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OCR for page 355
Diagnosis of Environmental Protection Problems
in Poland
ANDRZE] T. KASSENBERG
Institute of Geography and Spatial Organization
Polish Academy of Sciences
The natural environment defines the potential for each country's devel-
opment; however, it also creates barriers and restrictions to that develop-
ment. Studies of the state of the environment provide a basis for long-term
development plans when they recognize this dual role. Such studies aim
at gathering information on environmental conditions and the processes
at work; evaluating the backlog in environmental protection activities; and
presenting the consequences of a situation in ecological, social, and eco-
nomic terms, ultimately addressing the whole issue in the form of a spatial
synthesis.
Such diagnostic studies require a comprehensive approach that takes
into account the existing relationship between environmental factors and
socioeconomic development. This can be approached from four viewpoints
(Kassenberg and Rolewicz, 1985~:
.
Effectiveness, i.e., the conservation as well as the rational use of
resources and environmental"goods";
· Consequences, i.e., social, economic, and ecological profits and
losses related to the state of the environment;
· Hazards, i.e., the results of a scale of development which are
potentially harmful to social and economic activities;
· Safeguards, i.e., the application of suitable measures to protect or
reconstruct a degraded environment.
In Poland, the first studies of this type were undertaken at the end
of the 1960s and beginning of the 1970s by the Institute of Geography
of Jagiellonian University and by the Committee for Protection of Nature
and Natural Resources of the Polish Academy of Sciences (Brykowicz and
Waksmundzki, 1972; Leszczynski, 1974~. In the first study, the extent of
355
OCR for page 356
356
ECOLOGICAL RISKS
the concentration of harmful phenomena in one voivodship (administrative
district) of Poland was determined on the basis of qualitative and quantita-
tive analysis of distortions and damage in the environment. However, due
to lack of information for the whole country, it was impossible to apply
the methods broadly. Furthermore, it did not address the relationships
among the source of pollution, the state of the environment, and proposed
protection and recultivation efforts.
Parallel with previous studies, pre-plan spatial diagnoses of the state
of environmental protection in Poland were undertaken by the Planning
Commission of the Council of Ministers. Four generations of studies were
carried out: the 1970 and 1975 versions were highly simplified, while the
1980 and 1985 versions constituted full-scale assessments. In principle, the
studies were designed to develop a spatial synthesis through the diagnosis
of individual environmental problems. Though some differences resulted
from their specific character, each of these studies followed the sequence:
analysis of the state of the environment;
type and features of sources of environmental threat;
effectiveness of protection and recultivation efforts;
volume and type of pollution emissions;
consequences of pollution for the economy, society, and nature.
The following four fundamental environmental issues were studied in par-
ticular detail and will be discussed in subsequent sections:
· air quality;
· water quality;
· condition of land; and
· conservation of nature.
AIR QUALITY
Maintaining the purity of air is a crucial problem in Poland, as air
quality has been deteriorating year by year. In 1975, the area of measured
air quality exceeding Polish pollution standards was 8,400 km2; by 1980,
this area had grown by 27% and continues to grow, albeit at a slower rate
due to decreased industrial production. It is estimated that almost 20%
of Poland's population lives in these areas. Inhabitants of the Katowice
district in southern Poland are the most exposed to these hazards in terms
of both the concentration and range of excessive pollutants. The number
of people threatened to varying degrees by the impact of air pollution on
human health is approaching 3 million.
Gaseous air pollution, particularly sulfur dioxide, is the most serious
problem. In about two-thirds of the countIy's area, the yearly average
OCR for page 357
ENVIRONMENT AGE ME CASE STUDIES
357
of SO2 concentration exceeds 20 ~g/m3 a level which may cause first-
degree damage to coniferous forests. This high concentration of SO2 is
paralleled by deposition of 8 tons of sulfur compounds yearly on each
square kilometer of land in Poland. In 10% of the area, the level exceeds
50 t/km2 (Kassenberg and Rolewicz, 1985~.
Apart from SO2, the most dangerous air pollutants are:
particulates, nitrogen oxides, and carbon dioxide (commonly occur-
ring, high concentrations);
· lead, cadmium, arsenic, and mercury (quite common, highly toxic,
and durable in the environment); and
carcinogenic hydrocarbons (commonly occurring, particularly dan-
gerous to health).
Extremely high concentrations of air pollution containing such compounds
as carbon disulfide, fluorine, and heavy metal dusts occur in localized sites
which are often near chemical and non-ferrous metallurgy plants.
Estimates of total emissions of major air pollutants in Poland in the
period 1985-1987 are shown in Table 1. According to the table, emissions of
pollution from harmful sources included in 1987 official statistics amount
to 1.8 million metric tons of particulates and 5.4 million metric tons of
gases. Of the particulate emissions, 22% occurred in the Katowice district,
7% in Jelenia Gora, 6% in Krakow, and 5% each in Konin and Warsaw.
Of the gaseous emissions, 28% occurred in Katowice, 11% in Krakow, 6%
in Piortrkow ~ybunalski, 5% each in Legnica and Jelenia Gora, and 4%
in Tarnobrzeg. Increasing pollution is of concern particularly in districts
regarded as "clean" and having great touristic and recreational value, such
as the districts of Bialystok, Koszalin, Krosno, Lomza, Ostroleka, and
Zamosc.
Most sources of air pollution in Poland are concentrated in a few dozen
cities and localities. The largest is a cluster of eight towns in the Upper
Silesian industrial district (i.e., Dabrowa, Gornicza, Jaworzno, Laziska
Gorne, ~zebinia, Chorzow, Bedzin, and Bytom). Other polluted areas
include Krakow, Bogatynia, Konin, Warsaw, Rybnik, Polaniec, Ostroleka,
Plock, Kedzierzyn-Kozle, Skawina, and Oswiecim. Statistics for 1987 show
that of 1,342 industrial plants emitting particulates, 89% have facilities
for pollution reduction, but only 211 of these (i.e., 16~o) reduce pollution
satisfactorily (i.e., minimum of 90% reduction). With regard to gaseous
pollution, of 1,362 industrial plants, 91% have no purifying facilities and
only 17 plants (i.e., 1.2%) have produced satisfactory results (i.e., minimum
50% reduction) (Main Statistical Office, 1988~.
The state of air quality in Poland is also influenced by pollution coming
from other countries, so-called transboundary air pollution. Although there
is an approximate balance between the import and export of pollution to and
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358
ECOLOGICAL RISKS
TABLE 1 Emissions of air pollutants in Poland, 1985-1987 (in thousands of metric
tons per year).
EMISSION
SOURCES PARTICULATES SO_ NOX
GASES
CO Hydrocarbons
TOTAL 2,980 4,200 1,530 3,770 510
Power stations 865 2,050 410 70
Industrial
treat stations 100 730 215
Industrial
technologies 1,380 390
District heating
and commercial/
400
1,680 205
residential 630 930 145 1,270 200
Motor vehicles 5 100 360 750 100
SOURCE: Ministry of Environmental Protection and Natural Resources,
Warsaw, 1988.
TABLE 2 Water quality in Poland, 1964-1986 (as percentages).
Classes of 1964 - 1971 - 1978- Required
water purity 1967 1973 1983 1986 Purim*
Class I 31.6 23.4 6.8 4.2 53.0
ClassII 25.6 32.2 27.9 26.7 40.0
Class III 14.0 18.0 29.0 27.3 7.0
Below any standards 28.8 26.4 36.3 41.3
* According to classification made in view of present or planned utilization
of water (M. Roman)
SOURCE: Main Statistical Office, Warsaw, 1988,1989.
from Poland as a whole, the environmental situation in border regions of
the German Democratic Republic and Czechoslovakia is very unfavorable
for Poland (see Chapter 23, this volume). Pollution coming from the
west has a great impact on the degradation of forests in the Sudety area.
Prevailing southwesterly winds bring pollution from the Karvina-Ostrava
region of Czechoslovakia to the Rybnik coal district and the Upper Silesian
industrial district.
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ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT CASE STUDIES
WATER QUALITY
359
Water purity in Poland is a problem that parallels air pollution. When
comparing the present situation with that of 20 years ago, one can notice
a continuous deteriorating trend. For example, the amount of river water
of highest quality has decreased dramatically from 32% to 5%. Over the
same period, the amount of river water which is not useful for any purpose
grew from 29% to 42% (Main Statistical Office, 1988~. This is illustrated
in Table 2; for detailed descriptions of classes of water purity, see Chapter
19 (this volume).
Many rivers consist of water that cannot be used along their entire
lengths, e.g., Bzura, Krzna, and Ner. Apart from these, the most polluted
large rivers are the Brda, Bobr, Bug, Drweca, Ina, Kamienna, Kwisa,
Liwiec, Mala Panew, Notec, Nysa Luzycka, Oder, Prosna, Slawa Prawa,
Vistula, Warta, Widawa, Wieryca, and Wkra.
In the upper parts of the Vistula and Oder drainage areas, excessive
salinization of water as the result of mining operations is a serious problem,
amounting to 6-7,000 metric tons per day. Salt concentrations exceeding by
several times permitted values can be found in the Olza, Ruda, Bierawka,
Klodnica, Ilownica, Przemsza, and other rivers, but particularly in long
stretches of the Vistula and Oder.
A similar problem exists with respect to lake purity. Out of 500 large
lakes, about 300 have been endangered as a result of pollution, mainly
municipal and agricultural wastes (Chapter 17, this volume). The~ largest
number of degraded lakes occur in the districts of Koszalin, Olsztyn, Slupsk,
SuwaLki, and Szczecin. Unfortunately, included among them are some of
the Great Masurian Lakes, e.g., Mikolajskie, Niegocin, and ~l~r.
The fundamental reason that surface-water quality has deteriorated so
greatly in Poland is that these waters are ve~y convenient waste receivers.
The growing volume of liquid wastes being discharged into rivers has not
been addressed by the construction of additional sewage treatment plants.
In addition, the operation and functioning of e~sting plants is for the
most part inefficient and could benefit from systemic improvements. In
1987, the annual volume of industrial and municipal liquid wastes requiring
purification was 4.5 billion m3, including 2.6 billion m3 of industrial wastes.
Almost 62% were treated in some way, but only 50% with highly effective
chemical and biological methods.
Of the 4,732 industrial plants with high impact on water resource
management in Poland, more than 2,900 plants discharge their liquid
wastes directly into surface water. Of these, almost 16% have no treatment
facilities and another 9% have treatment plants with insufficient capacity.
More than 1,800 remaining plants discharge their liquid wastes directly into
municipal sewers.
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360
ECOLOGICAL RISKS
Of the 818 cities in Poland, only 436 have sewage treatment plants,
and of these, only 60% are capable of providing adequate mechanical-
biological treatment of the wastewaters delivered to the plants. Many
of these existing plants have insufficient capacities. In addition, there are
many district capitals which do not have municipal sewage treatment plants,
e.g., Warsaw, Bialystok, Elblag, Kalisz, Lodz, Radom, and Rzeszow. In the
Lodz district, no single town has a municipal sewage treatment plant (Main
Statistical Office, 1988~.
The pollution of the Baltic Sea, which has recently shown a growing
trend, has international as well as regional and national significance. Into of
Poland's largest rivers the Vistula and Odercarry enormous quantities
of organic and toxic pollution into the Baltic. This causes marked changes
in the chemical composition of the sea water, particularly reduced oxygen
content in the bottom water. Hydrogen sulfide occurs periodically and
causes the disappearance of life in the most polluted areas, i.e., the Bays
of Gdansk and Puck, the Vistula Lagoon, the Pomeranian Bay, and the
Szczecin Lagoon. Some of the pollution comes from towns and industrial
plants located in coastal areas that discharge their liquid wastes directly
into the sea. The purity of sea water is also much affected by the ships
calling at Polish ports.
Bacteriological pollution of the coastal zone has caused the closing
of practically all beaches on the Gdansk and Puck Bays as well as on the
Vistula and Szczecin Lagoons. Also, some beaches have been closed in the
central seaside areas of Kolobrzeg, Dzwiryno, Ustka, and Leba.
CONDITION OF LAND
Degradation of land in Poland resulting from intensive mining oper-
ations is another serious problem. Such degraded areas occur mainly in
the mining regions of Upper Silesia, Legnica and Glogow, Tarnobrzeg,
Konin, ~roszow, Kielce, Chelm, and Belchatow. It should be stressed that
current recultivation operations proceed too slowly. In 1987, only 4,273
hectares were recultivated, whereas the area where mining operations were
completed covered 100,000 hectares (Main Statistical Office, 1988~.
Erosion and the subsequent acquisition of steppe characteristics cause
the deterioration of productive qualities of soil. The area threatened or
already damaged by erosion in Poland is estimated to be 2 million hectares.
The intensity of the process is illustrated by fact that land with about 10%
slope loses a layer of 5 mm of soil per year. Erosion is most hazardous to the
districts of Zamosc, Lublin, Bydgoszcz, Krakow, Chelm, lbrun, Wroclaw,
and Zielona Gora. Areas at risk of becoming steppes cover about 5 million
hectares, including 0.6 million hectares of critically threatened land located
mainly in central Poland.
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ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT CASE STUDIES
361
Another problem connected with land surface protection is incorrect
management of industrial and municipal wastes. At the end of 1988,
industrial plants producing over 1,000 tons of environmentally harmful
waste accumulated over 1.5 billion tons of waste (2.5 times more than in
1975) in an area of over 10,600 hectares. Almost 90% of the wastes were
collected in the ten districts of Katowice, Legnica, Walbrzych, Krakow,
Kielce, Tarnobrzeg, Szczecin, Bydgoszcz, and Konin. The current situation
regarding the re-use of industrial wastes in connection with their production
is not satisfactory. Of the 186 million tons of industrial waste produced
in 1988, only 106 million tons were utilized for economic purposes, i.e.,
approximately 57%. The sources of collection and production of industrial
wastes are concentrated in about a dozen towns, particularly five towns
in the Upper Silesian industrial district (Gliwice, Piekary Slaskie, Knurow,
Ruda Slaska, Zabrze), as well as in PoLkowice, Jastrzebie-Zdroj, Walbrzych,
Lubin, Krakow, Wodzislaw Slaski, and Rybnik (Main Statistical Office,
1988~.
Municipal wastes are also hazardous to the environment. In 1987, the
total accumulated municipal wastes for Poland was almost 46 million m3.
The largest concentrations of municipal wastes are in big cities, especially in
Katowice, Lodz, and Warsaw. Municipal wastes are generally not utilized.
The unsanitary condition and location of most dumping grounds are very
hazardous to the environment. Composting and burning of wastes are
practically unheard of in Poland. Under such circumstances, a growing
quantity of waste is stored in forests, water reservoirs, and streams, making
recreation impossible. Also, municipal dumping grounds pose a problem as
they are operated without any regulation of their location, use, or capacity.
They are usually small in size (up to 0.5 hectares), are unenclosed, and lack
preventive measures against spread of pollution.
CONSERVATION OF NATURE
Forests perform a special role in the environment in addition to serving
tourism and recreation purposes. The forested area in Poland is 8.7 million
hectares, almost 28% of the total surface. Forests are not evenly distributed
over Poland's area; the index of afforestation ranges from 11.9% in the
Plock district to 48.3% in the Zielona Gora district. Limited variety in the
types of timber stands is a problem. There are vast areas of coniferous
monocultures, which are less immune to many biotic, abiotic, and man-
made stress factors. Monoculture and even-aged coniferous timber stands
often lead to degradation of habitat quality for wildlife and recreational
uses. A majority of Polish forests are young; the average age of state-owned
forests is 49 years. The shortage of timber stands aged 80 and above is
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362
ECOLOGICAL RISKS
estimated at 0.7 million hectares, which means that the required increase
in such timber stands is 70%.
The sanitary and health situation of forests is the fundamental problem
in forest management. About two-thirds of the forested area is in zones of
permanent or periodic hazard by harmful insects, parasitic fungi, emissions
of air pollutants, or unfavorable weather conditions. At present, the area
of standing timber damaged as a result of air pollution is estimated to
be almost 800,000 hectares, i.e., over 9% of Polish forests. The threat
of damage to forests affects as much as 75% of the country's area. The
process of deforestation has begun in Poland, primarily in the Katowice
district where almost 100% of the forests have been damaged and where
there are frequent cases of deforested land. Similar areas exist in the
Izery and Karkonosze Mountains. Apart from Katowice, areas where a
substantial share of forests are damaged are the districts of Lodz (42%),
Krakow (41%), Jelenia Gora (40%), Tarnobrzeg and Legnica (28% each),
Bielsko, Czestochowa, and Minnow (26% each), and Wroclaw (23%~. This
great threat from air pollution is due to the structure of industry, outdated
technologies, lack of gas-purifying facilities, high concentration of emission
sources, location of plants close to forests, and the predominance of species
sensitive to toxic gases and particulates (Main Statistical Office, 1988~.
In addition, the following factors have an impact on the sanitary
condition of forests:
· overpopulation of game in relation to ecological capacity, resulting
in damages to an area of 140,000 hectares annually;
· forest fires, as 30% of Poland's forested area is in the highest class
of fire hazard; and
· weather conditions, particularly winds and heavy snowfalls as well
as freezing temperatures (Kassenberg and Rolewicz, 1985~.
Apart from forest protection, which is a crucial issue of environmental
protection in Poland, attention should also be focused on the larger issue
of nature and landscape protection. Legally protected areas in Poland are
divided into four distinct categories, which are listed below in order of the
stringency of the regulations which govern them:
· national parks;
nature reserves;
landscape parks; and
areas of protected landscape.
These protected areas have been continually expanding and at the
end of 1988 amounted to almost 4.5 million hectares, i.e., over 14% of
the country's total area. The largest share of these areas occurs in the
following districts: Przemysl (50%), Bialystok and Gorzow (39%), Konin
OCR for page 363
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT CASE STUDIES
363
(36%), Skierniewice (33%), Chelm (32%), Krosno (29%), and Zielona
Gora (28%). The ultimate goal for such protected areas is to cover 30-40%
of the area in Poland (Main Statistical Office, 1988).
Among natural resources subject to conservation protection, national
parks are the most important. There are 14 national parks in Poland
covering a total area of 127,000 hectares, including over 70% of Polish
forests. National parks in Poland are characterized by a large variety of
bioconeoses, types of plants and animals, as well as forms of landscape.
These parks cover about 0.4% of the country's total area, which is a
relatively low proportion in comparison with other countries. For instance,
in Czechoslovakia national parks cover 1.25% of the country's area; in
Sweden, Z41%; in Great Bntain, 5.38%; and in Japan, 6.4%.
Another important form of conservation protection are namre reserves,
which are areas where nature as a whole or an individual element (e.g.,
groups of plants or animals or fragments of landscape) are under protection.
At present, there are almost 1,000 nature reserves in Poland covering over
114,000 hectares, i.e., about 0.3% of the counters surface. Most of these
nature reserves provide forest and floristic protection; there are only a
few nature reserves for the non-living environment (e.g., land forms and
geological phenomena). Protection of water complexes is also insufficient.
The average area for nature reserves in Poland (i.e., about 115 hectares)
is among the smallest in Europe in Czechoslovakia, it is 140 hectares; in
Holland, 145 hectares; and in the FRG, 290 hectares. This relative lack of
nature resenes has a negative effect on environmental quality, as does the
lack of adequate areas of national parks mentioned above.
There are also two distinct categories of landscape protection. First,
landscape parks are protected areas because of their extraordinary envi-
ronmental, aesthetic, or touristic value. There are 43 landscape parks in
Poland, covering over 1,000,000 hectares, i.e., 3% of the country's area.
The goal is to increase this proportion to 4% in the future. The second
category includes areas of protected landscape, which provide potential areas
for tourism and recreation. The goal is for such areas to cover at least
20-30% of the country in the future and be developed into an intercon-
nected system based on natural conditions. By the end of 1987, areas of
protected landscape approved by resolutions of district councils covered
over 3 million hectares, i.e., 10% of the country's area (Main Statistical Of-
fice, 1988~. Recognition of elements of nature as valuable and unique also
plays a significant role in nature protection and enrichment of landscape
values. Almost 17,000 objects have been designated as natural monuments
in Poland.
However, each form of protection mentioned above is greatly threat-
ened by development of industry, expansion of cities, mining, intensification
of agriculture and forestry, expanded motor traffic, and tourism. The extent
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364
ECOLOGICAL RISKS
of hazards to individual national parks differs, but there is no national park
free of the negative effects of human activity (Chapter 14, this volume).
Among the most threatened parks is the Ojcow National Park near Krakow.
Many nature reserves and landscape parks are also located in hazardous
zones.
Changes occurring in the environment are followed by destruction
of flora and fauna. The transformation of vegetation in Poland can be
summarized as follows. Only 8% of the country's area has retained its
natural character. Another 19%-is made up of areas in the transition
stage between the natural environment and an environment changed by
human impact. The remaining 73% are areas dominated by economic
activities with a visibly changed environment, including 10% of degraded
areas (Falinski, 1975~.
Many species from Poland's original fauna are dying out or are extinct.
Aurochs, tarpans, and saiga antelopes are now extinct; rare and endangered
species include bear, elf, wildcat, beaver, mink, marten, vulture, and eagle.
Great changes have occurred in quantitative relations and distribution of
animals. Excluding introduced and migrating types, there are currently
430 vertebrate species in Poland, of which only 10% are not endangered
(Glowacinski et al., 1980~.
THE STATE OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
Poland is not a large country. In fact, it is relatively small in terms
of area, although it has a very differentiated natural environment. Every
1,000 km2 iS characterized by different natural conditions. In the north is
the Baltic Sea; southward is a stretch of lake districts, followed by a zone
of lowlands and then a zone of uplands; and in the extreme south are lower
and higher mountains.
The 1970s and 1980s have been characterized by increased hazards to
the environment. As ecological factors have had no bearing on the strategy
of the countryjs development, and efforts for environment protection have
had little effect, the condition of the environment has greatly deteriorated.
An ecological crisis which annually increases in severity and affects the
entire economy as well as every citizen is manifested primarily though:
· wasteful exploitation of mineral, water, and forest resources;
· rapidly deteriorating conditions in air, water, and soil pollution;
· overall degradation of natural potential which threatens further
development of agricultural production and forest production, as well as
efficient management of water resources;
· deterioration of landscape;
· increasing contamination of foodstuff;;
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ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT CASE STUDIES
TABLE 3 Environmental losses in Poland (in millions of zlotys per year).
Agnculture
Forestry
Water resources
Corrosion
Minerals (due to inefficient extraction)
Raw materials (in liquid wastes and air pollutants)
Health
TOTAL
150,000
50,000
65,000
215,000
130,000
50,000
115,000
775,000
SOURCE: Main Statistical Office, Warsaw, 1988.
rapidly increasing hazards to human health; and
· general deterioration of living conditions and quality of life.
365
The present condition of the environment contributes to measurable
and immeasurable losses. At present, minimum losses due to pollution of
the environment are estimated at about 800 billion zlotys, i.e., over 10%
of the annual national economic product (Table 3~; however, some experts
estimate the losses to be twice as much (Main Statistical Office, 1988~.
In accordance with methodological assumptions of this diagnosis, a
spatial synthesis of the state of environmental protection has been created.
Four categories have been distinguished where conditions are highly unsat-
isfactory for a variety of reasons (Kassenberg and Rolewicz' 1985~. These
are:
· areas of ecological hazard;
cities and towns with major sources of pollution which are not
located in areas of ecological hazard;
ance;
· nature and landscape conservation areas with unstable natural bal-
· spas endangered with losing their healing values due to unstable
natural balance.
The first category includes 27 areas where the natural balance has been
completely broken, manifested by loss of immunity, elimination systems,
as well as intensified hazards to human health. These areas cover about
35,000 k=2 and are inhabited by over one-third of Poland's population.
The basic criteria used to distinguish an area of ecological hazard are:
· violation of permitted standards or strong degradation (pollution)
in at least two environmental aspects; and
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366
ECOLOGICAL RISKS
TABLE 4 Characteristics of Areas of Ecological Hazard in Poland.
AREAS OF
UNIT OF ECOLOGICAL
CHARACrERISIIC MEASURE HAZARD POLAND
Area
size km2 35,220 312,683
share of the country % 11.3
Population (1987)
number thousand 13,329 37,664
share of country % 2 354 ~~
population density pop/km 381 120
Source of hazard (1982)
a) towns with over 100,000 inhabitants
number 28 38
population:
total thousand
share of country %
b) towns with 50-100,000 inhabitants
number
population:
total thousand
share of country %
7,674 10,813
71.0
24
42
1,679 2,860
58.7
c) towns with 20-50,000 inhabitants
number 29 114
population:
total thousand 939 3,537
share of country % 26.5 - -
d) towns with under 20,000 inhabitants
number 80 611
population:
total thousand 710 4,446
share of country % 16.0 ~-
e) industrial plants in particularly hazardous branches of industry*
number - 1,143 2,607
employment:
total thousand 896 1,110
share of country % 80.7
f) industrial plants in particularly hazardous branches of industry**
number 4,228 16,072
employment:
total thousand 345 1,000
share of country % 34.5 -I
(continued...)
OCR for page 367
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT CASE STUDIES
TABLE 4. Continued
-
ARELAS OF
UNIT OF ECOLOGICAL
CHARAc1~;RISIIC MEASURE HAZARD POLAND
g) industrial plants in branches of industry with low risk***
number 7,658 19,988
employment:
total
share of country
thousand 1,061 2,364
% 44.9
Municipal and industrial
liquid wastes requiring
purification (1987)
share of country % 3 2 62.4
degree of concentration thousm /km 80.1 14.4
total treated waste % 64.1 61.7
share of waste treated
biologically/chemically % 25.6 27.5
Emission of particulate
pollution (1987)
share of country % 2 76.8
degree of concentration tons/km 39.5 5.8
degree of reduction % 94.7 94.3
Emission of gas pollution (1987)
share of country % 2 81.2
degree of concentration tons/km 125.2 17.3
degree of reduction % 13.6 12.4
Degraded soil (1987)
share of country % 34.7
Endangered forests (1987)
share of country (area) % 64.4
share of country (mass) % 61.7
Industrial wastes (1987)
share of total accumulated
waste in country % 92.6
degree of generation of 2
accumulated wastes tons/km 38.5 4.7
share of wastes produced % 2 89.5
degree of concentration tons/km 4,598.1 575.6
degree of economic
utilization % 54.0 54.4
* fuel, power engineering, metallurgy, chemical
** wood/paper, mineral, food processing
*** light, electroengineering, etc.
SOURCES: Main Statistical Office, Warsaw, 1986; Kassenberg, 1986.
367
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368
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OCR for page 370
370
ECOLOGICAL RISKS
· multiple violation of permitted standards or very strong degradation
(pollution) in one environmental aspect, or violation of permitted standards
by a very toxic substance.
and
Specific characteristics of areas of ecological hazard are presented
in Tables 4 and 5 (preceding pages). The data presented show that the
selected areas are not homogeneous with respect to the quantity and type
of pollution. Taking this into account, they were divided into the following
subgroups:
areas of ecological disaster (13,783 02, population 6.2 million);
areas of extensive pollution (19,400 key, population 6.2 million);
areas with serious air pollution (2,037 km2, population 0.5 million).
The second category (cities and towns) includes localities apart from
the above-mentioned areas which also contain hazardous sources of pollu-
tion. They are characterized by pollution of the environment and degrada-
tion surpassing the overall character of the region. Sixty such localities are
inhabited by about 5 million people.
The third category (conservation areas) refers to national and land-
scape parks. In these areas, there is decreased natural resistance to envi-
ronmental stresses and weakened self-regulating processes due to pollution
of water and air, even from distant sources of emission, as well as exces-
sive tourist traffic, urbanization pressure, industrialization, and incorrect
irrigation procedures. These problems have resulted in the extinction of
many less resistant or uncommon types of vegetation and animals. In all
of Poland, there are 15 such areas, of which the most endangered na-
tional parks are Ojcow, Babia Gora, Karkonosze, Swietokryski, Kampinos,
Wielkopolski, and Pieniny.
The fourth category (endangered spas) includes 23 spas threatened
with the loss of their natural healing values due to incorrect management
of water resources and liquid wastes, excessive air pollution, and heavy
traffic patterns which alter the local climate.
CONCLUSION
Based on the diagnosis of the condition of the environment presented
here, as well as on efforts undertaken for its protection, four zones can
be distinguished in Poland which require different environmental policies
(Figure 1, at end of chapter). These are:
· Zone I: characterized by geographic integration of areas of eco-
logical hazard. These areas require activities to restore natural living
conditions, including conduct of appropriate economic activities.
OCR for page 371
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT CASE STUDIES
371
· Zone II: where there exists a potential danger that two coastal areas
of ecological hazard may be connected in a continuous land/sea stretch of
degraded environment These areas require a reduction of population and
use pressure to a level determined by the natural capacity of the area.
· Zone III: where there are regional environmental problems con-
nected mostly with dispersed areas of ecological hazard. These areas
require that natural barriers be overcome through regional development.
· Zone IV: a relatively clean environment, without areas of ecological
hazard beyond local environmental problems. These areas require efforts
to prevent me spread of new pollution, as well as the implementation
of appropriate economic development principles in order to maintain the
quality of the region.
REFERENCES
B~ykowicz, K., and K Waksmundzki. 1972. Complete map of degradation and pollution in
geographical environment. In Man and knowledge. Weidza Powszechna. Warsaw.
Falinski, J. 1975. Anthropogenic transformation of vegetation in Poland. Phytocenosis 4,2.
Glowancinski, Z., et al. 1980. State of vertebrates and selected invertebrates in Poland: List
of species, their disposal, danger, and protection. Panstowowe Wydawnictwa Naukowe,
Warsaw-Krakow.
Kassenberg, A. 1986. Areas of ecological hazard: New planning category. Cosmos 1.
Kassenberg, A., and C. Rolewicz. 1985. Spatial diagnosis of environmental protection in
Poland. Studies of Committee of Spatial Development, Polish Academy of Sciences,
volume LXXXIX Panstwowe Wydawnictwa Naukowe, Warsaw.
Kozlowski, S. 1985. Ecodevelopment: Concept of development. Man and World Outlook,
May 5, p. 232
Leszczynski, S. 1974. Problems of protection of human environment. Geographical Papers
108.
Main Statistical Office, Warsaw. 1986. Environmental protection and water economy.
Main Statistical Office, Warsaw. 1987. Environmental protection and water economy.
Main Statistical Office, Warsaw. 1988. Environmental protection and water economy.
Main Statistical Office, Warsaw. 1989. Information about the state, risk, and protection of
the environment in 1988.
Ministry of Environmental Protection and Natural Resources, 1988. National Program of
Environmental Protection Through 2010 (draft). Wa maw.
OCR for page 372
372
ECOLOGICAL RISKS
_-_, I-_ ~ An-
~ en ~
~ - ~ r A- <-~D
~ W ~ nor ~~ Vat ~~00,~ X XV ~~0 jamb ~ ;
~ Ol.~lyn Bit ,fL-l ~\
, :,4t Jo,, ~ ~ 5
b C
FIGURE 1 Zones of environmental quality in Poland (Kassenberg, 1986~.
,/
Areas of Ecological Hazard: I = Belchatow; II = Bydgoszcz-Torun; III = Chelm; IV =
Czestochowa; V = Gdansk; VI = Upper Silesia; VII = Inowroclaw; VIII = Jelenia Gora;
IX = Kielce; X = Konin; XI = Krakow; XII = Legnica Glogow; XIII = Lodz; XIV =
Myszkow-Zawiercie; XV = 0pole; XVI = Flock; XVII = Poznan; XVIII =Pulawy; XIX =
Rybuik; XX = Szczecin; XXI = Tarnobrzeg; XXII = Tarnow; XXIII = Tomaszow; XXIV
= Turoszow; XXV = Walb~zych; XXVI = Wloclawek; XXVII = Wroclaw.
1 Areas of ecological disaster
2a Metropolitan areas with extensive pollution
2b Industrial districts with extensive pollution
2c Mining and energy producing districts with extensive pollution
3 Areas of predominant air pollution
4 (a) total area in km2
(b) population in thousands
(c) density persons
OCR for page 373
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT CASE STUDIES
373
Nature and landscape conservation areas with unstable natural balance:
A = Nadmorski Landscape Park; B = Mazurian Landscape Park; C = Wigry National
Park; D = Biebrza Wetland (proposed national park); E = W~elkopolksi National
Park, F = Gostynin-Wloclawek Landscape Park; G = Kampinos National Park; H
= Kazimie~z Landscape Park; I = Karkonosze National Park; J = Jura Landscape
Park; K = 0jcow National Park; L = Swietokryski National Park; V = Babia-Gora
National Park; M = Tatry National Park; N = Pieniny National Park.
6 Spas in danger of losing their healing values due to unstable natural balance:
1 = Kolobrzeg; 2 = Swinoujscie; 3 = Ciechocinek; 4 = Inowroclaw; 5 = Konstancin-
Jeziorna; 6 = Naleczow; 7 = Czerniawa Zdroj; 8 = Swieradow Zdroj; 9 = Cieplice;
10 = Szklarska Poreba; 11 = Sosnowka; 12 = Kowary; 13 = Szczawno Zdroj; 14
= Karpacz; 15 = Jedlina Zdroj; 16 = Kudowa Zdroj; 17 = Duszniki Zdroj; 18 =
Polanica Zdroj; 19 = Ladek Zdroj; 20 = Dlugopole Zdroj; 21 = Swoszowice; 22 =
W~eliczka; 23 = Rabka.
7 Cities and tow~ w~th major sources of pollution not located in areas of ecological
hazard
8 Boundaries of zones of enviromnental quality
Representative terms from entire chapter:
main statistical
