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OCR for page 232
:Long-term Ecological Monitoring
in the National Parks of Poland
KRYSTYNA GRODZINSKA
Institute of Botany
Polish Academy of Sciences
Pollution of the environment is usually determined by means of
physico-chemical methods, i.e., by recording concentrations of toxic ele-
ments and their compounds in the air, water, and soil. It can also be
determined by means of biological methods with the help of bioindicators
(Lepp, 1981a and b; Manning and Feder, 198~, Martin and Coughtrey,
1982~. Biological methods are relatively simple, quick, and inexpensive.
They also have a great advantage in that organisms themselves record toxic
effect of the pollution. The intent of this chapter is to discuss the use
of bioindicators as a tool in the long-term monitoring of ecosystems for
pollution.
The level of environmental pollution can be estimated according to
changes in the geographical distribution of various groups of organisms,
as well as their morphological, cytological, physiological, biochemical, and
chemical changes.
Three types of bioindicators are usually distinguished:
.
scales of indicator species, noting the presence or absence of each
species;
· true indicators, e.g., individual species that exhibit damage propor-
tional to dose; and
accumulators or collectors of potentially toxic materials with or
without internal damage (Grodzinski and Works, 1981~.
In assessments of environmental contamination by pollutants produced
by industry and motor vehicles, bioindicators of the accumulator type are
most frequently used (Martin and Coughtrey, 1982~. Various groups of
organisms, both plant and animal, can be accumulators (Grodzinska, 1982~.
Mosses are particularly effective accumulators of heavy metal (FoLkeson,
.
232
OCR for page 233
HU1lL4N EFFECTS ON THE TERRESTRIAL ENVIRONMENT
233
1979; Grodzinska, 1978; Groet, 1976; Hvatum et al., 1983; Ruhling et al.,
1987; Steiness, 1980; and filler, 1971 and 1972~. Mosses also have several
advantages as indicator organisms:
.
Many species have a vast geographical distribution, and they grow
abundantly in various natural habitats, even in industrial and urban ag-
glomerations.
Mosses have no epidermis or cuticle; therefore, their cell walls are
easily penetrable for metal ions.
Mosses have no organs for uptake of minerals from the substrate;
they obtain minerals mainly from precipitation and dry deposition.
· Some species have layer structure, and annually produced organic
matter forms distinct segments.
Transport of minerals between segments is very poor because of
the lack of vascular tissues.
.
Mosses accumulate metals in a passive way, acting as ion exchang-
ers.
· Mosses show the concentrations of metals as a function of the
amount of atmospheric deposition.
For these reasons, mosses are used to determine the current degree of
contamination of the environment, in both very extensive and quite small
areas. They are also used for monitoring levels of contamination over
a certain period of time—years, decades, or even centuries (Grodzinska,
1982~.
The use of mosses for long-term monitoring of environmental con-
tamination by heavy metals is widespread in the Scandinavian countries
(Gydeson et al., 1983; Ruhling and Tyler, 1969, 1971, 1973; Ruhling et al.,
1987) and also in Poland (Grodzinska, 1978; Grodzinska et al., in prep.~.
In this chapter, long-term monitoring of levels of contamination in Poland's
national parks during the decade 1976-1986 is discussed.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Poland has 14 national parks and several hundred nature reserves
which occupy less then 1% of the area of the country (Figure 1~. They
cover fairly small areas, from 1,600 to 22,000 hectares, and are located from
the Baltic coast through the central lowlands and uplands to the mountains
(Table 1~. Virtually all of these areas are under stress from both air and
water pollution and tourism.
The mosses Pleuro~uim schreberi Mitt. and Hylocomium splendens
(Hedw.) Br.eur. were chosen as test species. The reasons for this choice
were:
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234
ECOLOGICAL RISKS
TABLE 1 General characterization of Polish national parks.
No. Name of park Altitude above Annual sum of Area
sea level (m) precipitation (mm) (ha)
1 Slowinski 0-56 619 18,247
2 Wolinski 0-115 581 4,844
3 Wielkopolski 55-132 501 5,198
4 Kampinos 60-106 500 35,482
5 Bialowieza 147-170 585 5,317
6 Roztocze 300-390 710 6,843
7 Swietokrzyski 260-611 560, 660 5,897
8- Ojcow 305478 791 1,592
9 Karkonosze 410-1,605 1,158 5,562
10 Babia Gora 800-1,725 960-1,400 1,741
11 Tatry 800-2,499 1,112-1,810 21,164
12 Gorce 600-1,310 900-1,220 5,945
13 Pieniny 420-982 805 2,328
14 Bieszczady 630-1,346 1,035 5,587
· both Pleurozium and Hylocomium are common species and occur
in abundance in forest ecosystems through Poland;
· Hylocomium has hi- to tripinnate stems, with a very distinct sep-
aration between each year's shoot, which makes it easy to estimate the
age of the sampled segments; Pleuroaum has unipinnate stems without any
clear separation between the annual shoots. The green parts of this species
represent usually two- to five-year increments, whereas the brown parts are
older;
· these species are more effective accumulators than others;
· these species have been repeatedly used for estimates of environ-
mental pollution in many countries (e.g., Rinne and Barclay-Estrup, 1980;
Ruhling and Tyler, 1969, 1984; Ruhling et al., 1987~.
Pleurozium schreben and Hylocomium splendens were collected from
the same plots in 14 national parks in Poland twice in the autumns of 1976
and 1986. In each park the material was collected at several points in both
central and border areas. Unwashed mosses were separated into young,
green parts and old, brown parts, dried at 85°C, and wet digested in a
4:1 mixture of concentrated nitric and perchloric acid. Seven heavy metals
(i.e., cadmium [Cd], chromium [Cr], nickel [Ni], lead [Pb], copper [Cu],
zinc [Zn], and iron [Fe]) were identified spectro-photometrically using the
Perkin-Elmer and Varian Techtron Atomic Absorbtion Spectrophotometer
(AAS).
OCR for page 235
HUMAN EFFECTS ON THE TERRESTRIAL ENVIRONMENT Z35
-son
0 50 100 km
FIGURE 1 Ideation of Polish national parks. 1-Slowinski, 2-Wolinski, 3-W~elkopolski,
4-Kampinos, S-Bialowieza, 6-Rozto~e, 7-Swietok~zyski, 8-Ojcow, 9-Karkonosze, 10-Babia
Gora, 11-l~t~y, 1~Gorce, 1~Pieniny, 14-Bieszczady.
RESULTS
Significant differences were found in the levels of heavy metals in
mosses representing particular parks (Figure 2~. The greatest difference
among parlo; was found in the cases of lead, cadmium, and zinc (about ~5
timesy, with smaller differences in the case of chromium and nickel (2-3
times). Most of the heavy metals occurred in lowest concentrations in the
mosses of the national parks in northern and eastern Poland; their highest
concentrations were found in parks in the southern part of the country.
In 1976, in the first group of parks, the concentration of cadmium was
approximately 1 fig g~i, whereas in the second one it reached 6 fig gal.
The respective accumulations of chromium were approximately 4 and 8 fig
OCR for page 236
236
ECOLOGICAL RISKS
g-l; nickel, approximately 3.5 and 7 fig g-l; lead, approximately 60 and up
to 270 fig g-l; and zinc, approximately 70 and up to 300 fig g-1 (Figure
2~. In 1986, the cadmium content of mosses in the least contaminated
national parks was about 0.5, and up to 2 fig g-1 in the mosses of the
most contaminated parks. Perspective accumulations of chromium were
approximately 3 and 8 fig go-; nickel, approximately 3 and 5 fig g-l; lead,
approximately 40 and up to 100 fig g-l; and zinc, approximately 50 and
100 ,ug g- 1 (Figure 2~.
In order to assess the general situation regarding the contamination of
Polish national parks by heavy metals, a synthetic pollution index was used.
It represents the mean, standardized contents of six elements (Cd, Cr. Ni,
Cu. Pb, and Zn) in mosses. For example:
Cd cone. in Ojcow National Parks
Standardized value of Cd = -
mean Cd cone. in 14 National Parks
index = (Ojcow NP) = sum of standardized values of 6 heavy metals
According to this index, parks were classified as being relatively clean,
moderately contaminated, or heavily contaminated. The maritime parks
and those in the eastern part of Poland were classified in the first category.
The moderately polluted group is represented by parks in the central,
lowland part of the country as well as some mountain parks. Parks located
in the uplands and in the higher mountain ranges in southern Poland are
the most polluted (Figure 3~.
A change was found in the contamination of national parks by heavy
metals over the last ten years. The present concentration in mosses of toxic
metals such as cadmium, lead, and zinc has fallen twofold, while that of
nickel, chromium, and iron is 20-26% lower than in 1976 (Table 2~. Except
for iron and nickel, these differences are significant, and highly significant
statistically (liable 3~.
However, the changes in the contamination of mosses by heavy metals
are different in particular parks. In those parks which were very heavily
contaminated 10 years ago (e.g., Oj cow, Karkonosze, and Swietokrzyski),
the mosses at present contain smaller quantities of heavy metals. In the
three parks that were slightly and moderately contaminated in 1976 (e.g.,
Bialowieza, Bieszczady, and Kampinos), the level of concentration of heavy
metals is similar to current levels, while in three other parks Entry, Pieniny,
and Wielkopolski), it has increased considerably (Figure 4~.
The differences in the concentration of heavy metals across Poland
were much more pronounced in 1976 than in 1986. This is supported by
the results of statistical analysis (Table 3~. In 1976, the differences were
highly significant statistically for all the heavy metals, while they were highly
significant only for chromium, copper, and lead in 1986 Cable 3~.
OCR for page 237
HUDSON EFFECTS ON THE TERRESTRIAL ENKIRONhIENT 237
a (1976) 119O
1 d
SO-
W_
_ ~
,,,9 9-1 L11 19
cow
it,
l . ~'1
v
FIGURE 2a Cd, Cr. Ni, Pb, Zn, (pa g-1 dw) concentrations in Pleurozium schreben in
the Polish national parks The mean contents of metals in the green and brown parts of the
mosses are indicated for both the central and the peripheral areas of the parks. A-1976,
B-1986. Parks no. 1-14, as identified in Figure 1.
The differences in the metals content between mosses in the central
and border parts of the national parks were also determined. These were
highly significant in 1976 for all the heavy metals analyzed, except cadmium.
The metals also occurred in higher concentrations in mosses growing in
the outer parts of parks. This situation changed in 1986. The mosses
OCR for page 238
238
FIGURE 2b
A (1976)
~ ti~1 ~> <\
1 1
ECOLOGICAL RISKS
l
19°
, , 20~99
-
Pb Zn 19
l
me,
5 .
it
accumulated metals, except nickel, in similar quantities, both in the center
and at the edges of the parks (Table 3~.
In addition, highly significant statistical differences were found in
concentrations of heavy metals between the younger, green and older,
brown parts of mosses, both in 1976 and at present Amble 3~. These
differences were much more pronounced in 1986.
Finally, it was shown that Pleurozium schreberi and Hylocomium splen-
dens accumulated cadmium, nickel, and chromium in similar quantities in
1976, but differed statistically in the level of accumulation of copper, lead,
OCR for page 239
HUAL4N EFFECTS ON THE TERRESTRIAL E~IRONME~
B (1986)
_540~
-50°
FIGURE 2c
2~9
~ —
gso0-
J 1,ug 9-1 111 A~O
Cd Cr Ni
zinc, and iron (Table 3). In 1986, four elements (Cd, Cu. An, and Fe)
occurred in similar concentration in both mosses species, and three (Ni,
Cr. and Pb) differed from them in concentration (Table 3~.
DISCUSSION
The contamination of Polish national parks by heavy metals, deter-
mined by analyzing mosses, correlates well with the distribution of sources
of industrial emissions in Poland (Kassenberg and Marek, 1986; Kassen-
berg and Rolewicz, 1985~. The parks in the southern parts of Poland
OCR for page 240
240
soo
ECOLOGICAL RISKS
l
19°
B (1 986)
sol I art' /i~ ,~ i
~~ \
N~-/J ~3 v:~-l\
11 S ~
~ ~~ ~~ 11
,
,~ ~~!~; :
20 ~'9. 9 -1 Lo 19°
Pb Zn I
FIGURE 2d
are most polluted (e.g., Ojcow, Babia Gora, Tatry, Pieniny, Karkonosze,
and Swietokrzyski). These parks lie within the range of emissions from
the Silesian-Krakow, Legnica-Glogow, and Central Industrial regions. The
moderately contaminated parks (i.e., Wielkopolski and Kampinos) are lo-
cated at a considerable distance from the great industrial centers, but
close to large cites such as Warsaw and Poznan. The cleanest parks (i.e.,
Slowinski, Wolinski, Bialowieza, Roztocze, and Bieszczady) lie in the least
industrialized parts of Poland.
The results show that the contamination of mosses with heavy metals
has decreased noticeably during the last decade in the Ojcow, Swietokrzyski,
and Karkonosze parks, but only slightly in three others, i.e., Kampinos,
Bieszczady, and Bialowieza; contamination has increased in the mountain
OCR for page 241
HUAL4N EFFECTS ON THE TERRESTRL4L ENKIRONM~
TABLE 2 Heavy metal concentration (ug go) in mosses in 14 Polish national parks
(mean concentration over all parks).
Pleurozium
Hylocomiwn
Element 1976 1986 1976 1986
Cd 1.80 0.94 2.27 0.92
Cr 6.58 5.51 7.19 4.63
Ni 5.10 4.21 4.62 3.25
Pb 108 59.0 92.3 45.4
Zn 132 73.5 122 65.1
Fe 1,870 1,598 1,768 1,352
;
TABLE 3 Statistical analysis of He difference between heavy metals concentrations in
Pleurozi7~m (P) and Hylocomiwn (H).
241
F-VALUES AND LEVEL OF SIGNIFICANCE
Species Central & border
(P ~ H) Parts of mosses pans of parks Parks Years
1976 1986 1976 1986 1976 1986 1976 1986 76/86
Cd 131.68b 4.40 3.63 P 8.56 P 3.30 0.01 144.86 3.72a S.73a
0.08 H 9.58 Ha
Ni 1.26 6.2Sa 48.93 Pa 43.81 pc 18.175 6.87a 33.516 5.33b 2.93
19.99 Hb 22.16 Hb
Cr 0.81 7.36a 35.56 Pa 37.21 pc 31.916 1.88 27.726 2.15 S.59a
10.96 Ha 22.94 H.
Cu 166.665 1.35 17.87 P 0.75 P 49.70b 2.58 61.555 2.51 5.14a
13.91 H. 4.48 H
Pb g.gga g.5ga 14.41 Pa 41.90 pc 101.985 0.18 200.775 1.88 9.645
45.04 H. 54.23 He
Zn 8.67a 1.29 3.98 P 43.23 pc 202.496 0.45 384.966 3.9Sa 9.37a
6.48 Ha 14.49 H.
Fe 7.37' 1.04 38.93 Pa 56.15 pc 46.0C' 2.89 6~00, 4.48a 1.95
41.15 8.20 Ha
a = P < 0.05 b = P < 0.01
c = P < 0.001
parks at ~try, Pieniny, and Babia Gora. The deposition of metallurgical
dusts in 1976 was 173,000 tons (0.6 t/km~2) over the entire- area of Poland,
and under 140,000 tons per year (0.4 t/km~2) in the period from 1980-
1984, but rose again in 1985 and 1986 to nearly 170,000 tons per year
(GUS Statistical Yearbook, 1976-1986~. The decrease in the deposition of
metallurgical dust was most pronounced in the large industrial regions (i.e.,
Silesia-Krakow, Legnica-Glogow, and the Central Region) and adjacent
areas. In central and southern Poland, however, this change was quite
small (GUS Statistical Yearbook, 1976-1986~.
Changes in the amounts of heavy metals, as recorded by the analysis of
OCR for page 242
242
ECOLOGICAL RISKS
A (1 976)
I (Eva. (Db. ~c.
/_-
. -
5
FIGURE 3a Pollution index values for the Polish national parks defined as a sum of
standardized contents of heavy metals in mosses. a-relatively clean parks, lo-moderately
polluted parks, c-heavily polluted parks. A-1976, B-1986. Parks no. 1-14 as identified in
Figure 1.
mosses in national parks, correlate well with changes in the total emission
of dusts in the period from 1976-1986 in Poland. The mountain parks
(Tatry, Babia Gora, and Pieniny) are the exception. These lie at Poland's
southern borders, and consequently are exposed to additional heavy metals-
from Czechoslovakia.
Gydesen et al. (1983), Ruhling and Tyler (1984), and Ruhling et al.,
(1987) found an analogous decrease in the level of heavy metals in mosses
in Scandinavia over the period 1968-1985. They cite data demonstrating
a gradual decrease in emissions of metallic dusts in various countries of
OCR for page 243
HUMAN EFFECTS ON THE TERRESTRL4L ENVIRONMENT
_
B (1 986)
:-( \2 \
A::::::} \
~3 :4
~9 ~ ~
I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 t I I 1 1 1 ~
. J , j . I I j I j I I I I ~ I
, 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 T' I, I, ~ 'I ~ ~
~ ~ ~ . ~ ~ ~ Sm 10 1111111 1111111111 /
~ J '] ~ ~1' 1 1 ~ ~ ~ '1rr TI! ~
V- ~ ~ ~ Nlilil 1111111~ 1
_~ IT 1 1 1 IN 1 1 1 1 : 1 1 1 1 ~ 1 1 ~ ~ ~ _ _
I ~ ~ ~ I` I ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ U ,' ~ ~
~L~'
~a. (3b. ~c.
FIGURE 3b
243
western and central Europe. In Poland, there was also a decreasing trend
in the emission of industrial dust during this period. This decrease was
most pronounced in the early 1980s, due to a recession in heavy industry.
Mosses reflected this trend with precision because their biomass accu-
mulates dust from the previous 3 or 4 years. It has been noted that the
differences in concentration between the younger, green and older, brown
parts of mosses were greater in 1986 than in 1976. This reflects the low
deposition of metallic dusts in the early 1980s (presently the brown parts
of mosses) and slightly greater deposition in the mid-1980s (presently the
green parts of mosses). While in some mountain parks (e.g., Karkonosze)
forest decline has been observed over the last decade, it should be attributed
to other, gaseous, pollutants such as SO2 and NO.
The differences in the contamination of mosses by heavy metals among
OCR for page 244
244
E10
1 2 3 4
ECOLOGICAL RISKS
_,
·~-
:::
:-:
.
:--
..
·:-
·.
.
.. .
.-
.
:
·.
.-
::
.
·.-
6
10 11 12
FIGURE 4 Changes in moss contamination by heavy metals in Polish national parks. a-
pollution index value in 1976, lo-pollution index value in 1986. Parks: 1-Slowinski, 2-Wolinski,
3-Pieniny, 4-Bialowieza, S-Wielkopolski, 6-Bies~czady, 7-Kampinos, S-lit~y, 9-Babia Gora,
10-Swietok~zyski, 11-Karkonosze, 12-Ojcow.
particular parks were very clear in 1976. At present they are less distinct.
This can be explained by the creation of other, local sources of emission
of metallic dusts in central and northeastern Poland. Current decreases in
the concentration of heavy metals in mosses between the central and outer
parts of parks demonstrates that entire park areas are now subjected to the
pressure of emissions; hence, the functioning of the ecosystems of these
parks is currently at greater risk
The contamination of mosses by heavy metals in Poland is especially
great when compared with Scandinavia (Ruhling and Tyler, 1973, 1984;
Ruhling et al., 1987~. The most endangered Polish parks have two to four
times as much cadmium, nickel, lead, iron, zinc, and chromium than do
the most heavily polluted parts of Sweden and Norway. As compared with
the clean parts of northern Scandinavia, the heavily contaminated Polish
national parks had three to five times as much nickel and zinc, over 70 times
as much cadmium, and over 10 times as much lead and chromium in 1976.
In 1976, the mosses from the cleanest parks in Poland accumulated about
OCR for page 245
HUMAN EFFECTS ON THE TERRESTRL4L ENVIRONME~
245
twice as much iron, zinc, chromium, and nickel; six times as much lead; and
over 10 times as much cadmium as the mosses in northern Scandinavia. In
1986, the seriously contaminated Polish parks were three to five times more
polluted, and the cleanest parks about twice as polluted, by these heavy
metals than northern parts of Scandinavia.
MANAGEMENT RECOMMENDATIONS
Management of Polish national parks must take two special circum-
stances into consideration: the relatively small park areas and the heavy
contamination of the air and water. The various types of protected areas
in Poland such as national parks, nature reserves, and landscape parks
presently cover 3.9 million hectares, which represents 10% of the total area
of the country (GUS Statistical Yearbook, 1986~. Most are grouped in the
southern part of the country, where the natural landscape is most varied.
At the same time, southern Poland is the most industrialized and under the
greatest stress from industrial emissions. The value of the Polish national
parks is reflected by the fact that three of them (Babia Gora, Bialowieza,
and Slowinski) were declared UNESCO biosphere reserves.
National parks in Poland and central Europe are small, many times
smaller then those of North America, the USSR, and even Scandinavia.
The idea behind the establishment of such small national parks in the very
heart of industrialized Europe is to protect the diversity of ecosystems and
species rather than regenerate to the original climax.
Therefore, management of Polish national parks must include practical
measures to allay the affects of air pollution until such time as the emission
of gases and dusts can be controlled. These parks can, however, serge
well for studies of long-term changes in the ecosystem. The network of
national parks in Poland and other European countries can be utilized for
monitoring long-term changes caused by air pollution. These parks are
small and exposed to local and global air pollution. This study supports
the use of mosses (~PIeurozium schreberi and Hylocomium splendens) as
very sensitive bioindicators (bioaccumulators) for air pollution by heavy
metals. They can be used easily for ecological monitoring on various scales
and areas. However, the procedures for sampling moss and subsequent
laboratory analysis must be unified (Grodzinska, 1984~.
REFERENCES
Folkeson, L" 1979. Interspecies calibration of heavy metal concentrations in nine mosses
and lichens: Applicability to deposition measurements. Water, Air and Soil Pollution
11:15~260.
Grodzinska, K 1978. Mosses as bioindicatom of heavy metal pollution in Polish national
parks. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 9.8~97.
OCR for page 246
246
ECOLOGICAL RISKS
. 1982. Monitoring of air pollutants by mosses and tree bark. Pp. 3342 in the
Proceedings of the International Workshop, "Monitoring of Air Pollutants by Plants:
Methods and Problems," L. Steubing and HJ. Jager, eds. Osnabruck (F RG), September
24-25, 1981. The Hague, Boston, and London: Dr. W. Junk Publishers.
. 1984. Bioindicators of environmental deterioration. Pp. Z7-34 in Forest Ecosystems
in Industrial Regions, W. Grodzinski, J. Weiner, and P.F. Maycock, eds. Ecological
Studies 49:1-277. Berlin/Heidelberg/New York~okyo: Springer Verl.
Grodzinska, K., B. Godzik, and G. Szarek, in preparation. Heavy metal accumulation in
Polish national parks: Changes over ten years.
Grodzinski, W., and T.P. Yorks. 1981. Species and ecosystem level bioindicators of airborne
pollution: An analysis of two major studies. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 16:33-53.
Groet, S.S. 1976. Regional and local variations in heavy metal concentrations of bryophytes
in the northeastern United States. Oikos 27:445-456.
GUS (Statistical Yearbook of the General Statistical Department). 1976-1986. Warszawa.
Gydesen, H., K Pilegaard, L Rasmussen, and A. Ruhling. 1983. Mosses analyses used as
a mean of surveying the atmospheric heavy metal deposition in Sweden, Denmark,
and Greenland in 1980. National Swedish Environment Protection Board Bulletin
1670:1-44.
Hvatum, O.O., B. Bolviken, and E. Steinnes. 1983. Heavy metals in Norwegian ombrotrophic
bogs. Pp. 351-356 in Environmental Biogeochemistry, R. Hallberg, ed. Ecol. Bull.
(Stockholm) 35.
Kassenberg, ~, and MJ. Marek. 1986. Ekologiczne aspekty przest~zennego zagospodarowa-
nia kraju (Ecological aspects of the spatial development of the country). Warszawa:
PWN (State Scientific Publishers), pp. 1-174.
Kassenberg, A., and C. Rolewicz. 1985. P~zestrzenna diagnoza ochrony srodowiska w Polsce
(Spatial diagnosis of environmental protection in Poland). Komitet Przestnennego
Zagospodarowania Kraju. PAN. Studia 89:1-125. Warszawa: PW (State Economic
Publishers), Ekon (Committee on Spatial Development of the Count~y of the Polish
Academy of Sciences).
Lepp, N.W. 1981a, ed. Effect of heavy metal pollution on plants. Vol. 1. Effect of trace
metals on plant functions. London: Applied Science Publishers, Ltd.
. 1981b, ed. Effect of heavy metal pollution on plants. Vol. 2. Metals in the environment.
London: Applied Science Publishers, Ltd.
Manning, WJ., and W.A. Feder. 1980. Biomonitoring air pollutants with plants. London:
Applied Science Publishers, Ltd.
Martin, M.H., and PJ. Coughtrey. 1982. Biological monitoring of heavy metal pollutions.
London: Applied Science Publishers, Ltd.
Rinne, R.J.K, and P. Barclay-Estrup. 1980. Heavy metals in a feather moss—Pleurozium
schreben and in soils in Northwest Ontario, Canada. Oikos 34:43-54.
Ruhling, A., L" Rasmussen, K Pilegaard, A. Makinen, and E. Steinnes. 1987. Sunrey of
atmospheric heavy metal deposition in the Nordic countries in 1985 monitored by
moss analyses. Nord 21:144.
Ruhling, A., and G. Tyler. 1969. Ecology of heavy metals- a regional and historical pollution
study. Bot. Notiser 122:248-259.
. 1971. Regional differences in the deposition of heavy metals over Scandinavia. J.
Appl. Ecol. 8:497-507.
. 1973. Heavy metal deposition in Scandinavia. Water Air and Soil Pollution 2:445-455.
, ,
. 1984. Recent changes in the deposition of heavy metals in Northern Europe. Water,
Air, and Soil Pollution 22:173-180.
Steinnes, E. 1980. Atmospheric deposition of heavy metals in NoIway studied by analysis of
moss samples using neutron activations analysis and atomic absorption spectrometry.
J. Radioanal. Chem. 58:387-391.
Tyler, G. 1971. Moss analysis: A method for surveying heavy metal deposition. Pp. 129-132
in the Proceedings of the 2nd International Clean Air Congress, Washington, D.C.
. 1972. Heavy metals pollute nature, may reduce productivity. Ambio 1,2:29-52.
Representative terms from entire chapter:
national parks
