration, 95, 146, 386
global warming potential, 381, 386
London Protocol phaseout, 74, 96, 377, 386
ozone depletion, 386
radiative forcing, 148, 150, 163
Cement manufacturing, 160, 165, 178, 256
Chemical industry, 389
co-generation, 264
energy use reduction, 266, 269, 280
Chemical pollution, 44, 505, 509
Chemical reactions, atmospheric, 12, 59, 81, 94, 146, 158, 161, 332, 450
Chernobyl nuclear accident, 236
Chichon, E1, volcanic eruption, 451
China
chlorofluorocarbon use, 377, 390
climate change, economic effects, 604
coal-fired generating, 236, 241-242n.10, 335, 336
greenhouse gas emissions, 9, 65
refugee migration, 627
sea levels, 140
Chlorine
atmospheric reduction, 391, 450
ozone depletion, 377, 380, 393
stratospheric dust and, 450, 451, 460
Chlorocarbons (CC), 15, 18, 149, 376, 377, 381
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC). See also Halocarbons
anthropogenic emissions, 3, 8, 146, 147, 149, 159, 162, 377-378, 665, 681, 682
atmospheric chemistry effects, 435, 450, 460
atmospheric concentration, 3, 13, 27, 92, 95, 146, 153, 160, 381, 458, 663, 667
atmospheric lifetime, 13, 92, 146, 151, 160, 381, 666, 667
atmospheric photodissociation, 96
atmospheric rate of increase, 13, 27, 92, 95, 153, 160, 667
atmospheric removal with lasers, 59, 61, 457-458, 472, 482
barriers to emission reduction, 389-390
carbon dioxide-equivalent emissions, 8, 387, 682
defined, 842
Clean Air Act limits, 70, 377, 378
cost-effectiveness of emission
reduction, 53, 54, 173, 496, 792-796
cost of use reduction, 60, 173, 175, 387, 388, 389, 684, 792-796, 838
Page 878
effects of emission reductions, 151, 383, 690
global warming potential, 167, 381, 382, 383
greenhouse warming impact, 151, 158, 159, 378, 380, 487
industrial uses, 95, 378, 379, 383, 385-386
London Protocol phaseout, 74, 96, 150, 158, 377, 390-391
mitigation policy options, 70, 73, 390-391, 392, 690, 792-796
Montreal Protocol limits, 15, 74, 96, 150, 151, 376, 377, 393
ozone depletion, 74, 151, 376-377, 381, 383, 392, 475, 842
production of, 386
radiative energy absorption, 12-13, 666-667
radiative forcing, 15, 18, 74, 148, 149, 158, 161, 163, 668, 670
substitutes, 58, 150, 173, 380, 383, 384-386, 392-393, 792, 793, 794-795
U.S. regulations, 182, 383-384, 390, 496
Cities
adaptation to climate change, 45, 85, 506, 635
heat islands, 55, 216, 241n.5, 844
temperature measurements, 119
Clean Air Act (1990)
air pollutant regulations, 321
greenhouse gas emission reduction, 53, 70, 408
halocarbon regulations, 377, 378, 392
sulfur dioxide emission allowances, 272, 369
Clean Coal Technology Program, 336-337
Cleaning solvents, 95, 386, 387, 792, 793, 794
Climate, 22-25, 666. See also Climate change
adaptation to, 30, 38, 515-516
agricultural sensitivity to, 556
assessment of impacts, 508
cloud effects, 106-107, 108-109
data collection and monitoring, 43, 125, 129-132, 510
ecosystem effects, 136-137
in general circulation models, 19-22
geoengineering effects on, 81-82, 435, 436
greenhouse gas effects, 17, 19, 26-27
human health effects, 617
human understanding of, 81, 100, 436
natural variability, 19, 124, 513, 515
oceans and, 442-443
radiative forcing, 102-103, 105
risks, 512
solar radiation effects, 14-17
volcanic eruptions and, 435
water resource sensitivity to, 592, 594
Climate change, 515. See also Adaptation;Greenhouse warming; Mitigation
assumptions, 517-518
data collection and monitoring, 79-80, 129, 131, 504, 510
defined, 842
detection, and geoengineering implementation, 481
economic activity and, 188
extremes, 635
general circulation models, 3-4, 19-20, 105, 111, 115
greenhouse gas causation, 29, 89, 153-154, 696
greenhouse gas proxy value, 693-695
human activity and, 171-172
human response limitations, 502-503
impacts, 502, 516, 517-518, 541, 657
agriculture, 39, 530, 556-559, 603, 604
Page 879
developing nations, 635, 688-689
economic, 84, 522, 600, 603, 604-605
ecosystems, 37, 39-40, 46, 137, 576
electric power generation, 601-602
human health, 41-42, 616, 618-620
human settlements, 41, 608-609, 614
hydrologic cycle, 135-136, 137, 138
ocean-atmospheric system, 605
political stability, 629, 630-631, 633
population migration, 42, 620-621, 623, 624-625, 626, 627
research on, 71
temperature extremes, 653, 655
tourism and recreation, 41, 607-608
water resources, 592, 594, 595, 599, 601-602, 605, 653, 654
and methane emission, 95
precipitation change in, 520-521
radiative forcing and, 145, 152
research spending, 70-71
risk assessment, 195-197
temperature change in, 21, 520
uncertainties, 189, 501-502, 529-530, 534, 541, 672-673, 690
Climate models, 80, 105, 111-115, 117, 124, 125. See also General circulation models
Cloud condensation nuclei (CCN)
acid rain effects, 82, 459, 832
costs of, 61, 457, 482, 486, 833
geoengineered cloud stimulation, 446, 454-455, 460, 825, 827-829, 831
Clouds
albedo, 108, 450, 455, 824, 827, 828, 842
climate model treatments, 21, 80, 106, 107, 108-109, 111, 112, 113, 824-825, 828
defined, 842
feedback mechanisms (radiative forcing), 106-109, 111, 113, 669, 672, 842-843
geoengineered stimulation of, 59, 61, 82, 447, 454-457, 459, 460, 472, 482, 486, 817, 824-833
geoengineering, acid rain side effect, 82, 457, 459, 832-833
physics and chemistry, 71, 459
radiation absorption and reflection, 101, 107, 669, 826, 843
temperature effects, 17, 124-125, 446, 669, 672, 824-827
water vapor content, 104, 107-108, 669
Coal. See also Coal-fired power plants carbon content, 331, 332
in carbon dioxide collection, 351
Chinese consumption, 65, 236, 241-242n.10
consumption reduction, 169, 203, 224, 357, 369, 537
cost of emission reduction, 356, 493
energy supply share, 330, 333, 334, 335, 371, 788
ethanol production uses, 342
exporting nations, 630
health effects, 32-33
industrial consumption, 249
methanol derived from, 305, 306, 307
nitrous oxide emissions, 8, 162, 682
resource reserves, 65, 331, 332, 336
steel industry use, 345
synthetic fuels from, 775
U.S. consumption, 158-160, 334, 335
Coal-fired power plants
acid rain contribution, 32-33, 336
advanced coal technology, 57, 75, 336-338, 353, 371, 470, 479, 788
Page 880
carbon dioxide emission reduction, 338, 353, 355-356, 602
costs, carbon tax and, 789, 790-791
electric power generation share, 334, 335, 336, 355
''environmental adder" cost, 709
fuel switching, 256-258
greenhouse gas emissions, 32-33, 305, 335, 336
industrial consumption, 253, 256-257, 335
less-developed countries, 236, 241-242n.10
nitrous oxide emissions, 96
service life, 605-606
substitutes, 62, 195, 357, 358, 359, 475, 487, 683-684
sulfur dioxide emission, cloud stimulation, 455, 830, 831
sulfur dioxide scrubbers, 336, 338, 347
Coal mining, 33, 169, 332, 369
Coastal environments, 40, 590-591
Coastal settlements
adaptation to climate change, 45, 505, 608-609, 626, 635, 636, 685-686
costs of adaptation, 546, 550, 611-613
Coastal wetlands, 40, 584-585, 591
Coastal zone management, 591
carbon dioxide reduction, 264-266, 282, 346, 476, 483, 722-723
cost-effectiveness, 483
implementation costs, 265-266, 476, 722-723
landfill gas use, 410
regulatory and fiscal incentives, 264, 272, 273, 274, 276
Colorado River, 592-593, 594, 597, 854
Commercial energy management. See Buildings, residential and commercial
Compact fluorescent lamps (CFL), 53-54, 55, 191, 192, 216-217, 218, 233, 241-242n.10
Congressional Budget Office, 187, 302
Connecticut Light and Power Company, 232
Conservation and efficiency. See Electricity conservation: Energy conservation
Conservation Foundation (CF), 426, 812
Conservation Law Foundation, Inc., 230, 237
Conservation Reserve Program (CRP), 437
Conservation supply curves (CSC)
aircraft, 743
heavy-duty trucks, 742-743
industrial energy use, 261, 262, 263, 267, 717-725
light-duty vehicles, 727-742, 751, 752-753, 754-755
residential and commercial buildings, 207-208, 210-211, 708-709, 711, 714-715
Construction industry, 367
Continuously variable transmission (CVT), 291-292
Contraception. See Family planning services
Conversion tables, 847-848
Cooking, 55, 212, 217, 468, 476, 714-715
Cooling, 55, 212, 217, 468, 476, 714-715. See Air conditioning
Corn production
carbon dioxide fertilization and, 551, 552, 553, 558, 559, 562
climate change and, 530, 558, 560-561, 562, 563, 564, 565
diseases, 557
ethanol feedstocks, 308, 323, 342
Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE), 54, 301-303, 325n.2, 469, 755n.2
Costa Rica, 417, 428, 588, 813
Cost-benefit analysis, 172, 186, 674, 692-693, 743, 843
modeling techniques, 174-175, 181, 183
Cost of conserved energy (CCE)
appliances, 209n
residential and commercial buildings, 207, 211, 212, 213, 215, 221, 708-709, 711, 712
Page 881
Cost-effectiveness. See also Costsalternative transportation fuels, 309
appliance efficiency, 233, 683
backstop technology, 51, 52, 192
buildings sector efficiency, 205, 208, 213, 483, 683, 710
calculation of, 49-50, 168, 174-175, 183-184, 185, 195
carbon dioxide emission reduction, 33, 49, 51, 266, 356, 467, 483, 484, 486
chlorofluorocarbon emission reduction, 53, 54, 173, 496, 792-796
co-generation, 483
discount rates and, 49, 194, 197, 467, 732
electricity efficiency, 34, 49, 51, 205, 208, 213, 354, 483
energy conservation and efficiency, 49, 54, 173, 185, 683-684
energy supply options, 353-357, 786, 790, 791
fuel switching, 224, 258, 476, 478, 484
geoengineering options, 61, 460, 467, 486, 496, 691
greenhouse gas emission reduction, 32, 33, 53, 192, 197, 683, 731-732, 806, 839
implementation levels and, 491, 492
industrial energy management, 173, 258, 266, 283, 483, 484, 718
international intervention, 65, 67
landfill gas reduction, 410
lighting efficiency, 61-62, 191, 192, 683
methane emission reduction, 410, 467, 487, 800, 805, 806
mitigation option evaluation, 32, 48, 49-52, 53, 157, 171-172, 173-174, 189-192, 197, 466-467, 473, 495, 681
mitigation option rankings, 33-34, 54, 60, 194, 195, 481-487, 496, 683
natural gas electric generation, 185, 354, 356, 487, 490, 683-684
nuclear power, 355-356, 790, 791
parking management, 759, 760-766
in policy evaluation, 32, 674, 706
renewable energy sources, 355, 369, 789-790, 791
research and development, 70, 79
solar energy, 356, 475, 789-790, 791
transportation fuel economy, 287, 295, 299-300, 319, 324, 727, 731, 732, 737, 742, 743, 750, 751, 755
transportation system management, 319, 321-322, 324, 484, 759-766
Costs. See also Cost-effectiveness;Costs and benefits, nongreenhouse; Social costs
adaptation, 34, 85, 505, 541, 680-681, 686
agriculture, 505, 506, 543, 550, 675, 678, 686
discount rates and, 512-513, 519, 535-537, 634
human settlements, 545-546, 550, 611-613, 614, 679
natural landscape, 544, 575-576, 678
population migration, 45, 505, 546, 677, 679
sea level change, 43, 188, 506, 535, 606, 611-612, 614
wetlands, 575-576
climate hazards
climate change, 188, 189, 676-677
environmental externalities, 74, 272-273, 504n, 512, 709-710
full fuel cycle costs, 334-335
agriculture, 60, 400, 401, 403-404, 484, 489, 684, 802-803, 806
Page 882
buildings sector efficiency, 60, 212, 213-214, 220-221, 240, 476, 489, 684, 713
carbon taxes and, 175, 176, 178, 179, 180, 184, 790-791, 836
chlorofluorocarbon emissions, 60, 173, 175, 387, 388, 389, 458, 684, 792-796, 838
cloud stimulation, 455-456, 457, 482, 486, 830, 831, 833
cost modeling, 49-50, 174-180, 181, 836, 837, 838
deforestation prevention, 428, 813
electric power generation, 354, 355, 477, 479, 711, 789, 790-791
geothermal energy, 343, 356, 788, 789
greenhouse gas emission reduction, 33, 50, 174, 175, 177, 182, 190-193, 836-838
halocarbon emissions, 60, 479, 484, 489, 684
hydroelectric power, 356, 479, 788
of implementation, comparisons, 60, 476-480, 482, 489, 490, 684
implementation achievement levels and, 62-63
industrial co-generation, 265-266, 476, 722-723
industrial energy conservation, 60, 258, 259, 263-264, 476-477, 478, 489, 684, 718, 720, 721-722, 724, 725
landfill gas collection, 60, 409, 410, 477, 483, 489, 684, 808
methane emissions, 400, 401, 409, 410, 802-803, 804
natural gas power plants, 33-34, 355, 493, 722-723, 788, 789-790
"negative cost," 51, 180, 191-192, 487, 684
nitrous oxide emissions, 404, 467, 805, 806
nuclear power generation, 195-197, 354, 786-787, 788
ocean biomass stimulation, 444-445, 482
parking management, 317, 319, 759
population control, 420
reforestation, 60, 175, 440, 441, 458-459, 480, 489, 684, 814, 815, 838
solar electricity, 169, 344, 354, 372, 776, 777, 788
sunlight screening, 447, 448, 449, 452, 453-454, 459, 461n.7, 482, 486, 817-824
timing of mitigation and, 692-693, 696, 698, 703
transportation fuel efficiency, 60, 293-298, 477, 478, 489, 742-743, 756
utility efficiency improvements, 182-183, 192, 213
water heating, 212, 476, 714-715
nuclear fusion, 774
water resources, 597, 598, 803
Costs and benefits, nongreenhouse
buildings sector efficiency, 237-238
carbon dioxide reduction, 174, 175
chlorofluorocarbon alternatives, 392
deforestation reduction, 430
energy efficiency, 183
energy supply systems, 368-369
landfill gas regulation, 411
population control, 421
reforestation, 442
transportation energy management, 320-322
D
Data collection, 79-80, 81, 129, 131, 142, 226, 691
Deforestation, 11, 167, 424-429, 494-495, 496
carbon dioxide effects, 8, 76, 92, 162, 424, 428, 437, 682, 812-813
defined, 843
reduction policy, 66, 76-77, 157-158, 429-430, 690, 812
research, 430-431
Page 883
Delaware River, 544, 597, 598, 679
Demonstration projects, 229-233
Developed (industrialized) nations
adaptability to climate change, 514
agricultural policies, 399, 403, 404-405
biomass technology, 799
capacity to respond to climate change, 69, 466, 688
capital stock turnover, 532
carbon dioxide reduction potential, energy supply, 357
chlorofluorocarbon emission, 376
defined, 843
gasoline prices, 303
greenhouse gas emissions, 65, 415, 495
halocarbon phaseout, 74, 390-391
immigration policies, 621, 628
industrial energy consumption, 253, 279-282
international cooperation, 65, 495
mitigation assistance to developing nations, 172, 391, 392, 431, 688
mortality rates, 616
population migration, 623, 628
sensitivity to climate change, 504, 507, 550
technology transfer to developing nations, 390, 391
vacation seasons, 534
waste management regulation, 805
Developing (industrializing) nations, 71
adaptation to climate change, 632, 659, 688
agricultural adaptability, 565-566
agricultural land use, 798, 799
agricultural policies, 399, 403, 803, 805
biomass technology, 799
capacity to respond to climate change, 69, 466, 626, 688
chlorofluorocarbon emissions, 389-390
deforestation prevention, 77, 428, 431
economic development imperative, 69, 339, 418, 429, 519
electrical demand and production, 236, 237
energy consumption, 65, 279-282
greenhouse gas emissions, 9, 10-11, 65, 236, 415
greenhouse gas mitigation, 6, 48, 65-66, 172, 405, 494
halocarbon phaseout, 74, 390-391
impacts of climate change on, 550, 635, 688
industrial energy consumption, 250, 279-282
investment lending to, 187
mortality rates, 616
population growth, 65, 494, 621
population growth reduction, 6, 415, 420
population migration, 628
research and development needs, 81, 702
technological assistance to, 66, 77, 390, 391, 429
urbanization, 626
Diablo Canyon Nuclear Power Plant, 589
Dimethyl sulfide (DMS), 446, 829, 832
Disaster relief, 633
Discount rates, 689.
See also Investment in conservation supply curves, 708, 717, 720, 721-722, 725, 732
and cost-effectiveness of mitigation, 49, 194, 197, 467, 732
and costs of adaptation, 512-513, 519, 535-537, 634
costs of carbon dioxide reduction, 177
defined, 843
electricity savings, 209-210, 235
electric power generation, 355, 786, 787
industrial energy efficiency, 263, 266, 271, 272, 273, 717, 720, 721-722, 725
low-cost mitigation options and, 32, 475
in mitigation policy evaluation, 32, 54, 173, 182, 186, 187, 189, 191, 193, 194
Page 884
transportation fuel efficiency, 299, 732, 755
valuation of future outcome, 30, 31-32, 186
Dishwashers, 219
Domestic tranquility, 505, 629-633
"Double-counting," 62, 487, 683-684
Drought
adaptation remedies, 529-530
agricultural effects, 528, 556
in climate simulations, 578
and population migration, 507, 529, 623, 628
prediction, 520
reductions in, 530
and water resources management, 40, 592, 595, 596, 598, 599
Dry ice, 829
Dust geoengineering. See Stratospheric dust
E
Earth
average temperature
equilibrium, 18, 19, 28, 519-520, 671
greenhouse effect and, 3, 91, 101, 663
greenhouse warming, projected increase, 3-4, 18, 20, 21, 27, 121, 149, 153-154, 669-671
measurement data, 117
prehistoric record, 24, 665-666
recorded increase, previous century, 4, 20-21, 22, 23, 25, 27, 117, 153, 518, 665, 669
greenhouse warming, projected increase, 145, 146-148, 521
radiation balance, 100-101, 664
and climatic system, 14-19, 135
cloud effects on, 828
greenhouse gas concentration and, 3, 663, 665
mitigation of changes in, 157-158, 195, 447, 460, 496
monitoring, 19
EBR-II Idaho nuclear reactor, 773
Economic activity
climate change effects of, 188
and deforestation, 430
efficiency improvements, 30, 474-475
and environmental valuation, 521-522
and greenhouse gas emissions, 10-11, 48, 65, 82, 495, 519
greenhouse gas reductions and, 6, 177-179, 197, 475
impacts of climate change on, 29, 31, 84, 504n, 600, 602-605, 676-677
Economic growth
and adaptation to climate change, 507, 519, 626
conflict with environmental protection, 69
conflict with greenhouse gas reduction, 6, 339
deforestation and, 424-425, 429, 430
and energy consumption, 201-202
energy efficiency investment and, 238
and greenhouse gas emission, 6, 418, 496
greenhouse gas reduction and, 178-179
population control and, 416-417, 418, 496, 809
Economic modeling, 836-838
Ecosystems
adaptation to climate change, 37, 39, 40, 46, 502, 504n, 505, 509, 525, 575, 577, 675, 685, 686
carbon content, 812
carbon dioxide enrichment and, 554
defined, 843
effects of mitigation on, 497
human dependency on, 84, 504n, 575
impacts of greenhouse warming on, 37, 39-40, 136-137, 152, 503, 533, 576, 676, 689
migration, 526-527
ocean upwelling changes and, 584
Page 885
policy interventions, 579
sea level change and, 586
value of, 686
Education, 227, 235, 277, 416, 417
Eemian period, 665
Electrical machinery industry, 37-38
Electricity
fuel switching to, 258
Electricity conservation
appliances, 208, 209, 216, 218-219, 233
buildings sector, 55-56, 201-203, 204-213, 215-216, 219-220, 223, 233, 237, 240, 468-469, 476
carbon dioxide reduction, 213-214, 223-224, 239-240, 261-264, 282, 354, 487, 711, 721-722
commercial cooling, 217
conservation supply curves, 261, 263, 711-715, 718-723
cooking, 217
cost-effectiveness of, 34, 49, 51, 205, 208, 213, 354, 483
demonstration projects, 229-233
developing nations, 236-237
greenhouse gas reduction, 231
implementation barriers, 225-226
implementation costs, 212, 240, 476-477, 484, 489, 493
industrial sector, 56, 260, 261-264, 274-275, 282, 469, 476-477, 489, 717-718, 722
investment, 225, 227-228, 234, 240, 263
policy options, 227-237, 239-240, 468-469, 470-471, 476-477, 479, 484, 496
research, 238-239
white surfaces, 216
Electricity consumption
air conditioning, 216
buildings sector, 201-203, 205, 206, 215-216, 219, 220, 225, 237
commercial cooling, 217
developing nations, 237
industrial sector, 201, 248, 249, 250, 251, 256, 258, 260, 717-720
load management, 228
office equipment, 219
temperature extremes and, 609-610, 655
United States, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 356
Electricity prices
biomass generating, 349
and capital recovery factors, 720, 786
carbon dioxide collection and, 353
coal-fired plants, 789, 790-791
and cost of conserved energy, 711, 721
efficiency improvements and, 354, 490
and efficiency investment, 208, 209-210, 213, 218, 226, 263, 282
environmental adder, 709-710
geothermal, 789
industrial, 208, 282, 709, 720, 721
integrated energy systems, 347
natural gas, 789
nuclear power, 786-787, 789, 790-791
regulation and, 226
renewable technologies, 789-790, 791
Electric power generation
acid rain precursors, 238
adaptation to climate change, 41, 599, 601-602, 605-606, 654, 675
air pollutant emissions, 238
biomass burning, 57, 333, 349, 356, 361, 470, 479, 602, 787, 789
carbon dioxide collection, 58, 76, 351-353, 471
carbon dioxide emission, 256, 334, 351, 789
carbon dioxide emission reduction, 213-214, 221, 239-240, 354, 355-357, 711
carbon taxes and, 368, 789-791
coal-fired, 33-34, 75, 236, 307, 334, 335, 336-338, 351, 355, 356, 470, 602, 605, 789, 790-791
Page 886
coal replacement, 62, 358, 475, 487, 683-684
co-generation, 264-266, 273, 276, 346-347, 410
developing nations, 236-237
efficiency investment, 49
environmental externalities, 709-710
fossil fuel, 76, 236, 238, 256, 335, 349, 354, 357, 358, 791
fuel cells, 350
geothermal energy, 57, 343, 360, 372, 470, 789
greenhouse gas emissions, 305
heat rates, 57, 60, 337, 338, 470, 477, 483, 489
hydroelectric, 57, 342, 360, 372, 470, 601-602, 789
natural gas, 57, 62, 75, 185, 307, 335, 338-339, 354, 355, 357-358, 470, 475, 487, 789
new plant investment, 51, 191-192, 213, 357, 605-606, 675
nuclear power, 57, 62, 76, 238, 334, 339-341, 355, 371-372, 470, 487, 767, 786-787, 789, 790-791
plant operating costs, 213
renewable energy, 341-342, 371, 791
solar photovoltaic, 57, 343-344, 363, 371, 372, 470, 775-776, 791
solar thermal, 57, 344, 362, 470, 789
sulfur dioxide emissions, coal plants, 455, 456, 830, 831
supply mix, 57-58, 334, 356, 470-471, 477, 479, 484, 487, 489, 684
temperature extremes and, 655
wind-generated, 58, 343, 363, 372, 471
Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI)
coal technology estimates, 336, 338
conservation supply curves, 208, 209, 210-211, 711
electricity conservation projection, 205, 263, 264, 722
natural gas consortium, 339
nuclear power assessments, 354, 786-787, 789
nuclear reactor development, 770
Technical Assessment Guide, 354, 786
Electric utility companies
adaptation to climate change, 601, 602, 606
advanced coal technology, 337
costs of efficiency improvements, 182-183, 192, 213
demonstration projects, 229-233
disincentives to efficiency investment, 222, 228, 357, 368, 472-473
efficiency incentives, 64, 193, 197, 224, 228-229, 273, 274, 494
efficiency investment practives, 227-228, 240
efficiency regulations, 75, 222, 227, 228, 239, 359, 494
government control requirements, 227, 235
nuclear plant construction, 340
Electric vehicles, 308-309, 323-324
Electronics industry, 386
El Niño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO), 586, 588, 589, 590, 636n.5, 655
Emission permits, 272
Employers
parking provision costs, 313-314, 316, 317, 759, 760
transportation demand management, 317, 319, 322, 760-762, 763
Energy absorption. See also Radiative forcing
atmosphere, 13, 14-17, 100-101, 102-103, 664
greenhouse gases, 3, 12-14, 17
Energy conservation. See also Electricity; conservation; Energy supply; Industry; Transportation energy management
air pollution benefits, 169, 185n, 238, 320, 321
barriers to implementation, 169, 176, 271, 472-473
carbon dioxide reduction potential, 60, 192-193, 259
chlorofluorocarbon substitutes and, 384-385, 387, 389, 392
Page 887
costs of implementation, 60
discount rates for investment, 189
economic consumption effects, 177-178
and energy demand, 185, 354, 490
energy modeling, 184
in energy policy, 690
greenhouse gas increases, short term, 700
greenhouse gas reductions, 74-75, 203, 239
implementation achievement, 53-54, 62, 494, 496
industrial co-generation, 264-266, 722-723
industrial efficiency, 56, 253-255, 259-269, 270, 272, 273, 282, 469, 717
international agreements, 67
investment incentives, 283
manufacturing, 253-254, 255, 256, 259-261, 266-269, 270, 271, 272, 273, 282
"negative cost," 51, 180, 191-192, 684
nongreenhouse benefits and costs, 169, 173-174, 182-183
oil price shocks and, 201, 254, 286
policy options, 173-174, 272, 273, 275, 279
recommendations, 74-75
research and development, 279, 702, 703
technological costing, 185
Energy consumption. See also. Electricity consumption; Energy conservation
buildings sector, 201, 202-203, 205, 225, 261
carbon dioxide emission, 8, 158-160, 162, 180, 682
developed nations, 279-282
developing nations, 65, 279-282
industrial sector, 168, 248-253, 254, 258, 261, 279-282
radiative forcing contribution, 161
temperature effects on, 603
transportation sector, 201, 261, 286, 288-289, 310-311, 320-321, 728-729, 743
United States, 158-160, 201, 203, 248
Energy intensity, 601
manufacturing, 250, 252-253, 254, 269, 271, 282
transportation, 313
Energy modeling, 49-50, 63, 174-180, 183, 184, 185, 194, 195, 302, 490-493, 836
Energy policy, 73, 74-76, 182, 690
Energy Policy and Conservation Act (1975), 301, 367
Energy prices. 235.
See also Electricity prices
and carbon dioxide reductions, 178-179, 282
in conservation supply curves, 261
efficiency implementation and, 185
and efficiency investment, 717-718, 725, 801
industrial process technology and, 282
regulations and, 182
shocks of the 1970s, 194, 201, 227, 238, 254, 286, 354
social cost inclusion, 74, 690
solar photovoltaics and, 372
Energy production, 157, 173-174
Energy security, 185n, 238, 304, 320, 368-369
Energy storage, 342, 344, 365, 372
Energy supply, 167, 690. See also Electric power generation
barriers to mitigation implementation, 357-367
carbon dioxide collection and disposal, 351-353
carbon dioxide emission, 330-332, 334
cost-effectiveness comparison, 353-357, 683-684
fossil fuel share, 330, 332, 333, 335
greenhouse gas emission reduction, 335
integrated energy systems, 344-347
mitigation policy options, 367-368, 788
nongreenhouse benefits and costs, 368-369
recommendations, 75-76
reliability of, 717
Page 888
research and development needs, 369-371
solar hydrogen, 349-350
Energy transport, 776
Environmental degradation
benefits of mitigation policies, 238, 369
consequences of adaptation policies, 659
developing nations, 6
electric production, 238
externality costs, 74, 272-273, 504n, 512, 709-710
mining, 272
population growth, 421
Environmental protection, 346, 347, 596, 631, 632, 774
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 853
climate change assessments, 519, 559, 560, 562, 585, 599, 620
fuel economy standards, 288-289, 731, 738, 754
landfill methane regulation, 405-406, 408, 409-410, 411
Environmental quality, 522
Epidemics, 505
Erosion, 557, 585, 586, 609, 611
Ethanol fuel, 304, 305, 306, 308, 323, 342, 345
Ethical values, 522
Europe
agricultural fertilizer use, 403
agricultural land use, 799
carbon tetrachloride emissions, 386
chlorofluorocarbon substitutes, 383
deforestation, 424
economic development, 519, 604
gasoline and auto taxes, 313, 315, 316
import controls, 399, 801, 803, 804
nuclear reactor technology, 768
paper industry, 606-607
population growth, 415
population migration, 511, 628
sea level data, 142
European Economic Community (EEC), 511, 628, 803, 837
Evaporation
agricultural effects, 39, 44-45, 594
air temperature and, 843
carbon dioxide fertilization and, 552, 553, 555
climate change and, 40, 114, 138, 584
in climate models, 136
energy transfer, 16, 17, 136, 664
precipitation balance, 557, 592-593, 636n.7
Evapotranspiration, 136, 137, 216
Evolution, 46, 502, 506-507, 575, 578-579, 686
Externality costs, 173-174, 272-273, 709-710, 844
F
Family planning services, 415, 416, 417, 420, 799, 810, 811
"Fee-bate" systems, 234
Feedback mechanisms, 100, 103, 154, 434, 672
cloud, 106-109, 111, 113, 669, 672, 842-843
defined, 844
negative, 845
water vapor, 103-106, 109, 669
Fertility rates, 6
developing countries, 415
and greenhouse gas emissions, 420, 704, 705
reduction in, 416, 417, 420, 421, 703-704
Fertilizers
mitigation options, 394, 403-404, 471, 480, 805-806
nitrous oxide emissions, 8, 97, 162, 393, 398, 402, 682
and plant carbon dioxide use, 553
production, energy consumption, 342
soil denitrification, 96
Fire retardants, 95
Page 889
climate change and, 559, 599, 610
and water management, 595-596
wetlands, 585
Flue gas desulfurization (FGD), 338
Fluorescent lighting, 225
compact fluorescent lamps (CFL), 53-54, 191, 192, 216-217, 218, 233, 241-242n.10
Fluorocarbons, 378, 381, 383, 384, 387, 388, 792
Foam blowing agents, 95
Foam plastics industry, 384
Food production. See also Agriculture adaptation to climate change, 38, 561-566
energy consumption, 248, 249, 266
frozen foods, 531
impacts of climate change on, 556, 620, 631
preservatives, 530
Forest products industry, 45, 256-257, 556, 571-572, 603-604
Forestry
adaptation to climate change, 506, 569, 572, 634, 635
costs of adaptation, 543, 678, 686
natural ecosystems and, 38
radiative forcing contribution, 161
sustainable, 45, 424, 427-428, 812-813
Forests. See also Deforestation; Reforestation
adaptation to climate change, 39, 40, 45, 505, 525-526, 571-575, 577, 634, 636, 677
air pollution and, 425
and biological diversity, 76, 430, 578
carbon sequestration, 40, 429, 437, 439-441, 442, 574-575, 814
fires, 573
greenhouse gas sinks, 695, 698, 700, 702
impacts of climate change on, 567-571, 599, 635
soil moisture and, 654
U.S. acreage, 39, 437, 567, 575
Formaldehyde, 321
Fossil fuels, 841
agricultural use, 393, 404, 801, 805
air pollutant emissions, 238
carbon dioxide emission, 91-92, 93, 165, 178, 179, 256, 330-332, 341, 342, 351
carbon dioxide emission reduction, 220-221, 240, 257-258, 351, 370, 442-443
consumption, developing nations, 65, 236
defined, 844
efficiency measures, 215, 220, 223, 224, 240
efficiency research and development, 239, 369, 370
electric power generation, 224, 238, 256, 334, 335, 336-339, 351, 357, 358, 791
energy supply share, 330, 333, 335, 348
fuel switching, 256-259
greenhouse gas emission, 6, 29, 332
industrial conservation policies, 274-276
in integrated energy systems, 347
manufacturing consumption, 250, 251, 253, 256, 335
replacement technologies, electric generation, 76, 77, 349, 354, 775, 791
transportation sector consumption, 286, 335
Frosts, 21-22, 34, 556, 635, 654, 655
Fuel, transportation. See Gasoline
Transportation energy management
Fuel economy index (FEI), 287, 288, 290, 292, 727
Fuel switching, 241n.9
Page 890
cost-effectiveness, 224, 258, 476, 478, 484
industrial energy, 56, 221, 256-259, 469, 478, 484
Full social cost pricing, 32-33, 74, 844
Fundacion Neotropica (FN), 426, 812
G
Gas flaring, 160
Gasoline
barriers to alternative fuels, 310, 367
carbon dioxide emission, 307, 332, 342, 731-732
''clean" and "reformulated" gasoline, 305, 307
cost of greenhouse gas reduction, 493
greenhouse gas emissions, 305, 306-307, 731-732
prices, 301, 303, 310, 314, 315, 754
taxes, 272-273, 302, 303-304, 315, 324
Gas turbine combined cycle (GTCC), 339, 346, 347, 789
Gas turbine technology, 264
Gene libraries, 579
General circulation models (GCM)
agricultural projections, 39, 559
atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration, 3-4, 20, 29, 111-113, 669
atmospheric water vapor, 105-106
climate change projections, 3-4, 19-22, 29, 34, 154, 559, 669, 671
cloud simulations, 21, 106, 107, 108-109, 111, 113, 828
hydrologic simulations, 136, 137, 138
ocean simulations, 25, 115, 121
variation in results, 672
Geoengineering, 167
atmospheric chlorofluorocarbon
removal, 59, 61, 457-458, 472, 482
cloud stimulation, 54, 59, 61, 82, 454-457, 459, 460, 472, 482, 486, 824-833
cost-effectiveness, 61, 460, 467, 486, 496, 691
costs of implementation, 440-441, 444-445, 447, 448, 452, 453-454, 455-456, 458, 480, 482, 817-824, 830-831, 833
evaluation of options, 59-60, 71-72, 81-82, 433-434, 436-437, 465, 467, 690
mitigation policy options, 54, 58-60, 433, 441, 466, 471-472, 481
ocean biomass stimulation, 54, 59, 61, 82, 433, 442-446, 459, 472, 481, 482, 486
potential effects of, 434-436, 450-451, 457, 459-460, 683, 691
reforestation, 58, 60, 433, 437-442, 458-459, 471, 480, 487-490
research, 59, 82, 442, 460, 481, 833
space mirrors, 54, 59, 61, 448, 461nn.7 and 9, 472, 482, 486
stratospheric bubbles (balloons), 54, 59, 61, 452, 454, 460, 472, 482, 486, 819-824
stratospheric dust, 54, 59, 61, 82, 447, 448-454, 459-460, 461nn.8 and 10, 472, 482, 486, 817-819
stratospheric soot, 54, 59, 61, 453, 454, 472, 482, 486
Geothermal energy, 57, 342, 470
barriers to implementation, 343, 360, 372
carbon dioxide emissions, 343
sea level change and, 140, 141, 583
temperature change and, 117-118, 583
Global warming. See also Greenhouse effect; Greenhouse warming natural temperature variation, 22
prehistoric temperatures, 665-666
temperature increase, previous century, 4, 22, 23, 27, 117, 121, 153, 665, 669
temperature recordings, 20-21, 119-120, 124
Global warming potential (GWP), 163-164, 167, 381-383, 390, 808
Governments, 173
adaptation policies, 512, 538, 631-632
adaptation roles, 511
Page 891
and alternative energy supplies, 347
efficiency investment incentives, 70, 240, 283
efficiency subsidies, 234, 240
electric utility requirements, 227, 234-235, 240
forest policies, 428
mitigation implementation, 64, 197, 494, 687
political stability and, 633
population migration policies, 628, 631
Great Lakes, 559, 601, 608, 609, 610
Great Plains, 626
temperature change and electrical generation, 601, 610
Greenhouse effect. See also Global warming; Greenhouse warming and climatic variations, 124
cloud feedback in, 106-107
and earth average temperature, 3, 91, 663
radiative flux difference, 101
trace gas contributions, 846
Greenhouse gases. See also names of individual gases accumulation, 447-448
climate model projections, 26-27, 521
and precipitation variations, 129
adaptation to climate change and, 574
agricultural impacts, 577-578
animal impacts, 576
atmospheric chemical reactions, 12, 146, 158, 435
atmospheric concentrations, 12, 13, 93
anthropogenic, 3, 89, 92, 147, 153, 160
doubling of preindustrial levels, 21, 669
geoengineering changes, 59, 60
temperature impacts, 19, 22, 663, 671
atmospheric lifetimes, 13, 666, 672, 689
atmospheric removal processes, 145-146, 157, 674
carbon dioxide-equivalent conversion, 7-9, 53, 681-683
carbon dioxide-equivalent doubling in climate models. 29, 559
projected temperature increase, 3-4, 18, 19, 27, 146-148, 153-154, 518, 519
radiative forcing, 102-103
emission sources
anthropogenic, 3, 5-6, 7-11, 89, 91, 146, 158, 159, 160, 162, 171, 667, 681, 682, 695
anthropogenic, projected, 147, 158, 162, 193, 668, 670
coal burning, 32-33, 305, 335, 336
deforestation, 424
developed nations, 65, 415, 495
developing nations, 9, 10-11, 65, 236, 415
full fuel cycle costs, 334-335
halocarbons, 376, 377-378, 393
population growth, 6, 65, 414, 415, 419, 421, 494, 809-811
transportation fuels, 305, 731-732
transportation sector, 286
United States, 9-11, 65, 82, 158, 164, 168, 236, 394, 465-466
emissions reduction
agriculture, 398, 405, 799-806
alternative transportation fuels, 286, 304-309, 312, 323, 478, 484
buildings sector efficiency, 60, 203, 212, 213-214, 220-221, 223-224, 239-240, 483, 489, 713
carbon tax and, 180, 368, 390, 836
Clean Air Act requirements, 53
Page 892
cost-effectiveness, 32, 33, 53, 192, 197, 683, 731-732, 806, 839
costs of, 33, 50, 174, 175, 177, 182, 190-193, 836-838
deforestation prevention, 494-495, 496
developing nations, 6, 48, 65-66, 172, 405, 494
economic benefits, 475
energy conservation, 74-75, 203, 239
energy supply, 335
industrial energy efficiency, 173, 248, 270, 271-272, 476-477
market incentives, 70
mass transit, 173
nongreenhouse benefits, 53, 169, 537
policy options, 30, 151, 157-158, 169, 674
population control, 82, 418, 421-422, 496
recommendations, 73-75
tax incentives, 70
transportation sector, 286
transportation system management, 314-315
U.S. potential, 64, 74, 167, 493, 496, 684
vehicle fuel efficiency, 33, 298, 323, 324
energy absorption, 3, 12-14, 17
feedback mechanisms, 103-104, 669
gases comprising, 3, 91, 158, 663, 844
global warming potential (GWP), 161-164, 167, 381-383
in greenhouse effect (natural), 3, 91, 663
in greenhouse warming (induced), 27, 91, 673
climate models of, 21, 111, 121, 125, 669
previous century, 89, 663-665, 669
infrared radiation trapping, 3, 91, 101, 306, 663, 666
international effects, 48, 495
marine impacts, 582-583
mitigation
classes of policy instruments, 696-706
flow and stock, 693-694, 695-696
geoengineering, 433, 434, 436, 467, 683
policy options, 157-158, 166-167, 195, 196-197, 692
reforestation, 437
research needs, 81
strategy, 172
radiative balance effects, 3, 665
radiative forcing, 13-14, 15, 18, 19, 102, 103, 148, 158, 163, 665, 667-669, 670
research needs, 71, 80, 169, 691
sinks, 672
Greenhouse warming. See also Adaptation; Climate change; Global warming; Greenhouse effect; Greenhouse gases;Mitigation climate model projections, 3-4, 19-20, 111-114, 669-671
climatic effects of, 5, 19, 504n, 680
difficulty of determining, 19, 27, 671
feedback mechanisms, 669
global nature of, 5, 48, 83, 172, 495, 496
global temperature increase
climate sensitivity and, 145, 150-151, 152, 153-154
equilibrium temperature, 19, 671
projected, 3-4, 20, 21, 27, 146-148, 153-154, 518
greenhouse gas contributions, 3, 27, 93, 158, 663-665, 673
anthropogenic emissions, 5-6, 91, 159
commitment to future warming, 18, 19, 149, 150, 163-164, 670
global warming potential (GWP), 161-164, 381-383
previous century, 89, 518, 665, 669
Page 893
biological diversity, 80-81
glacial melting, 141, 583, 680
hydrologic cycle, 137-138
natural landscape, 689
ocean circulation, 584, 680, 689
organic production, 38-39
political stability, 42
precipitation change, 113-115, 125-128, 610
sea level rise, 25, 26, 28, 40, 141, 154, 519, 583
species migration, 37
water resources, 40
and nuclear reactor safety, 372
possible dramatic consequences, 26, 47, 680
responses to, 68, 69, 674, 680-681
categories of, 71-72
cost-effectiveness of, 32, 50, 53, 674
evaluation of, 29-30, 31-32, 674
international, 65, 67, 83, 494
as investment in the future, 52, 466, 674
risk perception and, 35, 36, 681, 687
temperature extremes, 124-125, 653
Gross national product (GNP), 542, 550, 678
defined, 844
and energy use, 201-202, 225, 601
manufacturing share, 253
Gross world product, 188, 542, 603
Groundwater, 97, 609, 610, 613
"Guzzler/sipper" tax, 303-304
H
Hadley cell, 114-115
Halocarbons, 95-96. See also Chlorofluorocarbons
atmospheric concentrations, 95, 381
atmospheric destruction, 433
atmospheric lifetimes, 96, 146, 381, 392-393
Clean Air Act regulation, 377, 392
costs of mitigation, 60, 479, 484, 489, 684
emission reduction options, 58, 73, 74, 383-389, 390-392, 467, 471
greenhouse warming effects, 376, 380, 381-383
industrial uses, 379, 384-386, 387
Montreal Protocol standards, 96, 150, 376, 377, 390-391
nonhalocarbon ("not-in-kind") substitutes, 58, 383, 388, 393, 471
Halogenated chlorofluorocarbons, 95
Halogenated halocarbons, 96
London Protocol restrictions, 74, 96, 377
Montreal Protocol restrictions, 377
taxes on use, 392
adaptability to climate change, 41-42, 44, 45, 505, 615-620, 677
Heat islands, 55, 216, 241n.5, 844
Heat transfer
atmosphere, 16-17, 91, 136, 154, 664
agricultural effects, 556
and electrical demand, 655
Helium, 774
High-occupancy-vehicle lanes (HOV), 286, 310, 311, 312, 316, 317n, 320, 322, 324
High-temperature gas-cooled reactor (HTGR), 346, 769, 770, 771-772
Highways, 613
construction, 311, 312-313, 533
speed limits, 174
Page 894
Hudson River, 544, 597, 598, 679
Hugo, Hurricane, 542, 550, 678
Human activity
adaptation to climate change, 36, 37, 44, 47, 502, 506, 527-530, 676, 685-686
carbon dioxide emissions, 3, 8, 27, 92, 93, 94, 97n.1, 153, 159, 160, 162, 666, 667, 682
chlorofluorocarbon emissions, 3, 8, 27, 74, 95, 153, 159, 160, 162, 667, 682
climate change consequences of, 171-172, 694-695
dependency on environment, 84-85, 504n
greenhouse gas emissions, 3, 5-6, 7-11, 89, 91, 146, 158, 159, 160, 171, 667, 681, 682, 695
greenhouse gas emissions, projected, 147, 158, 162, 193, 668, 670
halocarbon emissions, 95
methane emissions, 3, 8, 27, 95, 153, 159, 160, 162, 667, 682
nitrous oxide emissions, 8, 159, 160, 162, 667, 682
ozone emissions, 159
responses to climate change, limits on, 43-44, 502-503
sensitivity to climate change, 44-46, 504-505, 677
adaptability to climate change, 41-42, 44, 45, 505, 615-620, 677
Human settlements
adaptation to climate change, 41, 608, 611-615
costs of adaptation, 545-546, 611-612, 614, 679
sensitivity to climate change, 45, 505, 608-610, 677
Humidity, 17, 556, 615, 618, 619
Hurricanes
tree damage, 568-569
Hydrocarbons, 392, 793. See also Hydrochlorofluorocarbons
Hydrofluorocarbons
Hydrochloric acid (HCl), 451, 460
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFC), 3, 376, 663
emissions reduction, 58, 382, 391, 392, 471, 479
global warming potential, 163, 167, 380, 381, 383, 393
substitution for chlorofluorocarbons, 383, 384-385, 391, 393, 792
climate change and, 601-602
cost of electricity, 789
costs of implementation, 356, 479, 788
environmental degradation, 238
limitation of potential, 33, 355-356, 360, 372, 789
U.S. energy supply, 330, 333-334, 342
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFC), 376
emissions, 148-150
emissions reduction, 58, 382, 471, 479
global warming potential, 163, 380, 381, 383, 393
substitution for chlorofluorocarbons, 383, 385, 390, 391, 393, 792
Hydrogen
in chlorofluorocarbon substitutes, 380
fuel cell generation, 350
integrated energy system production, 347, 350
oxidation in carbon, 353
solar production, 345, 349-350, 775, 776-777
in stratospheric balloons, 819, 820, 821, 823, 824
transportation fuel, 57, 169, 305, 308, 323, 350, 470, 478
Hydrogenated chlorofluorocarbons. See Hydrochlorofluorocarbons
Hydroxyl radical (OH), 94-95
I
Ice core data, 91, 93, 96, 97, 443
Import controls, 399-400
Incentives
Page 895
energy supply systems, 367-368
industrial energy efficiency, 272, 273, 275-276
mitigation policy implementation, 63-64, 70, 493-494, 496, 687
revenue-neutral, 196, 227, 234, 240
Income
and adaptation to climate change, 632
agricultural, 399
climate change and, 30, 31, 522, 560, 599, 601, 603
per capita, and greenhouse gas emission, 6, 69, 82, 414, 421, 703, 704, 809-811
and population growth, 417-418, 703, 811
Independent power producers (IPP), 357
India
carbon dioxide emissions, 9
chlorofluorocarbon use, 377
coal consumption, 335
electricity consumption, 236, 237
precipitation, 128
Industrial cleaning, 387
Industrialized nations. See Developed nations
Industrializing nations. See Developing nations
Industrial Revolution, 3, 93, 377-378, 663
Industry, 166
adaptation to climate change, 44, 45, 504, 606-607, 677, 685
biomass fuel use, 8, 162, 259, 682
capital stock replacement, 37-38, 271, 531
chlorofluorocarbon emissions, 153
conservation supply curves, 261, 263, 267, 718-725
costs of adaptation, 545, 679, 686
electricity consumption, 201, 248, 249, 250, 251, 256, 258, 260, 717-720
electricity prices, 208, 282, 709, 720, 721
energy consumption, 168, 248-253, 254, 258, 261, 279-282
fossil fuel use, 250, 251, 253, 256, 257-259, 336
greenhouse gas emission, 5-6, 271-272, 279
macroeconomic structural changes and, 252-253, 270-271
mitigation policy options, 157, 469, 476-477, 478, 483, 484
barriers to implementation, 271-272
carbon dioxide reduction potential, 60, 256, 257-258, 259, 261-262, 265-266, 270, 282
co-generation, 56, 264-266, 272, 282, 469, 476, 722-723
cost-effectiveness, 173, 258, 266, 483, 484, 718
costs of implementation, 60, 258, 259, 263-264, 476-477, 478, 489, 684, 718, 720, 721-722, 724, 725
efficiency investment, 263-264, 266-269, 271, 273, 283, 717
electric efficiency, 56, 260, 261-264, 282, 469, 476-477, 718
energy efficiency improvements, 253-255, 259-269, 270, 272, 273, 282, 717
fuel switching, 56, 75, 221, 256-259, 469, 478, 484
fuel taxes, 272-273
greenhouse gas reduction potential, 173, 248, 270, 271-272, 476-477, 478, 483, 484
investment tax credits, 273-279
process technology improvements, 56, 75, 254, 269-270, 271, 279, 282, 469, 478
research and development needs, 279, 280-281, 282-283
raw materials, 567
sensitivity to climate change, 41, 505, 599, 601, 602-603, 604, 654, 675
Information programs, 197
Page 896
Infrared radiation
atmospheric absorption and release, 17, 100, 101, 102
chlorofluorocarbon destruction, 457-458
in cloud feedback, 108
defined, 844
greenhouse gas trapping, 3, 91, 101, 161, 306, 393
measurement of, 19
in snow-ice feedback, 106
in water vapor feedback, 105
Infrastructure, 532-533
Insulation materials, 239
Integral Fast Reactors (IFR), 769, 770, 772-773
Integrated energy systems (IES), 344-347, 350
Integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC), 336, 337, 339, 353
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 89-90, 620, 850, 853, 854
agricultural impacts findings, 560
climate model assessment, 111
climate stabilization estimate, 466
economic growth assumptions, 519
electric generation assessment, 601-602
global warming potentials, 163, 382, 808
global warming temperature assessment, 20, 121, 124, 150, 520, 521
greenhouse gas emission estimates, 15, 145, 148, 149, 150, 158
methane emission estimates, 94, 808
nitrous oxide emission estimates, 402
ocean biodiversity conclusion, 590
precipitation assessment, 128
sea level rise estimates, 142, 143
temperature records, 117, 119, 122
working groups, 66, 68, 163, 520, 601-602
International agreements, 67, 83, 182, 466
International Agricultural Research Centers, 398
International cooperation, 65, 66-67, 73, 81, 494-495, 496, 688
International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU), 66
International Geosphere-Biosphere Program (IGBP), 66
International Institute of Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA), 558, 562
International law, 633
International leadership, 82-83, 691
International organizations, 687
International Rice Research Institute, 579
Investment. See also Discount rates adaptation, 43, 503, 508, 512-514, 527-528, 530, 535, 537, 685
agricultural methane reduction, 800
"backstop technology," 192
capital recovery rates, 708
capital turnover, 531, 606-607
cost-effectiveness, 53, 173, 189-190, 466-467
defined, 844
electrical generating equipment, 367-368, 472-473, 601, 605-606
electricity efficiency, 213, 225, 226, 227, 236, 240, 472-473, 709-710, 711
environmental adder, 709-710
industrial co-generation, 722
industrial energy efficiency, 263, 266-269, 271, 273, 283, 717-718, 724, 725
rates of return, 186-188, 266-269, 475
reforestation, 441
responses to greenhouse warming as, 52, 186, 191, 466, 674
timing of costs and benefits, 692, 698-699, 700, 703-704
vehicle fuel efficiency, 299, 742, 743
Investment tax credits, 273-279
Iron, ocean fertilization, 59, 61, 443-446, 459, 472, 481, 482, 486
Iron and steel industry, 253, 256, 335
Irrigation
adaptation to climate change, 78, 537, 559, 562-563, 564-565
Africa, 631
Page 897
costs of adaptation, 545
forest, 573
impacts of climate change on, 557, 559, 560, 594
paddy rice, 801
side effects, 509
J
Jamaica Public Service Company, 237
capital stock turnover, 37-38, 531
electric power efficiency, 357
greenhouse gas emissions, 386
import restrictions, 399
mortality rates, 534
natural gas electric supply, 339
nuclear reactor technology, 768, 787
rice production, 801
sea levels, 142
Jobs/housing balance, 286, 310, 319
K
Kalina cycle, 339
L
Labor mobility, 631
Land
precipitation over, 128
surface hydrology, 103, 135-136
temperature recordings, 23, 117, 118, 119, 120, 122
Landfills
carbon dioxide emissions, 405, 406, 407
Clean Air Act requirements, 408
gas collection, 58, 407-411, 471
gas collection costs, 60, 409, 410, 477, 483, 489, 684, 808
groundwater leaching, 613
methane emissions, 8, 160-161, 162, 376, 405-407, 409, 682, 808
Land use
and adaptation to climate change, 582
changes, and greenhouse gas emission, 160, 393, 404, 798-799
distribution, 567
planning, and automobile travel reduction, 286, 310, 318-319
reforestation and, 441
Lasers, 457-458
Lead iodide (PbI), 829
Lead pollution, 321
Less developed countries, 844. See also Developing nations
Lighting efficiency, 237
barriers to implementation, 225, 241-242n.10
compact fluorescent lamps (CFL), 53-54, 55, 191, 192, 216-217, 218, 233, 241-242n.10
cost of conserved energy, 212, 714-715
cost-effectiveness, 61-62, 191, 192, 683
costs of implementation, 217, 218, 476
Light Water Reactors (LWR), 769, 770-771
Liquefied natural gas (LNG), 305, 307, 350
Liquid petroleum, 332
Livestock
impacts of climate change on, 556
methane emissions, 5, 94, 160-161, 393, 395, 799-800
methane reduction, 394, 395, 397, 398, 400-401, 404, 471, 480, 800, 803-805
work animals, 395, 398, 799-800, 801, 804-805
London Protocol (1990), 67, 74, 96, 150
Lyme disease, 618
M
Page 898
Manufacturing. See also Industry
capital turnover rates, 271
carbon dioxide emission, 256
carbon dioxide emission reduction, 257, 269, 271
co-generation, 273
conservation supply curves, 261, 262, 720, 721
energy consumption, 248, 249, 250, 251, 257, 258, 717
energy efficiency, 252-253, 255, 269, 282, 718
fuel switching, 256-259
impacts of climate change on, 522
mitigation policy options, 272, 273, 274-278
process technology, 254, 269-270, 271
technology transfer, 391
Marginal benefits, 845
Marginal costs, 845
Marine ecosystems
adaptation to climate change, 40, 45, 505, 590-591, 677
impacts of climate change on, 40, 46, 582-590
Markets
and adaptation to climate change, 34, 509, 512, 521-522
capital, 367
defined, 845
in economic models, 837
and environmental valuation, 173, 521-522
government intervention, 399
imperfections, 172, 181, 182, 184, 195, 240, 241-242n.10, 493
Massachusetts Electric Company, 228-229
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), 771-772
Mass transit, 286, 310, 311, 312
disincentives to using, 173, 314, 322, 473
energy intensity, 313
greenhouse gas reduction, 173, 703
public subsidization, 75, 317n
Materials substitution, 270-271
Mauna Loa Observatory, 14, 331, 555
Energy Productivity Center, 732
Metals industry, 248, 249, 269
Meteorology, 510
Methane (CH4)
agricultural emission, 376, 393, 394-395, 799-800, 805
agricultural emission reduction, 394, 395-401, 404, 799, 800-805
algae decomposition, 446
anthropogenic emissions, 8, 95, 146, 147, 159, 160-161, 162, 166, 682
atmospheric concentration, 3, 12, 13, 27, 92, 94-95, 146, 153, 160, 381, 663, 665, 667
atmospheric lifetime, 13, 92, 94, 146, 160, 381, 666, 667
barriers to mitigation implementation, 398-399, 410
biomass regulation, 398, 401, 805
Clean Air Act requirements, 408
climate change effects on, 95
cost-effectiveness of mitigation, 410, 467, 487, 800, 805, 806
costs of mitigation implementation, 400, 401, 409, 410, 802-803, 804
decomposition, products of, 164
deforestation emissions, 424
emission control methods, 395-398, 407-410
emission reduction effects, 19, 150, 151
global warming potential, 164, 167, 381
greenhouse warming contribution, 18, 95, 164, 378, 380, 666
hydrogen fuel production, 308
landfill emission, 160-161, 405-408, 409
landfill emission reduction, 407-411, 808
livestock emission, 5, 94, 160-161, 393, 394-395, 799-800
livestock emission reduction, 394, 395, 397, 398, 400-401, 404, 471, 800, 801, 803-805
Page 899
mitigation policy options, 396-397, 399-401, 404, 408-411, 467, 800
natural gas content, 332
natural gas leakage, 94, 160-161, 332, 369
permafrost release, 95, 151, 154
radiative energy absorption, 12-13, 15, 91, 150, 306, 407
radiative forcing, 18, 148, 149, 163, 668, 670
research needs, 80, 398-399, 404, 411
rice paddy emission, 5, 8, 94, 95, 162, 393, 394-395, 682, 799-800
rice paddy emission reduction, 395, 396, 398, 399, 400, 404, 471, 800-803
tundra-melting release, 26, 95
U.S. emissions, 166, 168, 394, 395, 405, 406, 408, 799-800
vehicle exhaust emissions, 306, 731
wetlands emissions, 94, 95, 158
Methanol fuel
California program, 304
cost-effectiveness, 478
greenhouse gas emissions, 305, 306, 307
greenhouse gas reduction, 57, 307, 323, 470
production sources, 305, 306, 307, 308, 323, 345
Methyl chloroform (CH3CCl3), 95, 146, 147
global warming potential, 381, 386, 387
London Protocol phaseout, 386, 387
radiative forcing, 148, 150, 163
Microbes, 580
Migration
ecosystem, 526-527
human, 620-629, 631, 636, 637n.11
barriers to, 511, 626, 628, 630, 632
costs of, 45, 505, 546, 677, 679
in United States, 42, 620, 622-623, 627, 628, 654
plant and animal species, 37, 581-582, 589, 591, 653, 655
Missouri-Iowa-Nebraska-Kansas (MINK) study, 559, 561-562
Missouri River, 594
Mitigation, 659. See also Costs: mitigation
ecosystem effects of, 497
implementation of, 157, 166, 490-494, 687
barriers to, 467-473
costs of, 49, 60, 61, 171, 465, 475, 476-480, 482, 489, 683, 684
developing nations and, 6, 635, 688
government actions, 64, 197, 494, 687
incentives, 63-64, 70, 493-494, 496, 687
international efforts, 65-67, 494-495, 496, 688
regulations, 63, 196, 227, 272
subsidies, 493-494
nongreenhouse benefits, 169, 238, 369, 473
policy options, 30, 55-59, 169, 465-467, 468-472, 495, 674
agricultural emission reduction, 58, 157, 396-397, 399-401, 403-405, 471, 480, 800-806
assessment of, 33-34, 52-60, 157
buildings sector energy management, 53-54, 55-56, 227-237, 239-240, 468-469, 476, 483, 684
categories of, 467, 473-481, 496
chlorofluorocarbon destruction, 59, 61, 457-458, 472, 482
chlorofluorocarbon emissions, 70, 73, 390-391, 392, 690, 792-796
cloud stimulation, 54, 59, 61, 82, 454-455, 459, 472, 482, 486, 832
comparison of, 60, 61-63, 161, 166, 180-181, 481-490, 681-683
Page 900
cost-effectiveness evaluation, 32, 48, 49-52, 53, 157, 171-172, 173-174, 189-192, 197, 466-467, 473, 495, 681
cost-effectiveness rankings, 33-34, 54, 60, 194, 195, 481-487, 496, 683
defined, 157-158
discount rates and, 32, 54, 173, 182, 186, 187, 189, 191, 193, 194
electricity and fuel supply, 57-58, 367-368, 470-471, 477, 479
evaluation of, 171-172, 193-197, 674
evaluations, social costs and, 182-183, 185n, 197, 347
evaluations, time dimension in, 696-707
evaluations, uncertainty in, 189, 193, 194, 197
geoengineering, 54, 58-60, 61, 81-82, 434-436, 471, 481, 482, 486
halocarbon emission reduction, 58, 390-392, 471, 479
industrial energy management, 56, 271, 272-279, 283, 469, 476-477, 478
landfill gas reduction, 58, 410-411, 471, 477
methane emissions, 396-397, 399-401, 404, 408-411, 467, 800
nitrous oxide emissions, 58, 390-392, 396-397, 399-401, 403-404, 410-411, 471, 479-480
ocean biomass stimulation, 54, 59, 61, 82, 433, 433-446, 459, 472, 481, 482, 486
population growth, 418, 420-421, 691, 703
recommendations, 73-77, 496-497, 690
reforestation, 58, 67, 77, 157-158, 433, 441, 458-459, 471, 480, 487-490, 690
sunlight screening, 54, 59, 61, 82, 433, 447-450, 459, 472, 482, 486, 824
transportation energy management, 54, 56-57, 301-304, 310, 314-320, 324, 469-470, 477, 478
research and development, 81, 169-170, 702, 703, 707
technology and, 66, 73, 270, 466, 702, 837
MOBILE3 Emission Model, 731
Modeling, 845. See also General circulation models
Modular gas-cooler reactor (MGR), 771
Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer (1987)
chlorofluorocarbon restrictions, 74, 96, 150, 376, 377, 383, 390-391
as guide to future action, 67, 495
halocarbon restrictions, 74, 96, 150, 377, 386, 390-391
implementation and compliance, 74, 151, 377, 390-391, 393
radiative forcing effects, 15, 149, 150, 393
Mortality rates, 534, 615, 616-618, 631
N
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
Goddard Institute for Space Studies (GISS), 112, 113
National Appliance Energy Conservation Act (1987), 209n, 233
National Appliance Standards, 209n
National Association of Regulatory Utility Commissioners, 228
National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR), 112
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), 389
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), 511
Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory (GFDL), 112, 113
weather observation, 129-132
National Park Service, 544
National Research Council, 208, 322, 371, 420, 421, 451
Alternative Energy Research and Development Committee, 239
Page 901
Board on Atmospheric Sciences and Climate, 20
Energy Engineering Board, 169-170, 340, 341, 369, 767
Forestry Research Committee, 442
Marine Algal Productivity and Carbon Dioxide Assimilation workshop, 444, 445
Panel on Water and Climate, 137
National security, 172
National Seed Storage Laboratory, 579
Natural disasters, 512, 630, 633, 636
Natural gas. See also Natural gas electric power plants
buildings sector conservation, 220, 222, 240
buildings sector consumption, 201, 220
carbon dioxide emissions, 158-160, 308, 330-332, 335, 338-339
energy supply share, 75, 330, 333
energy transmission, 350
fertilizer production, 342
fuel switching, 221, 222, 240, 256-258
greenhouse gas emission, 305, 335
greenhouse gas reduction, 307
hot water heating, 222
hydrogen production from, 308
industrial consumption, 248, 249
industrial fuel switching, 221, 256-258
in integrated energy systems, 345, 346
pipeline methane leakage, 94, 160-161, 332, 369
resource reserves, 357-359, 475
Natural gas electric power plants
advanced technology, 339, 346, 369, 470
carbon dioxide emissions, 355, 789
co-generation, 264-265, 266, 346, 722-723
cost-effectiveness, 185, 354, 356, 487, 490, 683-684
costs of implementation, 33-34, 355, 493, 722-723, 788, 789-790
electric supply share, 334, 335
mitigation options, 57, 62, 470, 479
research needs, 369
resource limitations, 357-359, 371, 475
Natural landscape
adaptation to climate change, 39, 40, 45, 505, 551, 575, 578-582, 635, 677
costs of adaptation, 544, 575-576, 678
impacts of climate change on, 39-40, 576-578, 676, 689
Natural resources, 557, 569, 604
Nature, 502, 516, 525-527, 677, 685, 686
Naval rifles
stratospheric dust delivery, 451-452, 459, 460, 817-819
Navigation, 531
New Hampshire Public Utilities Commission, 229
Newly industrialized economies (NIE), 418, 809
New York (state)
electricity efficiency, 206, 213, 230, 709
Energy Research and Development Authority, 206
Nitrate, 443
Nitrogen
carbon dioxide enrichment and, 553, 554
fertilizer production, 342
fertilizers, nitrous oxide emission, 96, 97, 393, 402
fertilizers, use reduction, 394, 402-404, 471, 480, 806
landfill gas emission, 405
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2), 203, 231, 238, 332
Nitrogen oxides (NOx), 158, 321, 332, 351, 368, 777
Nitrous oxide (N2O), 3, 158, 663
agricultural emission, 8, 162, 376, 393, 398, 682
agricultural emission reduction, 402-404, 805, 806
anthropogenic emissions, 8, 15, 18, 97, 146, 147, 149, 150, 159, 162, 402, 682
Page 902
atmospheric concentration, 13, 92, 96, 97, 146, 160, 161, 381, 667
atmospheric lifetime, 13, 92, 97, 146, 160, 381, 667
coal combustion emissions, 8, 96, 162, 682
costs of mitigation, 404, 467, 805, 806
emissions reduction effects, 19
fossil fuel combustion emission, 332
global warming potential, 167, 381
greenhouse warming contribution, 151, 378, 380, 487
nitrogen fertilizer emissions, 96, 97, 393, 398, 402
ocean releases, 96-97
ozone interactions, 151
radiative forcing, 15, 18, 148, 149, 163, 668, 670
stratospheric decomposition, 97
U.S. emissions, 168
vehicle exhaust emissions, 306, 731
Nonenergy emission reduction, 167
agricultural methane, 376, 393, 394-401
agricultural nitrous oxide, 376, 393, 402-404
halocarbons, 58, 376-393, 471, 479
landfill methane, 376, 405-411, 477
mitigation options, 58, 390-392, 396-397, 399-401, 403-404, 410-411, 471, 479-480
research needs, 392-393, 404, 411
Nonfossil fuel sources, 305, 308, 323, 330
North America
deforestation, 424
sea level data, 142
Northeast Utilities, 232
Northern hemisphere
cloud cover, 831
precipitation record, 128
temperature record, 20, 22, 24, 121, 122, 832
North Platte River, 597
Northwest Power Planning Council, 229, 264
Nuclear fusion, 239, 341, 372, 767, 773-774
Nuclear power (fission)
advanced technology, 75, 76, 340, 767-773
carbon restrictions and, 602, 791
cost-effectiveness, 355-356, 790, 791
costs of implementation, 195-197, 354, 786-787, 788
electricity prices, 789, 790-791
electric supply share, 330, 333, 334, 339-340
fossil-fuel plant replacement, 57, 62, 195, 371, 470, 487, 683-684
France, 11
greenhouse gas reduction, 178, 341, 479
High-Temperature Gas-Cooled Reactors, 769, 770, 771-772
Integral Fast Reactors, 769, 770, 772-773
in integrated energy systems, 347
Light Water Reactors, 769, 770-771
public resistance to, 54, 195-197, 236, 340, 371-372, 475
reactor safety, 75, 76, 340, 372, 475, 767-771, 773
research and development, 239, 370, 372
thermal discharge, 589
Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), 357
Nuclear waste disposal, 238, 340, 372, 475, 772, 773, 774
Nuclear weapons proliferation, 340
O
Ocean currents
changes in, adaptation to, 47, 507, 521, 589, 676, 686
climate impacts of, 26, 503, 591, 676
greenhouse warming effects on, 5, 26, 583-584, 590, 591, 657, 680, 689
index for global warming, 42, 503, 653, 655
Ocean mixing, 845
Oceans. See also Ocean currents;Ocean upwelling; Sea level
Page 903
atmospheric interaction, 93, 605, 636n.5, 846
carbon dioxide absorption, 12, 93, 94, 135, 442-443, 672
biomass stimulation, 54, 59, 61, 82, 433, 443-446, 459, 472, 481, 482, 486
carbon dioxide disposal in, 58, 345, 351, 353
carbon storage, 433, 437, 443, 444, 446, 459, 666, 695
climate change impacts on, 17, 145, 582-584
climate influences of, 442-443
in climate models, 25, 93, 115, 443, 584
cloud stimulation over, 454-455, 456, 457, 459, 827, 830
energy absorption, 19, 100-101, 135, 671
habitats, 591
heat transfer, 19, 28, 80, 101, 154, 442-443, 671
methyl chloride release, 96
nutrous oxide release, 96-97
surface temperature, and cloud formation, 108
temperature records, 23, 115, 117, 118, 119-120, 121, 122
temperature rise in, effects of, 17, 583-584, 588-590, 591, 673
thermal energy conversion, 362
thermal expansion, 25-26, 140-141, 142, 143, 154, 583
water vapor release, 442-443
Ocean upwelling
and carbon dioxide transfer, 845, 846
and climate patterns, 40
defined, 846
heat transfer, 26
models of sea level rise, 142-143
and nitrous oxide emission, 96-97
Office equipment, 219
Office of Technology Assessment, 309, 742
Ogallala Aquifer, 562
Oil
buildings sector consumption, 201, 220
buildings sector efficiency, 56, 240, 469, 476
carbon content, 331
carbon dioxide emissions, 158-160, 331, 332
cost of emission reduction, 476, 493
electric power generation, 334, 336
energy supply share, 330-332, 333, 335
energy transport, 350
exporting nations, 630
industrial consumption, 248, 249, 336
industrial fuel switching, 256-258
OPEC embargoes and price shocks, 201, 227, 238, 286, 354
prices, 178, 225, 253, 286-287, 301, 799
resource reserves, 604-605
Strategic Petroleum Reserve, 321
transportation sector consumption, 286, 320-321, 335
Orange juice industry, 556
Organization of African States, 626
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), 236, 248-250, 356-357, 400-401, 519
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), 182
oil embargoes and price shocks, 201, 227, 238, 286, 354
Oxygen (O2), 39, 332, 350, 575
Ozone (O3)
chlorofluorocarbon depletion, 74, 150, 376-377, 387
chlorofluorocarbon reduction and, 53, 54, 182, 376, 377, 383, 390, 392, 475, 496
as greenhouse gas, 3, 146, 158, 159, 663
greenhouse gas depletion of, 377, 380, 381, 386, 393, 533
nitrous oxide interactions, 151
Page 904
and stratospheric temperature, 125
tropospheric, health effects, 411
P
Pacific Gas and Electric Company (PG&E), 222, 232-233, 343
Pacific Northwest Electric Power Planning and Conservation Act (1980), 229
Pacific Northwest region, 206, 229-230
Pacific Ocean
carbon dioxide release, 846
cloud stimulation over, 456, 831
coral reef bleaching, 588
nutrients, 443
temperatures, 636n.5
tropospheric water vapor, 106
Paper industry
biomass energy, 348-349
co-generation, 264
energy conservation technology, 281
fuel switching, 259
recycling, 269
technological adaptation, 606-607
Parameterizations, 20
Para rubber tree, 580
Parking
employer-provided, 313-314
transportation demand management, 316-317, 319, 320, 759-766
Persian Gulf War, 238
Petrochemical production, 725
Petroleum. See Oil
Petroleum refining industry
co-generation, 264
energy conservation technology, 266, 267, 269, 280, 724-725
integrated energy systems, 345
Phosphate, 443
Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFC), 350
Photosynthesis
adaptation to climate change, 576-577
carbon dioxide fertilization and, 39, 551-554, 555, 566, 576
defined, 845
ocean biomass, carbon dioxide absorption, 443, 589-590
Phytoplankton, 59, 443-444, 446, 472, 481, 845
Plants, 21-22. See also Agriculture, Trees
adaptation to climate change, 37, 46, 503, 564, 577, 581, 676, 686
biological diversity, 40, 513, 557
carbon dioxide enrichment and, 38-39, 137, 154, 551-554, 555, 576, 841
carbon dioxide uptake, 76, 154, 437, 666
climate model simulation, 558
impacts of climate change on, 37, 39-40, 47, 506-507, 557, 584, 586, 587, 589
seasonal events index of climate change, 655
Policy options
assessment of, 34-35
evaluation of, 43-44
analysis, 496-497
assumptions, 21
capacities to respond, 69-70
categories of, 71-72
cost-effectiveness of, 32
costs and benefits over time, 186, 187, 473, 674, 692-706, 707
economic benefits, 30
greenhouse gas limitation, 151, 157-158
investment discount rates, 189-190, 721
limitations on responses, 35
mitigation, 30, 55-59, 169, 465-467, 468-472, 495, 674
agricultural emission reduction, 58, 157, 396-397, 399-401, 403-405, 471, 480, 800-806
Page 905
assessment of, 33-34, 52-60, 157
buildings sector energy management, 53-54, 55-56, 227-237, 239-240, 468-469, 476, 483, 684
categories of, 467, 473-481, 496
chlorofluorocarbon destruction, 59, 61, 457-458, 472, 482
chlorofluorocarbon emissions, 70, 73, 390-391, 392, 690, 792-796
cloud stimulation, 54, 59, 61, 82, 454-455, 459, 472, 482, 486, 832
comparison of, 60, 61-63, 161, 166, 180-181, 481-490, 681-683
cost-effectiveness evaluation, 32, 48, 49-52, 53, 157, 171-172, 173-174, 189-192, 197, 466-467, 473, 495, 681
cost-effectiveness rankings, 33-34, 54, 60, 194, 195, 481-487, 496, 683
defined, 157-158
discount rates and, 32, 54, 173, 182, 186, 187, 189, 191, 193, 194
electricity and fuel supply, 57-58, 367-368, 470-471, 477, 479
evaluation of, 171-172, 193-197, 674
evaluations, social costs and, 182-183, 185n, 197, 347
evaluations, time dimension in, 696-707
evaluations, uncertainty in, 189, 193, 194, 197
geoengineering, 54, 58-60, 61, 81-82, 434-436, 471, 481, 482, 486
halocarbon emission reduction, 58, 390-392, 471, 479
industrial energy management, 56, 271, 272-279, 283, 469, 476-477, 478
landfill gas reduction, 58, 410-411, 471, 477
methane emissions, 396-397, 399-401, 404, 408-411, 467, 800
nitrous oxide emissions, 58, 390-392, 396-397, 399-401, 403-404, 410-411, 471, 479-480
ocean biomass stimulation, 54, 59, 61, 82, 433, 443-446, 459, 472, 481, 482, 486
population growth, 418, 420-421, 691, 703
recommendations, 73-77, 496-497, 690
reforestation, 58, 67, 77, 157-158, 433, 441, 458-459, 471, 480, 487-490, 690
sunlight screening, 54, 59, 61, 82, 433, 447-450, 459, 472, 482, 486, 824
transportation energy management, 54, 56-57, 301-304, 310, 314-320, 324, 469-470, 477, 478
research and development, 70-71, 79-81, 707
risk perception and, 35
taxes and incentives, 70
Political stability, 42, 45, 523-626, 630, 633, 677
Pollution, 6. See also Air pollution
animal waste management, 805
Population, 167
control, greenhouse gas reduction, 6, 421-422, 496, 703-704, 811
control programs, 82, 416-420, 632, 691, 703
deforestation effects, 424-425, 430
growth, greenhouse gas effects, 6, 65, 414, 419, 494, 519, 809-811
growth, nongreenhouse effects, 44, 421, 505, 507, 556, 798, 799
growth rates, 6, 414-415, 473, 621, 799, 809
mitigation policy options, 420-421, 691, 703
Power plants. See Electric power generation
Precipitation
Antarctic, 154
Page 906
changes, agricultural effects, 34, 39, 44-45, 556, 558, 633, 654
changes, climate effects, 584, 615
changes, coastal settlement effects, 41, 608, 609, 610
climate model simulation, 80, 113-115, 125-129, 135-136, 138, 605
cloud stimulation and, 829
data collection, 128, 129, 130, 636n.7
evaporation and runoff of, 592-593, 636n.7
impacts of climate change on, 40, 113-115, 135-136, 138, 672, 673, 680
prediction, 520-521, 523n.2, 557, 605, 672
soil moisture effects, 115, 136
Pressurized fluidized-bed combustion (PFBC), 336-337
Pressurized water reactor (PWR), 770
Pricing
full social cost, 32-33, 74, 844
transportation demand management, 315-316, 323
Process inherent ultimately safe (PIUS) reactor, 770-771
Process technologies
costs of implementation, 478, 484
industrial energy conservation, 56, 75, 254, 269-270, 282, 469
mitigation policy options, 56, 271, 272, 469
research and development, 279
Public goods, 845
Public relations campaign, 697
Public utilities. See Electric utility companies
Public utility commissions (PUC), 222, 274, 283, 357
Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act (PURPA, 1978), 264, 273, 357, 359
R
Radiation balance. See Earth
Radiative energy. See Solar radiation
Radiative feedback. See Feedback mechanisms
carbon dioxide, 15, 18, 148, 149, 150, 158, 163, 167, 667, 668, 670
carbon dioxide-equivalent doubling, 102-103
carbon tetrachloride, 163
chlorocarbons, 15, 18, 149, 668, 670
chlorofluorocarbons, 15, 18, 74, 148, 149, 150, 158, 161, 163, 167, 668, 670
chlorofluorocarbon substitutes, 163, 167
costs of mitigation, 173
defined, 13-14
feedback mechanisms and, 104, 107
geoengineering mitigation, 81, 450
greenhouse gas emissions, 15, 18, 19, 146, 148, 149, 150, 158, 164, 167, 668, 670, 681
impacts of increases in, 152
methane, 15, 18, 148, 149, 150, 163, 167, 407, 668, 670
methyl chloride, 163
nitrous oxide, 15, 18, 148, 149, 150, 163, 167, 668, 670
research needs, 71
sources of contribution to, 158, 161
temperature increase estimation, 145
Raw materials, 567
Recommendations, 4
adaptation to climate change, 47, 77-79, 508-514, 690
adaptation research, 77-78, 80-81, 508-509
biological diversity, 78-79, 80-81, 513
climate assessment, 508
deforestation reduction, 76-77
geoengineering evaluation, 81-82, 691
government institutions, 511
greenhouse gas reduction, 73-77, 690
halocarbon elimination, 73, 74
international leadership, 81, 82-83, 691
investment, 512-514
markets, 511-512
Page 907
policy evaluation, 496-497
population control, 82
reforestation, 77
Recreation. See Tourism and recreation
Recycling, 494
chlorofluorocarbon, 383, 792-793, 794
landfill gas reduction, 411
Red Sea, 588
Reforestation, 437-439
carbon dioxide mitigation, 437, 439-441, 442, 459, 487-490, 814-815
cost-effectiveness, 484
costs of implementation, 60, 175, 440, 441, 458-459, 480, 489, 684, 814, 815, 838
funding, 427
greenhouse gas reduction, 60, 77, 437
mitigation policy options, 58, 67, 77, 157-158, 433, 441, 471, 480, 487-490, 690
research and development, 430, 442
Refrigeration
chlorofluorocarbon emission reduction, 385, 471, 479, 793, 794, 795
conservation supply curves, 714-715
energy efficiency, 55, 212, 468, 476
invention of, 531
Refrigerators, residential
chlorofluorocarbon substitutes, 384-385, 390, 793, 795-796
energy consumption, 209, 218-219, 710
energy efficiency, 208, 209, 219, 384, 390
Regional climate changes, 47, 114-115, 117
Regulations
agricultural methane reduction, 398, 800, 805
air pollution, 70
chlorofluorocarbon emission, 70, 182
costs of, 176
energy efficiency investment, 233, 234, 240
and energy prices, 182, 226, 228
greenhouse gas mitigation, 196, 227, 272
industrial energy conservation, 272, 274, 277
and market imperfections, 182, 299
policy implementation, 63, 70, 493, 687
public utilities, 75, 228, 240, 359
rate of return on investment, 186-187, 368
renewable energy constraints, 359-367
state, landfill resource recovery, 410
transportation fuel economy, 287, 299
water resources, 596
Renewable energy
barriers to implementation, 359-367
biomass utilization, 333-334, 361
carbon dioxide mitigation, 342
cost-effectiveness, 355, 369, 789-790, 791
geothermal utilization, 343, 360
hydroelectric utilization, 333-334, 342, 360
solar utilization, 343-344, 362, 363, 364
transportation fuels, 364
in U.S. energy supply, 333-334, 341-342
wind utilization, 343, 363, 365-366
Rental buildings, 225
Reproduction, 619
Research and development
adaptation to climate change, 508-509, 690
agricultural, 39, 77-78, 557, 799
agricultural methane reduction, 398-399, 404, 405
alternative energy sources, 75, 370-371
alternative transportation fuels, 310, 322-323, 324
biological diversity, 80-81
buildings sector efficiency, 238-239
carbon dioxide enrichment, 80-81
chlorofluorocarbon substitutes, 392-393
and cost of conservation, 193
Page 908
deforestation, 430-431
energy supply systems, 369-371, 372
geoengineering, 81, 82, 460, 481
government sponsorship, 538
hydrology, 138
impacts of global warming, 70-71, 81, 691
industrial energy efficiency, 272, 277-278, 279, 280-281, 282-283
international cooperation, 83
landfill methane reduction, 411
mitigation policy options, 169-170, 702, 703, 707
population growth, 421
reforestation, 442
Residential energy management. See Buildings, residential and commercial
Revenue-neutral incentives, 196, 227, 234, 240
Rice production
adaptation to climate change, 528, 579
cost of methane mitigation, 400, 480, 800, 802-803
methane emission, 5, 8, 94, 95, 162, 393, 394-395, 682, 799-800
methane emission reduction, 395, 396, 398, 399, 400, 404, 471, 801-803
Ridesharing programs, 322
Risk perception, 35
Rocket-launched dust, 452, 459
Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever, 618
Ruminant animals. See Livestock
Runoff. See Water runoff
S
Sacramento River, 544, 597, 679
Satellite data collection, 71, 104, 105, 106, 125, 531, 669
Scrubbers, sulfur dioxide, 336, 338, 347
Sea level
adaptation policy options, 537, 590-591, 611-613, 635
agricultural impacts, 602
coastal habitat impacts, 584, 585, 586, 587, 590-591
coastal settlement adaptation, 506, 590-591, 611-613, 614, 685-686
coastal settlement impacts, 602, 609, 610, 626-627
costs of adaptation options, 43, 188, 506, 535, 606, 611-612, 614
glacial melting rise, 25, 141, 583, 680
groundwater effects, 609, 610, 613
impacts of climate change on, 25-26, 141, 550, 583, 672
index of climate change, 43, 118, 503, 653, 655
mitigation options and, 497
population migration effects, 627, 628, 630
potential rise from global warming, 26, 28, 142-143, 154, 519, 583, 680
shoreline impacts, 585-586, 609, 611
thermal expansion rise, 25-26, 141, 142, 143, 583
wetlands impacts, 40, 585, 591
Seed banks, 579-580
Short Rotation Woody Crops Program, 779-784
Silicon cells, 775-776
Silver iodide (AgI), 829-830
Sinks, 672, 695. See also Carbon sinks
Ski industry, 608
Smog, 238, 241n.5, 307, 321, 392, 845
Snow-ice feedback, 106, 108, 113
Social costs
coal burning, 32-33
energy production, 74, 173, 347, 372
full social cost pricing, 32-33, 74, 844
market neglect of, 173
Page 909
transportation fuel use, 33, 312, 315, 321, 324
Soil moisture, 21-22
agricultural effects, 557, 569
climate change effects, 592
in climate models, 80, 136, 137, 138
in climate system, 135, 136, 137
index of climate change, 653, 654
and methane emission, 95
Soils
carbon sink, 76, 666, 798, 799, 812, 845-846
climate change effects, 557
methane sink, 94
nitrogen fixing, 40
nitrous oxide emission, 96, 97
Solar energy, 342.
See also Solar photovoltaics
buildings sector technologies, 220, 364, 367
cost-effectiveness, 475, 789-790, 791
hydrogen production, 345, 349-350, 775-777
storage, 348
thermal electricity, 57, 344, 362, 371, 470, 479, 788
thermal-gas hybrid, 344, 356, 789, 790
Solar Energy Research Institute (SERI), 220, 342, 343
Solar photovoltaics
barriers to implementation, 169, 363
carbon dioxide reduction potential, 344, 479
cost-effectiveness, 356, 790, 791
cost of electricity, 169, 344, 354, 372, 776, 777, 788
energy supply potential, 57, 169, 372, 470, 775-776
hydrogen generation, 349-350, 775, 776, 777
research and development needs, 370, 371
technology improvements, 343-344
Solar radiation
agricultural effects, 556
atmospheric absorption and reflection, 14-17, 91, 100, 101, 664-665
cloud absorption and reflection, 101, 107, 669, 826, 843
cloud albedo, 108, 450, 455, 824, 827, 828, 842
earth absorption, 16, 100-101, 106, 664
geoengineered blocking, 30, 82, 157, 433, 447-457, 459, 472, 674
geoengineering, costs of, 447, 448, 449, 452, 453, 454, 455, 456, 482, 486
greenhouse gas absorption, 3, 12-14, 17
urban absorption, 216
water vapor absorption, 104
white surfaces reflection, 216, 241n.5, 447
winter reduction, 241n.5
Solid waste, 160-161
Solvents, 95, 386, 387, 792, 793, 794
Southeastern U.S., 559, 560, 601, 779
Southern California Edison Company, 222, 337, 339, 776
Southern corn leaf blight, 557
Southern hemisphere, 22, 121, 125, 128
South Platte River, 598
Southwestern U.S., 350, 654, 776, 777
Soviet Union
capital stock turnover, 531, 532
industrial energy consumption, 250
land surface temperatures, 120, 124, 126
nuclear reactor technology, 769
oil reserves, 604-605
population growth, 415
precipitation measurements, 128, 130
Soybean production, 559, 560-561, 564
Space dust, 448.
See also Stratospheric dust
Space heating, 55
Page 910
energy efficiency measures, 55, 219-220, 222-223, 468
impact of climate change on, 601
Space mirrors, 59, 61, 448, 461n.9, 472, 482, 486
Space transportation, 461n.5
Species extinction, 503.
See also Biological diversity
Spillover benefits, 846
Spillover costs, 846
States
building codes, 233
landfill regulations, 410
utility regulation, 64, 240, 273, 274, 283, 472-473, 494, 687
Steam reformer, 346
Steel industry
coal consumption, 253, 256, 335
energy conservation technology, 266, 267, 280, 724
integrated energy systems, 345
Stirling gas refrigeration cycle, 385-386
Stone, clay, and glass industry, 248, 249
Storms, 520, 528, 530, 673, 678
Strategic Petroleum Reserve, 321
Stratosphere. See also Ozone
halocarbon photodissociation, 96, 457
nitrous oxide decomposition, 97
radiative energy transfer, 102
temperature, greenhouse gases and, 125
Stratospheric bubbles, 59, 61, 472, 482, 486
Stratospheric dust
aircraft-exhaust delivery, 59, 61, 453-454, 459, 472
balloon delivery, 59, 61, 452, 459, 460, 472, 819-823
costs of implementation, 447, 449, 452, 453-454, 459, 482, 486, 817-823
gun delivery, 59, 61, 451-452, 459, 460, 472, 817-819
ozone depletion, 82, 450, 451, 459-460
side effects, 435-436, 450-451, 459-460
sulfur dioxide emission, 435, 449
sunlight reflection mitigation, 447, 448-450, 459, 461n.8 and 10
Stratospheric soot, 59, 61, 472, 482, 486
Subsidies
automobile use, 314
efficiency investment encouragement, 227, 234, 240, 276
mitigation implementation, 493-494
Sulfates, 451
cloud condensation nuclei, 59, 457, 472, 832, 833
Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
acid rain production, 238, 336, 457, 832
Clean Air Act allowances, 272, 369
cloud condensation nuclei, 454, 455, 456, 457, 825, 830-832, 833
emission standards, 368
energy efficiency emission reduction, 203, 231, 238
fuel switching reduction, 349
power plant emission reduction, 336, 338, 349, 351
smokestack scrubbers, 336, 338, 347
Sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
cloud condensation nuclei, 450-451, 455
geoengineering dust, 449, 829, 830, 833
Summer
adaptation to climate, 615
crop yields, 559-560
electrical demand, 609-610, 655
mortality rates, 534, 616-618, 619
precipitation, 128, 129, 136, 558, 654
snowpack evaporation, 138
temperature extremes, 124, 534, 558
urban heat islands, 216, 241n.5
Sunlight screening.
See Geoengineering
Superconducting cables, 345, 350-351
Supply, 846
Supply curves, 846.
See also Conservation supply curves
Surface waters, 141
Sweden, 837
climate change in, 624
Page 911
nuclear reactor technology, 768
Synthetic fuels, 775
T
Taxation, 318. See also Carbon tax
chlorofluorocarbon, 383-384, 390, 392
depreciation, 786
efficiency investment credits, 227, 273-279
electricity production, 709
European gasoline and automobile, 313, 315, 316
"fee-bate" efficiency incentives, 234
free-parking benefit, 314
gasoline "guzzler/sipper," 303-304
greenhouse-gas emission, 367, 368
industrial fossil fuel use, 272
methane-emitting agriculture, 401, 800, 802, 804
mitigation policy options, 70, 493-494
nitrogen fertilizer, 403-404, 805-806
revenue-neutral efficiency incentives, 234, 240
Technological costing, 49-50, 63, 180-181, 183, 185-186, 194, 195, 302, 490-493
Technology
adaptation to climate change, 37-38, 509, 514, 516, 530-534
agricultural, 394, 405, 509, 799
air pollutant reduction, regulations and, 70
"backstop" technology, 51, 52, 180, 192
barriers to implementation, 367
capital stock replacement, 37-38, 533, 606-607
carbon dioxide emission reduction, 269, 270
carbon dioxide removal, 178
coal-fired power generation, 336-337
cost-effectiveness, 295, 298, 299-300, 732, 737, 738, 755
costs of implementation, 183, 354
defined, 846
deforestation prevention, 77
and economic growth, 188
efficiency investment, 240, 299
electric efficiency, buildings sector, 205, 219, 225, 238-239, 240
electric power generation, cost-effectiveness, 786-791
electric vehicles, 323-324
energy efficiency, industrial processes, 254, 269-270, 271, 279, 280-281, 722
greenhouse gas mitigation, 66, 73, 270, 466, 702, 837
halocarbon substitutes, 392
and health improvements, 41, 44, 505
human-environment buffer, 84
integrated energy systems, 344, 347
investment, capital recovery, 708
"maximum" technology, 295, 325n.2, 755
nuclear reactor, 75, 76, 195-197, 340, 767-773
policy incentives, 75, 76, 271, 368
renewable energy sources, 367
research and development needs, 238-239, 279, 280-281, 392, 405
solar hydrogen production, 777
transportation fuel efficiency, 286, 291-293, 295, 298, 299-300, 727, 730, 732-742, 744-749, 751, 752-753, 754-755
Technology transfer, 390, 391-392, 429
Telecommunications industry, 37-38
Temperature
atmosphere
cloud feedback, 842-843
data records, 125
ocean heat transfer, 143
radiant energy transfer, 16, 17, 19, 664
and shoreline ecosystems, 587
and water vapor concentration, 103-104, 158
in climate models, 138
cloud interactions, 672
of clouds, 827
Page 912
northern hemisphere, 20, 22, 23, 24, 121, 122, 832
southern hemisphere, 22, 23, 121, 125
earth-atmosphere heat transfer, 16, 17, 664
equator-to-pole differential, 26, 673
extremes, 124-125, 126, 137, 503, 653, 655
glacial effects, 117-118
global average
cloud cover and, 669, 824, 826, 831
equilibrium, 18, 19, 28, 519-520, 671
greenhouse effect (natural) and, 3, 91, 101, 663
greenhouse warming (induced), projected increase, 3-4, 18, 20, 21, 27, 121, 149, 153-154, 669-671
prehistoric records, 24, 665-666
recorded increase, previous century, 4, 20-21, 22, 23, 25, 27, 117, 153, 518, 665, 669
greenhouse warming, projected increase, 145, 146-148, 521
greenhouse gas reduction and, 164
greenhouse warming increase
adaptation to, 47, 503, 613-614, 653, 655
climate model projections, 3-4, 19-20, 21, 111-114, 124, 518, 669-671
climate sensitivity range, 145, 150-151, 152, 153-154
climatic effects, 26
and electrical demand, 609-610, 655
and sea level rise, 118
land surface measurements, 117, 118, 119, 120, 122
ocean
atmospheric interaction, 636n.5
in climate models, 115
climatic effects, 17
and cloud cover, 108
greenhouse warming effects on, 583-584
marine organism impacts, 588-590, 591
surface measurements, 117, 118, 119-120, 121, 122
thermal expansion, 25-26, 140-141, 142, 583
typhoon and hurricane formation, 673
ocean current disruption and, 680
in radiative feedback mechanisms, 103
radiative forcing, 102
sensitivities
agriculture, 39, 556, 558, 559, 561, 654
animal species, 40
human health and mortality, 615, 616, 619
stratosphere, 125
troposphere, 125
uncertainties, 119-121
Thermal expansion, 25-26, 140-141, 142, 143, 154, 583
Third World, 389-390, 429, 628
Tobacco production, 556
Tourism and recreation, 567, 637n.9
adaptation to climate change, 45, 46, 505, 506, 607-608, 677, 686
impacts of climate change on, 41, 607-608
Trace gases, 22, 91, 107, 163-164, 666, 846
Tractors, 37, 398, 801, 804-805
Transportation demand management (TDM), 57, 317-319, 320, 324, 470
Transportation energy management, 167
air pollution reduction, 321
alternative fuels
Page 913
carbon dioxide reduction potential, 478
cost-effectiveness of emission reduction, 309
costs of implementation, 304, 478, 484
electricity, 57, 307, 308-309, 323-324, 470, 478
ethanol, 304, 306, 307, 308, 323
greenhouse gas emissions, 304-307
greenhouse gas reductions, 286, 304-309, 312, 478, 484
hydrogen, 57, 169, 308, 323, 350, 470, 478
methanol, 57, 304, 306, 307, 323, 470, 478
policy options, 57, 310, 322-323, 324, 470
research and development needs, 322-323, 324
energy consumption, 201, 261, 286, 288-289, 310-311, 313, 320-321, 335, 728-729, 743
fuel efficiency, 286-291
aircraft, 56, 287, 293, 296, 469, 478, 743
barriers to implementation, 298-301, 324-325
carbon dioxide reduction potential, 60, 312, 323, 478, 483, 489, 737, 738, 750, 751
Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE), 54, 301-303, 325n.2, 469, 755n.2
cost-effectiveness of emission reduction, 287, 295, 298, 299-300, 483, 727-755
costs of implementation, 60, 293-298, 477, 478, 489
heavy trucks, 56, 287, 296, 469, 477, 742-743, 744-751
light vehicles, 56, 75, 287, 296, 297, 310-311, 469, 477, 478, 727-742, 752-753
policy options, 301-304
technological improvements, 291-293, 730, 732-742
mitigation policy options, 56-57, 75, 157, 324, 469-470, 477, 478, 684
research and development needs, 169, 322-323
social costs and benefits, 185n, 321-322
transportation system management, 310-312
barriers to implementation, 312-314
carbon dioxide reduction potential, 60, 312, 317, 319, 324, 478, 484, 489, 684, 759, 760, 761
cost-effectiveness of emission reduction, 319, 321-322, 324, 484, 759-766
costs of implementation, 60, 478, 489, 684
high-occupancy-vehicle lanes, 286, 310, 311, 312, 316, 320, 322, 324
jobs/housing balance, 286, 310, 319
land use planning, 286, 310, 318-319
mass transit, 286, 310, 311, 312, 314, 316, 318, 322, 324
nongreenhouse benefits, 320-322
parking management, 57, 316-317, 319, 320, 470, 759-766
policy options, 314-320
research and development needs, 323, 324
transportation demand management (TDM), 57, 317-319, 320, 324, 470
vehicle miles traveled, 310, 311, 312
Transportation equipment industry, 249
Trans-Tasman Agreement, 628
Trees. See also Forests; Wood
adaptation to climate change, 37, 39, 46, 506, 525-526, 569-570, 636
biomass fuel, 348, 349, 779-783
burning, carbon dioxide emission, 11
carbon dioxide enrichment and growth of, 555, 569
carbon dioxide uptake, 5, 40, 77
carbon storage, 77, 437, 439-441, 537, 574-575, 814, 815
evapotranspiration cooling, 216
Page 914
hurricane damage, 568-569
moisture sensitivity, 569, 572-573
planting programs, 437-439, 572, 581, 636, 779, 815
Tritium, 774
Tropical forests
deforestation, 424, 425, 427, 430
Troposphere
chlorofluorocarbons in, 96, 457
hydroxyl radical concentrations, 95
temperature measures, 125
water vapor concentrations, 106
Trucks
air pollutant emissions, 321
carbon dioxide emissions, 312
cost of efficiency improvement, 296, 477, 742-743
fuel consumption, 287, 288, 293, 310-311, 728
fuel efficiency measures, 469, 731, 732, 733-735, 742-743, 744-751
Tundra melting, 26
Typhoons, 673
U
Ultraviolet radiation, 457, 617, 845
Uncertainty
in adaptation measures, 43, 534-537, 541, 561
in climate predictions, 21, 541, 672
of geoengineering policies, 465
in mitigation policy evaluation, 189, 193, 194, 197
research and, 193
temperature records, 119-121
United Kingdom
African irrigation projects, 631
nuclear reactor technology, 768, 787
United Kingdom Meteorological Office (UKMO), 112
United Nations, 335, 415, 421, 626
Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees (1951), 621
Environment Programme, 66, 429, 511
Food and Agriculture Organization, 425, 427
High Commissioner for Refugees, 621
World Conference on Environment and Development (1992), 67, 83
United States
adaptation costs, 542-546, 550, 678-679
adaptation policy options, 44, 69-70, 77-79, 574
adaptive capability, 38, 47, 71, 507, 511-512, 530, 541, 676, 685
agricultural adaptability, 39, 534
agricultural crop varieties, 38, 531, 557
agricultural crop yields, 553, 556, 559
agricultural land use, 799
agricultural methane emission, 394, 395, 799-800
agricultural methane reduction, 401, 800, 801-804
agricultural nitrous oxide emission, 402
agricultural nitrous oxide reduction, 404, 806
agricultural production policies, 399, 801-802
air pollutant emissions, 238, 321
air pollution reductions, 70
alternative transportation fuels, 304, 309
appliance efficiency standards, 209n, 219, 233
automobile dependency, 173, 314, 315, 316, 318, 319, 759
automobile subsidization, 314
buildings sector, energy conservation, 204, 207, 220, 221-222, 236, 239-240
buildings sector, energy consumption, 201, 202, 203, 205, 206
carbon dioxide emission, 9-11, 158-160, 164, 165, 168, 688
carbon dioxide emission reduction, 177, 221, 223-224, 239-240, 356-357
Page 915
chlorofluorocarbon consumption, 376, 385, 386
chlorofluorocarbon emission limits, 70, 74, 182, 377, 385, 496
chlorofluorocarbon phaseout, costs of, 387, 388, 389, 792-797
chlorofluorocarbon taxes, 383-384, 390
cloud cover, 832
coal-burning technology, 336-337
deforestation, 76
deforestation prevention, 428, 429, 431
drought of 1988, 542, 556, 678
economic consumption, 177-178
economic impacts of climate change, 604, 676
electrical generating capacity, 236-237, 709
electrical generation sources, 334, 336, 789-790, 791
electricity consumption, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 356
electricity demand, 203, 601-602, 610
electric power plant lifespan, 605-606
energy policy, 74-76
energy security, 368-369
energy supply sources, 75-76, 333-334, 335
forest and grassland cover, 39, 76, 437, 567, 568, 575
forest management, 429-430, 572
fossil fuel consumption, 335
greenhouse gas emission, 9-11, 65, 82, 158, 164, 168, 394, 465-466
greenhouse gas emission reduction, 64, 74, 167, 493, 496, 684
gross national product, 678
highway expenditures, 312-313
human health, 41, 618-619, 620
hydroelectric power generation, 342
income, impact of climate change on, 560, 601
industrial adaptability, 41, 44
industrial energy conservation, 261, 271, 282, 717-718
industrial energy consumption, 248, 250-252, 253
infant mortality, 619
international cooperation, 48, 65, 67, 73, 82-83, 494, 495, 496, 691
investment rate of return, 186-187, 189, 689
irrigated acreage, 562
landfill methane emission, 405, 406
landfill methane reduction, 408, 411
mass transit systems, 314
methane emissions, 166, 168, 394, 395, 405, 406, 408, 799-800
mitigation, cost-effectiveness of, 467, 483-486, 488
mitigation implementation costs, 60, 172-173, 476-480, 482, 489, 493, 684
mitigation option evaluation, 473-490
mitigation policy options, 55-59, 69-70, 73-77, 465-472
mitigation strategy, 48, 197, 494, 497
nuclear power supply, 339-340, 787
nuclear reactor technology, 768, 771
oil imports, 320-321
oil reserves, 604-605
paper industry technology, 606-607
paved surface area, 314
policy recommendations, 4, 71-72, 73-83, 511
population control programs, 82, 420-421, 691
population migration, 42, 620, 622-623, 626, 627, 628, 654
precipitation measurements, 128, 129-131
reforestation, 77, 433, 437-439, 440, 814, 815
research funding, 71, 239, 324
rice production, 400, 799-800, 801-802
ruminant livestock production, 799, 803, 804
shoreline erosion, 585
solar photovoltaic potential, 775
sulfur dioxide emissions, 831
Page 916
transportation energy consumption, 286, 311, 320, 335
transportation fuel economy standards, 287-289, 301-303
transportation fuel efficiency, costs of, 300, 755
transportation fuel prices, 295, 314, 315, 754, 755
transportation infrastructure, 533
tree species, 572
tourism and recreation, 41
vehicle miles traveled (VMT), 310, 311, 316
water allocation, 512, 528, 529, 538, 596
water consumption, 602
water resources, vulnerability to climate change, 595, 654
weather forecasting, 510
wind-generated electricity, 343
United States Department of Agriculture, 511
United States Department of Energy (DOE)
agricultural yield study, 559
and chlorofluorocarbon phaseout, 387, 389
Clean Coal Technology Program, 336-337
electric demand projections, 203
electric efficiency estimates, 206
energy efficiency data collection, 226
energy efficiency research, 239
energy supply assessments, 357, 601
industrial adaptability assessment, 606
industrial energy efficiency estimates, 252, 253, 254, 257, 264, 266
mitigation policy options, 169, 606
nuclear reactor technology program, 771
Residential Conservation Survey, 222
transportation fuel economy estimates, 293, 300, 737, 738, 739, 742
United States Forest Service, 442, 511, 568
Urban heat islands, 55, 216, 241n.5, 844
Utilities. See Electric utility companies
V
Variable-speed motors, 191, 192, 260-261, 722
Vegetation. See also Forests; Plants; Trees
carbon dioxide enrichment and, 673
electricity use reduction, 55, 210-211, 212, 216, 468, 476
migration, 582
water supply effects, 137, 654
Vehicle efficiency. See Transportation energy management
Vehicle miles traveled (VMT), 310, 311, 312
Ventilation, 55, 212, 468, 476, 714-715
Viruses, 618
Volatile organic carbon (VOC), 386
Volatile organic compounds, 307
Volcanic eruptions, 435-436, 449, 460
W
Waste heat recovery, 260, 266, 722
Waste management, 398, 401, 805
Water heating
cost of energy conservation, 212, 476, 714-715
electricity efficiency potential, 55, 217, 222, 223, 468
Water resources. See also Evaporation, Oceans, Precipitation
adaptation to climate change, 40-41, 45, 78, 505, 506, 529, 537, 599, 634-635, 636, 677, 690
adaptation costs, 544-545, 679
allocation policies, 512, 538, 596
as climate determinant, 135
in climate models, 136, 137-138
''consumption" of, 594, 607, 636n.7
Page 917
forest watersheds, 567
hydroelectric power use, 601-602
hydrologic cycle, 135-136, 137, 592
hydrologic simulation models, 138
impacts of climate change on, 40, 137, 506, 513, 559, 560, 563, 592-595, 605
index of climate change, 42, 43, 503, 653, 654
irrigation consumption, 557, 560, 563, 594, 602
irrigation subsidies, 400, 803
limitation on human adaptation, 43-44, 502-503, 654
management systems, 40-41, 78, 506, 529, 595-598, 599
storm and flood control, 528, 559
tourism and recreation, dependence on, 607
Water runoff, 636n.7
climate change effects, 26, 40, 538, 592-593, 594, 680
in climate models, 80, 137, 138
industrial water consumption, 607
precipitation changes and, 605
sea level effects, 25, 140, 609
soil moisture effects, 115, 135, 136
Water vapor
atmospheric concentration, 158
atmospheric heat transport, 101
cloud content, 107-108
emission in landfill gas collection, 407
as greenhouse gas, 3, 91, 103-104, 135, 158, 663
ocean releases, 442-443
radiative feedback, 103-106, 109, 669
storm energy, 673
Weather
agricultural sensitivity to, 556, 558
effects of climate change on, 26, 673
ocean circulation and, 26, 584, 591, 676
Weather forecasting, 129
and adaptation to climate change, 80, 510, 534, 691
government provision of, 538
satellites, 531
West Antarctic Ice Sheet, 25, 26, 141, 636n.4, 680
Western Massachusetts Electric Company, 232
Western U.S.
fuel taxes and, 303
ocean currents and weather, 676
West Germany
capital stock turnover, 531-532
nuclear reactor technology, 768, 771, 772
Wetlands
adaptation to climate change, 40, 636n.6
costs of adaptation, 575-576
impacts of climate change on, 584-585, 591
Wheat production
adaptation to climate change, 562, 564
carbon dioxide fertilization and, 551, 552, 553
impacts of climate change on, 559, 560-561, 562, 563
White surfaces
cost of conserved electricity, 210-211, 212, 476, 714-715
electricity use reduction, 55, 216, 241n.5, 447, 468
Wind, 615
Wind energy
barriers to implementation, 363, 365-366, 367
cost-effectiveness, 356
cost of implementation, 479, 788, 790
energy supply potential, 58, 343, 372, 471
research and development needs, 371
Winter
antarctic stratosphere, chemical reactions, 450
Page 918
cold acclimatization, 615
electrical demand, 655
mortality rates, 534, 616, 618
precipitation, 128, 129, 138, 154, 654
soil moisture, trees and, 654
solar absorption and reflection, 241n.5
storms, 550
temperature warming, 672
Women, 415, 416, 417, 420, 703
Wood. See also Trees
Vegetation
biomass fuel, 323, 348, 349, 779-783
burning, carbon dioxide emission, 5, 11
burning, greenhouse gas emission, 700
carbon storage, 575
cookstove burning, 172
energy production, buildings sector, 220
fuel, nitrous oxide emission, 8, 162, 682
methanol produced from, 305, 306, 307, 323
timber products, 424, 426, 556, 571-572
World Bank
development loans, 187, 237, 392
economic growth projections, 236, 418, 809, 811
population projections, 415, 421, 809
World Development Report, 418, 809
World Climate Conference (1990), 66-67, 68
World Climate Program (WCP), 66, 511
World Climate Research Program (WCRP), 66
World Development Report (World Bank), 418, 809
World Health Organization, 619
World Meteorological Organization, 66, 129, 382, 511
World Resources Institute (WRI), 427, 812
World Wildlife Fund (WWF), 426, 428, 812
Y
Yellowstone National Park, 607
forest fires, 573
Z
Zoos, 580