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OCR for page 155
Air Pollution and Forest Health in Central Europe:
Poland, Czechoslovakia,
and the German Democratic Republic
STEFAN GODZ1K
Institute of Environmental Engineering
Polish Academy of Sciences
JADWIGA STENKIEWICZ
Forestry Research Institute
Warsaw
Forest injury close to air pollution sources has been known in Central
Europe for more than 100 years (Schroeder and Reuss, 1887; Reuss,
1893~. Air pollutants gaseous as well as particulate are thought to be
responsible for damage to a large part of the forested area in Poland,
with both forest managers and forest scientists recognizing the situation
as very serious (Grzywacz and Prusinkiewicz, 1986~. Inventories carried
out in the late 1960s for the Upper Silesian industrial region of Poland
have shown major changes in wooded area, tree species composition, and
their growth parameters (Godzik and Harabin, 1968~. Since that time,
significant changes in the extent of forest injuries have occurred not only
in Upper Silesia, but in almost all European countries. Regional-scale air
pollution has been implicated as a contributing factor in forest deterioration
as damage has become evident outside industrial regions, especially in the
mountainous part of Central Europe and in countries where emission of air
pollutants from industrial sources has been relatively low (e.g., Switzerland,
Scandinavia).
Beginning in the early 1980s, symptoms of declining tree health have
been observed in Central European forests, increasing rapidly both in
impacted area and in intensity. Considerable forest damage has been
reported in Austria, the Federal Republic of Germany (F RG), Switzerland,
and to some extent in Czechoslovakia, the German Democratic Republic
(GDR), and Poland (Liefgreen, 1985; Figure 1~. Recent forest damage
in Central Europe is perceived as a real threat not only to the forest
ecosystem, but to the environment in general.
The aim of this chapter is to present the most recent data available
concerning forest injury and decline in Czechoslovakia, the GDR, and
Poland. These three countries have been chosen because extensive damage
155
OCR for page 156
56
ID is/
ECOLOGICAL RISKS
MU
_~7 ~ Severe Forest Injury
Dying Coniferous Forest
YU
FIGURE 1 Distribution of forest injures in some European countries (Wentzel, 1987~.
A=Austna; B=Belgium; CH=Switzerland; CS=Czechoslovakia; D=F~G; DDR=GDR;
DK=Denmark; E=Spain; F=France; GB=Great Bntain; H=Hungary; I=Italy; NL=Nether-
lands; PL=Poland; R=Romania; S=Sweden; SU=USSR; YU=Yugoslavia.
Of forests has been associated with regional industrial pollutants of similar
origin. These areas are characterized by a preponderance of coniferous
forest, dominated by Picea abies (Norway spruce), Pin us silvestris (Scots
pine), with Fagus silvatica (beech) and Coerces robur (pedunculate oak) as
important broadleaved species.
Furthermore, fossil fuels such as bituminous and lignite coals are major
energy sources for power generation and heating in the region, making
transbollndary transport of air pollutants more than a theoretical problem.
Sulfur dioxide is the pollutant of greatest concern, although the effects of
ozone and oxidants are poorly documented in contrast to the situation in
the United States. Because of the greater amount of data available to the
authors, the situation in Poland will be discussed in more detail and will
serve as a basis for comparison with the other countries.
OCR for page 157
HUM 4N EFFECTS ON THE TERRESTRIAL ENKIRONME~
TABLE 1 Emission of sulfur dioxide in Czechoslovalcia, GDR, and Poland.
Country
EMISSION OF
SULFUR DIOXI1)E
Area Total Metnc tons
(x 1,000 km3) TO per a per km2
Czechoslovakia 1Z7.9 4 36.9
GDR 108.3 3.2 25.0
Poland 312.7 4.3 13.7
SOURCE: National Program, 1988.
AIR POLLUTION
157
The total amount of sulfur dioxide emitted in Poland and Czechoslo-
vakia calculated by unit area is shown in Table 1. The distribution of
emissions sources within Europe has been taken from the 1979 OECD
report. Figure 2 presents the distribution (isolines) of sulfur dioxide con-
centration in Poland, based on modeling. The mean values of sulfur dioxide
and fluorine deposition in Polish forests, measured by using a surface active
monitoring technique (with potassium carbonate as active substance), are
shown in Figures 3-6 (Dunikowski et al., 1988, 1989~.
Conclusions concerning the severity of the situation differ to some
extent, depending on the criteria for evaluation and on the total amount
of sulfur dioxide emitted or calculated by an unit area (Table 1~. Poland
is the largest "producer" of sulfur diode if the total amount is taken into
account; however, if calculated by unit area, it is the smallest. It would
appear that the latter conclusion is closer to reality.
The uneven distribution of fossil fuel deposits and their use for power
generation is largely responsible for the very diversified situation within
each of these countries (Figures 1 and 2~. Due to emission source charac-
teristics and meteorological conditions, the ground level concentration and,
subsequently, its impact on the forest may differ both in severity and loca-
tion. The role of sulfur dioxide is emphasized here, but it is by no means
the only pollutant to cause adverse effects on forests. Also contributing are
nitrogen oxides from coal-fired power stations and hydrogen fluoride (HF)
from those using lignite as fuel (Dominok, 1984~. Poor control of emission
of particulate is another contributing factor if deposited not only on the
plant surface but on the soil as well.
On a regional scale, the major pollutant is sulfur dioxide. On a local
scale, even where other pollutants may be responsible for very serious
effects, sulfur dionde can not be ignored as contributing element. In
addition to several nitrogen compounds, including fertilizers, sulfur dioxide
is emitted and reacts with ammonia coming from the same source.
In the GDR, several types of pollutants have been recognized as
OCR for page 158
158
ECOLOGICAL RISES
(I
stoke
,tZiel~er~D n~:f//Y~ ~Siedlce Biit/.—~
it/// :~ ~~ ; A /d ska
,: Lub:;:
P~e/och;a Wield ,y~ /
It
—- - -—32 9 m
Areas of ecological risk:
I / I low 1/ / /I middle
1////~ high _ dying forest
'I,-,:., ~ =~-
~/~K roSn:\
a- ·~.~\j
FIGURE 2 Distnbution of sulfur dioxide concentration in Poland; mean value for the
year 1985 (National Program, 1988~.
causing injuries to various tree species (Ruetnick 1988). However, except
for sulfur dioxide and fluorine compounds in Poland (Figures 3-6) and
for sulfur dioxide concentration in some areas of the Czech Republic, no
similar data are available for the GDR.
For the Czech Republic the following mean concentrations of sulfur
dioxide are available (given in grams of pollutant per cubic meter of air):
· Ore Mountains: 100,ug m3
· Izerskie Mountains: 40 jug m3
· Beskidy Mountains: 20 - 30 fig m3.
These figures represent daily values but from long-term measurements
(Materna, 1986~. According to Kanok (1987), the emission of sulfur dioxide
OCR for page 159
HUMAN EFFECTS ON THE liERRESTRLAL ENVIRONMENT 159
'./
i No Data ~ l.|
0.000-10.000
[= 10.001 - 30.000
~ 30.001 - 50.000
. _ _ _
_ _ _ Above 50.000
A.,
_.
FIGURE 3 Sulfur dioxide deposition rate in Polish forests in winter. (Dunikowski et al.,
1988~. Values in mg per m2 per day in increasing order of line der~sitr.
for the North Moravian area which includes the Beskidy region was
estimated to be 221,000 metric tons per year. The amount of the same
pollutant coming from industrial sources across the border in Poland (i.e.,
Upper Silesia) has been estimated at 780,000 metric tons per year (GUS,
1984~. No similar data are available to the authors for other regions of
Czechoslovakia or the GDR.
The distribution pattern of sulfur dioxide concentrations shows that
the national standard (64 fig m~3) for this pollutant is exceeded in the
southern part of Poland, from the border with the GDR (west from Jelenia
Gora) along the border with Czechoslovakia to Bielsko-Biaca (Figure 2~.
Data from measurements of the deposition rate of SO2 and F- carried out
in about 2,000 forest locations (Figures 3~) show a similar pattern to the
one presented in Figure 2 for SO2 concentration.
OCR for page 160
160
In__
t~~r¢~ ~ ~'';.~^~'' <~ i' ~~ 7~-
ECOLOG CAL RISKS
. . . ..
. . . . .
. . .
. . ,
. . .
. .
. . .
. .
. . . . . ~
. . .
. . . · .
.o . . . .~
. . . . . .
· ,
. . .
. . . . .
. . .
. . .
· . . . ..
. i
.~.~'1
~ No Data ]|
. . . .
:;: : 0.000 - 10.000
....
~ A. .-.
r)
l <.'i
[] 10.001 -30.000
.
30.001 - 50.000 i'.`,!
Above 50.000
r
r
-
FIGURE 4 Sulfur dio~de deposition rate in Polish forests in summer (Dunikowski et al.,
1989~. Explanation as in Figure 3.
During the winter months, the deposition of SO2 and F- is generally
higher than in summer (compare Figures 3 ~ 5 and 4 & 6~. The highest dry
deposition of these pollutants has been found in areas close to major air
pollution sources as shown in the left corner of Figures 3~, west of Jelenia
Gora, where pollutants from all three- countries are present (Praglowski,
1986~. The amount of sulfur dioxide emitted from the Polish power station
at ~roszow alone has been estimated at 160,000 metric tons per year
(GUS, 1984~. No official data for power stations located in Czechoslovakia
and the GDR are available.
The second most polluted area is the region where the Ostrava (North
Moravian) region and the Upper Silesian industrial region share a border
(see Figure 2, south of Katowice). Similarities in distribution patterns of
OCR for page 161
HUA~1N EFFECTS ON THE TERRESTRIAL ENVIRONMENT 161
.. . . ~
A. -
No Data ~
0.000-0.030
_ _ _
_ _ _ ~ 0.031 - 0.060
0.061 - 0.100
_ _ _
_ _ _ Above 0.100
it._
C: ;II .
. 1
,
~ ————~
/~
I ~ _ _
o ~
__
:\
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
.% . . . .. .
~ . . . . . . ~ .
~ ' . ' · . ' ~
t__~. !
I 2:~.-'.
( —.
- - - -)
Hi
~L: ~
FIGURE 5 Fluoride deposition rate in Polish forests in winter (Dunikowski et al., 1988~.
Values in mg per m2 per day in increasing order of line density.
sulfur dioxide and fluorine in both seasons may suggest that they are coming
from similar sources.
FORESTS AND FOREST INJURY IN CENTRAL EUROPE
Information about forest composition in selected Central European
countries and the most recent data from inventories of forest damage
are shown in Able 2. Overall, forests cover about one-third of the area
of Central Europe, and the quantity of wood harvested in the region
constitutes roughly one-fifth of the total European wood harvest per annum
(Liefgreen, 1985~. As already mentioned, Scots pine and Norway spruce
dominate over broadleaved species in the region, with pine growing mostly
in the lowlands (i.e., in the GDR and Poland) and spruce in the mountain
OCR for page 162
~ 62
ECOLOGICAL RISKS
by. . 0~000 - 0.030
[41 0 031 - 0.060
0.061 - 0.100
= = _ _
=1 _ _ _ Above 0.100
FIGURE 6 Fluonde deposition rate in Polish forests in summer (Dunikowski et al., 1989~.
Explanation as in Figure 5.
regions. In Czechoslovakia, spruce constitutes the main forest species in
the Czech Republic, whereas beech dominates in the Slovak Republic
(Czechoslovak Forestry, 1972~.
Forests in Central Europe, for the most part, have been planted
and are intensively managed. Coniferous species have been planted for
commercial purposes during the last 200 years, replacing the original mixed-
hardwood forests. This mass introduction of conifers rendered these forests
more vulnerable to stresses including pathogens, insect epidemics, extreme
climatic events, and nutritional problems. Air pollution can be seen as an
additional stress factor contributing to the already weakened condition of
the forests, especially conifers.
Data concerning forest injury Cable 2) generally are compiled only for
whole countries; therefore, a more detailed description of their distribution
OCR for page 163
HUMAN EFFECTS ON THE TERRESTRIAL ENVIRONMENT
TABLE 2 Results of forest damage survey in some European countries;
defoliation symptoms in all species and ages.
Forest x 1,000 hectares Percent of
total injured
Country Total Conif. Broadl. area
Austria 3,754 3,040 714 33.5
Czechoslovakia 4,578 2,942 1,636 52.3 $
GDR 2,955 2,275 680 37.0
FRG 7,360 5,078 2,282 52.3
Poland 8,654 6,895 1,759 57.6 **
Switzerland 1,186 777 409 56.0
*Conifers only
$*Courtesy of Forest Inventory and Geodesy Bureau 1989.
SOURCE: UN-ECE, 1988.
163
by province or district within each country is often not available. However,
more detailed information for Czechoslovakia and Poland can be found in
several papers.
For the past several years, the most severe occurences of forest damage
have been observed in Czechoslovakia in the Ore Mountains, and in Poland
in the Izerskie Mountains (Figures 1 and 2~. In each of those areas, about
30,000 hectares of spruce forests have been cut down since the damage
started (Materna, 1986; Rykowski, 1987~. The area of forest decline on the
Polish side is expanding eastward toward the Beskidy Mountains (Figure
2~. Similar phenomena have been observed in Czechoslovakia (Materna,
1986~.
Based on data for the year 1986, 37.2% of the forests in the North
Moravian area has been injured (Kapok, 1987), which is more than twice
the area reported damaged in 1981 (Pokorny, 1984~. A similar figure (36%)
has been obtained for the forest on the Polish side of the border based
on the inventory from 1983 (Godzik, 1987~. In both cases, assessments of
the impact have been carried out using methods which originated in each
country. Official figures for forest areas injured in these three countries
ranged from 7% for Poland and 10% for Czechoslovakia to 13% for the
GDR. However, it is unlikely that figures obtained for this area during the
most recent inventory carried out in all European countries using the same
method will be significantly higher Cable 2~. The criteria and methods
applied in the inventory accepted by the European countries (Manual,
1986) are not designed to determine the specific cause of injury.
In the region delineated by these three countries, air pollution has
been implicated in forest damage measurements. Areas of most severe
OCR for page 164
164
ECOLOGICAL RISKS
TABLE 3 Concentration of some heavy metals in needles and leaves from area
surrounding a zinc smelter
Concentration, ppm
Plot I *
Plant species Zn Pb Cd
Plot II **
Zn Pb Cd
Pinus
silvestris 495.9 436.4 8.9
P. nigra 781.8 635.9 14.1
P. strobes 944.2 592.1 15.8
Betula
verrucosa 2,780.1 535.9 15.7
261.0 276.0
179.7 92.4
434.4 202.7
1,709.3
4.2
2.6
6.8
293.0 8.8
Distance from the source:
*= 0.8 km
**= 2.0 km
SOURCE: HawTys et al., 1986.
and widespread injury are found in the vicinity of heavy industrial regions
(Materna, 1986; Ruethnick, 1988; Program, 1985~. Data from the most
recent assessment are based on the survey of 23,500 permanent plots in
Poland, 2,500 plots in the GDR, and 164 plots in Czechoslovakia (Ibble 1)
(National Program, 1988~. According to data obtained from measurements
of air pollutants in forests, the most likely compound responsible for most
of these injuries is sulfur dioxide, although nitrogen oxides and fluorine
may also be contributing factors. On a local scale, however, pollutants
other than sulfur dioxide may cause very severe damage to the forest, e.g.,
in the vicinity of the nitrogen fertilizer plant in Pulawy, or the zinc smelter
at Miasteczko Slaskie.
Injuries to forests around the Pulawy nitrogen fertilizer plant have
increased at a very uneven rate (Kowalkowski, 1985), but are now visible at
a distance of more than 60 kilometers downwind from the source. Because
of the injury, all trees have been cut down within a zone of 1.5 km from the
plant. Soil analysis has shown a very high input of nitrogen; however, it is
not clear which compound (i.e., urea, ammonia, nitrogen oxides, ammonium
nitrate, sulfur dioxide) was the most harmful. Ammonium sulfate produced
as the result of interaction between sulfur dioxide and ammonia has not
been taken into consideration so far. However, this compound is known to
cause injuries to pine trees in the Netherlands (Boxman and Roelofs, 1986;
Roelofs and Boxman, 1986~.
A different combination of pollutants is emitted from the zinc smelter:
sulfur oxides (di- and trioxides), sulfuric acid, and heavy metals (e.g., zinc
OCR for page 165
HUAL4N EFFECTS ON THE TERRESTRIAL ENVIRONMENT
165
(Zn), lead (Pb), and cadmium (Cd)). The occurrence of forest injury from
these elements is increasing at an estimated 250 meters per year in the
downwind direction (Rostanski et al., 1985). Very high concentrations of all
these metals have been found in both plants and soils around the smelter
(Hawrys et al., 1986; Rostanski et al., 1985). Depending on distance and
direction from the source of pollution, the concentrations of Zn, Pb, and Cd
in the 1-7 cm soil layer were 1,200, 600, and 23.5, respectively, at a distance
of 0.8 km, and 124, 160, and 4.5 ppm at a distance of 2.0 Ian (Hawrys et
al., 1986~. Concentrations of some heavy metals in needles or leaves in
the locations mentioned above are shown in Able 3. A significant amount
(i.e., up to 90%) of these metals can be removed using such unconventional
methods as organic solvents and ultrasounds, but their concentrations in the
tissue still remain higher than in samples from outside this region (Godzik
et al., 1979~.
Long-term exposure of pine populations to air pollutants and other
environmental stress factors has led to differences in their genetic character-
istics when compared to populations from a lightly polluted location (Prus-
Glowacki and Nowak-Bzowy, 1987~. Three generations of Piinus silvestris
populations from two locations were compared, i.e., from near Poznan as a
reference and from the Upper Silesian industrial region as a polluted site.
In some cases, some alleles and genotypes showed reciprocal tendencies in
these two populations, e.g., malic acid dehydrogenase (MHD) 3 allele and
MHD 13 genotype. In the control population, the number of trees carrying
the alleles increased while decreasing in the population from the polluted
location.
Frequency of MHD alleles may constitute a good index of selective
pressure in Pinus silvestris populations under sulfur dioxide stress as shown
by MeJnartowicz (1983~. An increase in average heterozygosity level and
genetic polymorphism from the embryo group to the group of maternal
trees has been found. In the population from the reference site, an
increase was observed by 5% of heterozygosity level, and by 10% of
genotypic polymorphism upon transition from the age group 15-30 years to
the group of maternal trees (i.e., above 30 years old). In the population
from the polluted site, heteroygosity level and genotypic polymorphism
increased most rapidly by 10% and 20%, respectively—upon transition
from embryos to the youngest indidviduals. This probably reflects the
differences in selective pressures, which are stronger for the population
at the polluted site. An inbreeding index shows that the population from
the reference location remained in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, while the
population from the polluted site demonstrated an excess of homoygotes
in all age groups (Prus-Glowacki and Nowak-Bzowy, 1987~.
A reduction of heteroygosity level by 30% and of genetic polymor-
phism by 2056 has been observed in seedling populations of a known genetic
OCR for page 166
166
ECOLOGICAL RISKS
TABLE 4 Concenuanon of some heavy metals ~pm) and sulfur (%) in pine [Pinus
silvetris] needles and oak leaves [Querus robust] from Niepolomice Forest.
CONCENTRATION
PLANT SPECIES Cd Pb Zn S
. .
Pinus silvesms 1.76 23.11 57.36 0.177
Quercus robur 1.19 14 hi 15 R :
SOURCE: Grodzinska, 1984, after Grodzinski et al., 1984
composition in experiments which are currently in progress (Prus-Glowacki,
1988~. Similar differences among populations of Arabidopsis thaliana from
Upper Silesia and other parts of Poland have been found by Kilian (1987~.
As far as the impact of air pollution on forest ecosystems is concerned,
the most extensive studies thus far were carried out in the Niepolomice
Forest, the results of which were presented by Grodzinski et al. (1984~.
This lowland forest of pine (fin us silvestris, comprising 715E of the total)
and oaks (coerces robur and Q.petrea, comprising 17% of the total) covers
an area of 110 km and is located in southern Poland, east of Krakow.
The mean annual sulfur dioxide concentration for the entire study
period was 20 fig m~3, ranging between 10.25 and 11.98 fig m~3 during
the warm season, and between 36.35 and 37.85 fig m~3 during the cold
season of the year. The total deposition of sulfur (S) was 60.3 kg ham per
year, with 37.8 kg ha~i by dry deposition. The injuries to pine trees have
been estimated as medium to severe, depending on the location within the
forest. The accumulation of Cd, Pb, and Zn has been estimated to be 0.3,
13.9, and 16.6 kg ha~i, respectively, while the yearly input of these metals
has been estimated at 0.015, 0.315, and 1.231 kg ha~i, respectively.
Concentrations of these elements in needles of Pinus silvestris and
leaves of Quercus robur are presented in Table 4. Under these conditions,
the photosynthesis of pine needles was reduced by 13 and 18% for first-
and second-year needles, respectively. In the Niepolomice Forest, the
average net biomass production of deciduous stands was low, and that of
pine stands was definitely lower when compared to European temperate
lowland forests. The reduction of pine diameter growth has been estimated
to be between 20 and 3055. According to the authors, both long-term
effects of air pollution and lowering of the water table are responsible for
these effects (Grodzinski et al., 1984~.
Forest decline in Upper Silesia has been investigated since the early
1970s (Wolak, 1971~. Extensive studies carried out in this region have re-
sulted in the description of a typical pattern of forest vegetation transforma-
tions induced by pollutants. In heavily contaminated areas, the secondary
succession of vegetation—which--sets in as soon as the original conifer
OCR for page 167
HUMAN EFFECTS ON THE TERRESTRIAL ENVIRONMENT
167
forests begin to die has lead to the formation of new, less complex, and
more stable plant communities. These new communities, developed' and
living under conditions of pollution stress, represent a state of sui genesis
ecological equilibrium with the most obvious regularity, i.e., the higher the
degree of air pollution, the lower the vegetation. Thus, in the industrial
region of Upper Silesia, in locations once overgrown with conifer or mixed
deciduous forest, a stable zonation of vegetation has been established in
relation to the degree of pollution from sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide,
heavy metals, etc. (Wolak et al., 1977; Wolak, 1979~. Under conditions of
severe air pollution, an industrial desert occurs, followed by a grass zone
with communities dominated by gramineous species, such as Calamag~ostis
epigeioso or' C. villosa. Along with the decreasing gradient of air pollution,
a zone of shrubby trees is formed with a zone of stunted forest closing
the series. Thus, the original forest communities are being replaced by
communities of grassland or sand dunes, which constitutes the reversal of
natural succession of vegetation (Rostanski et al., 1985; Sienkiewicz, 1986~.
SUMMARY
Data presented in the previous section illustrate the seriousness of the
state of forest health in Central Europe. The importance of air pollutants,
particularly dry and wet deposition, as a cause of forest injury and forest
decline in Czechoslovakia, the GDR, and Poland is apparent. In all loca-
tions where injuries are moderate to severe, not only are the ambient air
concentrations of phytotoxic agents high, but the concentration of heavy
metals in soils is elevated simultaneously with a marked decrease in pH
(Pelisek, 1986; Pokorny, 1984, 1987; Vesely, 1987; Hawrys et al., 1986~.
Populations of soil microorganisms also undergo changes; however, decline
of trees occurs earlier than the collapse of soil microflora (Lettl, 1986,
1987~. No correlation has been found between the pH of the soil and the
severity of tree injury in mountain areas of Czechoslovakia (Pokorny, 1984;
Kratochvilova and Marek 1986~. However, the lowest soil pH was found
in the Ore Mountains, where injuries are most severe (Pokorny, 1984~.
A correlation has been found between the elevation above sea level and
the degree of tree injury (Ibid., Kwapis, 1988~. Although the air pollution
differs both quantitatively and qualitatively, the symptoms of forest injury
are very similar throughout Europe, and do not differ markedly from those
described as "classical" (e.g., Kandler, 1985; Wentzel, 1987~. In addition,
the severity of the deterioration in forest health does not correlate with
the deposition of certain pollutants. For example, the concentration of
some elements in spruce needles from some locations in Poland and the
FRG does not reflect both the severity and extent of the damage to forests
in these countries (Table 5~. Similar deposition of sulfur in the Izerskie
OCR for page 168
168
ECOLOGICAL RISKS
TABLE 5 Concentration of sulfur and F- in spruce needles (Picea abies) fram some
injured forests in Poland and Federal Republic of Germany
LOCATION
Beskidy Mts Izerskie Mts
ELEMENT (PL)
Sauerlach
(FRO)
Donaustauf
(FRO)
S (%) 0.168 0.228
F- (pg/g) 8.26 11.69
0.097
3.0
0.097
5.0
SOURCE: Godzik and Krause, 1987, from Godzik, 1987.
Mountains and the Beskidy Mountains of Czechoslovakia in the range of
60 kg ha per annum as wet deposition (Forest...,1988; Godzik and Szdzuj,
1988) has led to ecological disaster in the Izerskie Mountains, but not
in the Beskidy Mountains to date. This seems to support the thesis that
no single cause/effect explanation applies in the case of observed forest
damage (Cowling et al., 1986; Godzik, 1984, 1987; Manion, 1981; Schutt,
1988~. Consequently, the authors are also of the opinion that multiple
factors, including various types of air pollutants, are responsible for the
forest injury and decline.
REFERENCES
Boxmann , A.W., J. G. M. Roelofs. 1986. Some physiological effects of NH4+ and Ala+
on pine forest ecosystem. Pp. 407414 in W~ssenschaftliches Symposium zum Thema
Waldschaeden Neue Ursachen Hypothesen. UBA Texte 19/86. UBA Berlin.
Cowling, E., B. Krahl-Urban, C. Schimansky. 1986. W'ssenschaftliche Hypothesen zur
Erklaerung der U'sachen. Pp. 120-1125 in Waldschaeden Kernforschungsanlage Juelich,
E.H. Papke, B. Krahl-Urban, K. Peters, C. Schimansky, eds.
Czechoslovak Forestry. 1972. The Ministry of Forests and Waters CSR, and the Ministry of
Forests and Waters SSR. State Agricultural Publishing House, Prague.
Dominok, B. 1984. Fluoride and environment: Situation in the district Cottbus. Fluonde
17:19~196.
Dunikowski, S. 1988. The state and perspectives of monitoring of the forest environment.
Pp. 1-7 in Conference on Forest Decline in Poland. Committee for Forest Sciences
of the Polish Academy of Sciences and Forestry Research Institute, Warsaw. February
1988 (in Polish).
Dunikowski, S., J. Wawrzoniak, A. Liwinska, J. Malachowska, D. Kowalska. 1988. Mea-
surment of air pollution in the forest: Technical monitoring. Report for the winter
season 1987-1988. Forestry Research Institute. Warsaw (in Polish).
Dunikowski, S., J. Wawrzoniak, A. Liwinska, J. Malachowska, D. Kowalska. 1989. Measur-
ment of air pollution in the forest: Technical monitoring. Report for the summer
season 1988. Forestry Research Institute, Warsaw (in Polish).
Forest Monitoring and Management Program in Sudety Mountains. 1988. Forestry Research
Institute, Warsaw (in Polish).
Godzik, S. 1984. Air pollution problems in some central European countries: Czechoslovakia,
the German Democratic Republic, and Poland. Pp. 25-34 in Gaseous Air Pollutants
and Plant Metabolism, M.J. Koziol and F.R. Whatley, eds. Butte~worth, London.
Godzik, S. 1987. An attempt to evaluate the effects of air pollutants on forests and soils.
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Representative terms from entire chapter:
air pollutants
