Index
A
Accident response
of barges, 142-143
distressed-ship cargo transfer system for, xxiii, xxvi, 112-113, 139-140
enhanced information processing for, 112-113, 137-138, 140
towing fittings to aid in, xxiii, xxvi, 112-113, 138-140
Accidents
availability of information regarding, xix-xx, xxvii, 160, 183
See also Research programs
definition of terms used for, 27-28n.18
low-energy, 125
low-velocity, xix
not causing pollution, 13-19
residual strength following, 65, 187-188
resulting in pollution, 10-13
See also Oil outflow;
Pollution;
Pollution prevention;
Pollution risk
Act to Prevent Pollution from Ships, 53-54n.14
Alaska
oil traffic patterns from, 4
production level projections for, 3
tanker use in, 6
Aluminum sacrificial anodes, 67
ALVENUS, 15
American Bureau of Shipping (ABS) rules, 47
Analytical approach, costs and benefits of
to assessment of environmental damage, 160-161
to identification of base case, 159-160
to natural resource damage and recovery, 161-163
to placing dollar values on cost of spills, 163-165
to spill reduction analysis, 165-167
Anodic protection, 67, 69-71, 97
Asphalt, 66
B
Ballast tanks.
See also Segregated ballast tanks
cargo piping in, xxiii
corrosion in, 70-71, 80, 97-98
dimensional considerations for, 83-85
inspection of, 215
in new vessels, 53n.3
in pre-MARPOL vessels, 53n.3
protective location for, xxvi, 104-105, 219, 221
Ballast water
pollution caused by, 35
requirements for, 83
Barges
design of, xxiii-xiv, 33-34, 141-143
diversion of cargo from tankers to, 176
retrofitting in, 117, 118, 120
traffic patterns of, 4-5
used for Gulf product distribution, 5
Barriers
uses in barges, 141-142
design alternatives for, 104-105, 114
double bottoms as, 104-105, 114-117
double hulls as, 104-105, 114, 119-120
double sides as, 104-105, 114, 117-119
protectively located segregated ballast tankers as, 104-105, 115
resilient membrane, 104-105, 114, 120-122
Base case identification, costs and benefits of, 159-160
Bow, grinding. See Grinding bow
B.T. NAUTILUS, 21
Buckling
inspection to detect, 216
of internal structures, 32
Bulkheads
in collisions or groundings, 58-59
dimensional considerations for, 83-85, 218
C
Cargo
non-polluting, 29
removal from damaged tanks of, 93
research on influence of, 187
sloshing of, 123, 210, 211, 214
Cargo capacity
of double bottoms, double sides, and double hulls, 218, 220, 222
of segregated ballast tanks, 221-225
tanker types and, 85
of 35,000 DWT tankers, 218-225
Cargo piping
in ballast tanks, xxiii
description of, 34-35
Cargo systems
description of, 34-35
pumping capability of, 94-96, 99
Cargo transfer systems
committee view of, xxiii, xxvi, 140
in double bottoms, 116
for enhanced accident response, 112-113, 139-140
Casualty databases, improving, 186-187
Ceramic coating on hulls, 110-111, 137
CHEVRON OREGON, ix
Chevron Shipping Company report, 89, 226-237
Classification societies
definition of, 44
differences among, 33
examination of strength standards by, 81
on use of scantlings, 211
Coast Guard, U.S.
inspection of foreign-flag vessels by, 8, 48
inspection of tank barges by, 10
inspection responsibilities of, 47-51, 82
recommendations for small tankers, 143
Collisions
casualties due to, 23
committee interpretations of DnV report regarding, 299
design for possibility of, xix, 52, 86
fires following, 67
momentum exchange and energy dissipation in, 58-65
oil outflow resulting from, 243-246, 297
stages of, 59-62
Combination carriers, 155-156
Committee RR761 (Japan), 183
Computer use
for enhanced information processing, 138
for salvage calculations, 96-97
Concrete hull structure
for penetration resistance, 110-111, 136-137
Construction standards
Coast Guard role in, 47
of world fleet, 6-8
Convertible tanks
outflow management and, 106-107, 127
Corrosion
design margin and risk of, 79-80
explanation of process of, 69
methods of inhibiting, 69-71, 91, 229
resistance to, 33
of segregated ballast tanks to, 70-71, 80, 97-98
Cost analysis
and measurement of economic effects, 167
methodology of, 168-171
results of, 171-172
Cost-effectiveness analysis, 159, 172-174, 179
Crack detection, 216
Crude oil
coastal trade in, 5
corrosive properties of, xxiv
increases in consumption of, 2-3
lightering of, 35-36
spillage of. See Oil outflow
traffic patterns for imported, 4
Crude oil cargo tanks, 80
Crude oil washing (COW), xxvi, 42
Cubic-limited carriers, 43, 53n.9
D
Damage stability.
See also Tanker stability
calculation of, 97
of double hulls, xxv, 99, 223, 229-237
35,000 DWT tankers and, 218-225
Damage survivability
criteria for, 83-84
MARPOL requirements for, 200
Databases, casualty, 186-187
Deadweight, ratio to lightweight, 30, 32
Deadweight capacity, effect of concrete hull structure on, 137
Deadweight-limited carriers, 42-43, 53n.9
Death, causes of, 23
Deck, intermediate oil-tight, 106-107
Deflecting hull
for penetration resistance, 110-111, 132-133, 140
Design.
See also Design alternatives
classification requirements for, 44-46
Coast Guard role in, xviii, 47
committee evaluation of, ix, xxi-xxiii
debate over, vii
domestic legal requirements for, 44
hull strength and, 77-82
See also Hull strength
personnel hazards due to, xxv
research needs for, xxvii-xxviii, 183-184
risk reduction due to improved, ix, xviii
safety of life issues and, 97-98
significance of MARPOL for, 42-43
structural elements of, 208-214
tank proportions, arrangements, and stability and, 82-89
Design alternatives
for accident response, 112-113, 137-140
analytical approach to, 158-171
applicable to barges, 141-143
and barriers to loss of oil, 104-105, 114-122
increased penetration resistance as, 110-111, 132-137, 142
and matrix listing technical considerations, 102-113
to mitigate pollution, 101-102, 106-109, 122-132
and pollution control analysis, 143-151
summary of initial technical evaluation of, 140-141
summary of relative outflow estimates in study of, 151-156
Design regulations
implementation of international law regarding, 43-44
implementation of U.S., 46-47
international, 39-42
methods for avoiding cost of new, 175-178
Det norske Veritas (DnV), 143, 183
Det norske Veritas (DnV) report, xix, 102, 141, 238
content list, 241
estimated oil outflow from 80,000 DWT tanker, 144, 294-296
estimated oil outflow in collision and grounding, 85, 243-251
interpretations and comments of committee concerning, 299-302
outflow estimates, xix, 330-333
preamble, 240
probabilistic ranking of 40,000 DWT tankers, 142, 148-151, 278-293
probabilistic ranking of VLCC designs, 145-148, 252-277
references, 298
scope of work, 242
Distressed-ship cargo transfer systems, xxiii, xxvi, 112-113, 116, 139-140
Double bottom, imaginary, 108-109, 130-131, 140
Double-bottom tankers
ballast requirements for, 84
cargo capacity of, 218, 220, 222
committee view of, xxi, xxiv, 92, 116, 117, 141
damage stability of, 223
height requirements for (Chevron Shipping Company), 226-228
OPA 90 requirements for, 47
transport costs for, 312
voids in salvage and, 90-94
Double-hull tankers
ballast requirements for, 84-85
as barriers, 104-105, 114, 119-120
cargo capacity and, 218, 221, 222
Chevron design for, 233
coatings for, 229
committee view of, xix-xxi, xxiv-xxv, 120, 141
cost-effectiveness of, 179
design of, 226-228
with hydrostatic control, xxii, 141, 152, 308
implications on inspection of, 81
maintenance and safety of, 229
OPA 90 requirements for, 46
results of extensive employment of, 81
spacing in, xx
stability, xxv, 88-90, 223, 229-237
Double-side tankers
ballast requirements for, 84
as barriers, 104-105, 114, 117-119
cargo capacity and, 218, 220-222
committee view of, xxi, xxiv, 118, 141
damage stability of, 223
with hydrostatic control, 141, 152, 175, 310
with intermediate oil-tight deck, xxii-xxiii, 125-127, 141, 152, 154, 175, 179, 311
OPA 90 requirements for, 47
transport costs for, 309-311
width requirements for, 227
Draft and trim requirements (MARPOL), 40
E
East Coast traffic patterns, 4
Economic considerations
of application of standards to existing fleet, xxvi-xxvii
for retrofitting, 117-120
for use of hydrostatically balanced loading, 123
80,000 DWT tankers
assessment of implications of design arrangements for outflow performance of, 144
committee interpretations of DnV report regarding, 302
estimated oil outflow from, 149, 294-296
Electrical installations, 67
Electricity, static, 66
Energy Information Administration (EIA), 3
Energy sources, alternative, 176
Engineering analysis, tanker design based on, 211-214
Environmental damage
caused by spills, 20-22
decrease in, 164-165
economic assessment of, 160-161
ESSO PUERTO RICO, 15
Exclusive Economic Zone, 46, 54n.15
Expert judgment technique
data analysis method in, 317-318
methodology overview of, 314-315
rating method used in, 175, 314, 322
results and conclusions of, 318-321
rules for, 315-317
Explosions
conditions for, 66-67
definition of, 28n.18
design features for safety in, 97-98
hazards of, xxiii, xxiv, 23, 65-66
inert gas systems to resolve problem of, 32
outside of cargo tanks, 67, 69
spills resulting from, 15-17
EXXON VALDEZ
cost of spillage, 160, 163, 174
potential net buoyancy of remaining oil in hull, 97
spillage from, vii, xvii, 20, 24, 71, 179
F
Fatigue and fracture mechanic analysis, 214
Fatigue resistance, 33
Federal Water Pollution Control Act (FWPCA), 164
Finite element analysis (FEM), 80, 212-214
Fires
conditions for sustaining, 66-67
definition of, 28n.18
design features for safety in, 97-98
hazards of, xxiii, xxiv, 23, 65-66
outside of cargo tanks, 67, 69
spills resulting from, 15-17
Flag of convenience ships, 44
Flammability, 65-66.
See also Explosions;
Fires
Fluid/vessel motion, 74-75
40,000 DWT tankers
probabilistic ranking of designs of, 142, 148-151, 278-293, 297
Fracture mechanics, 79
Fuel consumption, 169
G
GEORGIA, 20
Green water, 210
Grinding bow
committee view of, 134, 140, 141
for penetration resistance, 110-111, 134
Groundings
benefit of study of controlled, 185, 188
committee interpretations of DnV report regarding, 299-300
definition of, 27n.18
design for possibility of, xix, 52, 86
double hulls in, 154
information regarding, xix
momentum exchange and energy dissipation in, 55-65
oil outflows resulting from, xviii, 8, 15, 20-22, 71, 85, 247-251, 297
stages of, 59-62
types of obstacles involved in, 90-91
Gulf of Mexico, traffic patterns along, 4
H
High-energy accidents.
See also Accidents
intermediate oil-tight deck in, 125
performance of double hulls in, 120
results of, xix
High-tensile steels, 80-81
High-yield steel bottom structure
committee view of, 136, 140, 141
for penetration resistance, 110-111, 136, 141
Honeycomb hull structure
penetration resistance of, 110-111, 135-136, 140
Hull girder bending moment, 209, 212
Hull strength
design loads, stress analysis, and scantling selection and, 78-79
design margins and, 79-81
inspection and maintenance and, 81-82
for penetration resistance, 110-111, 132-137
rupture initiation process and, 186
structural design principles to understand, 77
Hull structure
committee view of, 135, 136, 140
high-yield steel, 110-111, 136, 140, 141
longitudinally reinforced, 140-142
prediction of extent of damage to, 186
unidirectionally stiffened, 110-111, 134-135
Hulls
ceramic coating on, 110-111, 137, 140
concrete, 110-111, 136-137, 141
internal deflecting, 110-111, 132-133, 140
spacing of, 85
Hydrostatic control. See Hydrostatically balanced loading
Hydrostatic equilibrium, 74, 96
Hydrostatic pressure, 71-74, 92
Hydrostatically balanced loading
barges and, 141
committee view of, xxi-xxii, xxiv, 124, 141
and oil outflow management, 106-107, 122-124, 127
requirements for, xxvi-xxvii
Hydrostatically driven vacuum, 108-109, 129-130
Hypothetical outflow of oil
formulas for, 41-42
MARPOL requirements for, 201-202
I
Ignition sources. See Explosions; Fires
Imaginary double bottom
for outflow management, 108-109, 130-131
Imports
projections for, 3-4
replacement of Jones Act movements with, 177
Inert gas systems (IGS)
mechanically driven vacuum and, 129
requirements for, 42
to resolve problem of fires and explosions, 32, 67-69, 97
Information processing
for accident response, 112-113, 137-138, 140
Injury
causes of, 23
Inspections
adequacy of hull spacing for, 85
ballast tank, 215
to detect buckling, 216
importance of, 81-82
owner or classification society, 48
Insurance costs, 169
Interior Department (DOI) regulations, 164
Intermediate oil-tight deck (IOTD)
with double sides, xxii-xxiii, 125-127, 141, 152, 154, 175, 179, 311
oil outflow management and, 106-107, 124-127
Internal deflecting hull, 110-111, 132-133, 140
Internal/external liquid pressure differential, 208-209
International Association of Classification Societies (IACS), 45, 52
member societies of, 53n.11
International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships , 39.
See also MARPOL requirements
International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), 39
International Convention on Load Lines (ICLL), 39-40
International Maritime Organization (IMO)
conferences of 1973 and 1978, 42
implementation of conventions of, 43
involvement in research, 189
pollution-prevention provisions of, xxvi
responsibilities of, xviii, xxiii, 39
structural design standards of, 52, 89, 226
International Oil Pollution Compensation Fund (IOPC Fund), 163-164
J
Japanese research projects, 183
K
L
Legislation
implementation of international, 43-44
MARPOL requirements and U.S., 46-47
Lighter size, 36
Lightering
in coastal activity, 5
to extinction, 35
as ignition source, 67
reliability and safety of, 36
Lightning. See Lightering
Lightweight, ratio to deadweight, 30, 32
Liquid pressure differential, 208-209
Load on top (LOT) system, 123
principle used for, 53n.8
Loadlines, 39-40
Louisiana Offshore Oil Port (LOOP), 8, 36, 176
Low-velocity accidents, xix
M
Machinery, as cause of fires, 67
Magnesium sacrificial anodes, 67
Maintenance
adequacy of hull spacing for, 85
of double-hull tankers, 229
importance of, 81-82
Maintenance and repair costs, 169
Manning requirements, for barges, 34
MARPOL requirements
Annex I text, 200-207
implementation of, xxvi, 39-41, 46-47, 125
list of major, 40-42
significance of, 42-43
MARPOL tankers
as base case, 160
committee view of, 141
corrosion in, 80
See also Corrosion
damage stability of, 89
Mechanically driven vacuums
committee view of, 140
for outflow management, 106-107, 128-129
Membrane energy, 59
METULA, 92
Middle East imports, 4
Monetized benefit-cost analysis, 158
Multi-buoy moorings (MBMs), 34
N
Natural resource costs, 161-162, 164
NESTUCCA, 21-22
Non-voyage operating costs, 168
O
OBOs, 155-156
Ocean-going barges. See Barges
Oil. See Crude oil; Petroleum products
Oil outflow
analysis of, 165-167
from collisions and groundings, xviii, 8, 15, 20-22, 52, 56, 71, 85, 92, 243-251, 297
committee estimates of, xix, 151-156, 330-333
cost of, 163-165
diffusion and dynamics of fluid/vessel motion and, 74-75
DnV estimates of. See Det norske Veritas (DnV) report
from double bottoms, 8, 92, 116
50 major accidents resulting in, 13, 15-17
per gallon ratios of, 25-26
physical mechanisms governing, 71-74
risk of, xvii-xviii.
See also Pollution risk
ullage space and, 72, 74, 106-107
Oil outflow management
barges and, 142
convertible tanks for, 106-107, 127, 140
explanation of, 122
hydrostatically balanced loading for, 106-107, 122-124, 127
hydrostatically driven vacuum for, 108-109, 129-130
imaginary double bottom for, 108-109, 130-131, 140
intermediate oil-tight deck for, 106-107, 124-127
mechanically driven vacuum for, 106-107, 128-129, 140
service tank location and, 108-109, 132
use of smaller tanks for, xxi, 108-109, 131-132
Oil outflow research
projects planned on, 183-184
recent studies conducted on, 182-183
Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA 90), viii, 182
encouragement of lightering by, 35
requirements of, xxi, xxiii, 46-47, 127, 160, 164
research funded under, 188
Oil prices, 3
Oil products. See Petroleum products
Oil-tight deck. See Intermediate oiltight deck
OLYMPIC GLORY, 20
Outer dynamics, 59
Outflow. See Oil outflow; Oil outflow management
Oxidation films, 69-70
Oxygen, as cause of fires, 66, 67
P
Penetration depth, 62
Penetration resistance
for barges, 142
ceramic-clad outer hull for, 110-111, 137, 140
concrete hull structure for, 110-111, 136-137, 141
grinding bow for, 110-111, 134, 140
high-yield steel bottom structure for, 110-111, 136, 140
honeycomb hull structure for, 110-111, 135-136, 140
internal deflecting hull for, 110-111, 132-133, 140
unidirectionally stiffened hull structure for, 110-111, 134-135
Performance standards, 184-185
Petroleum hydrocarbons
fire or explosion due to leakage of, xxiii, xxiv
in marine environment, 10, 12, 28n.19
Petroleum products
carried by barges, xxiv
increases in importation of, xvii
spillage of. See Oil outflow
traffic patterns from imported, 4
Piping systems, 34-35
Pitting process, 70
Plating rupture, 60-61
Plimsoll Mark, 39-40
Pollution
accidents resulting in, 10-13, 26
caused by ballast water, 35
caused by fires or explosions, 15
outflow management to limit, 106-109, 122-132
Pollution control analysis
and committee conclusions from DnV analysis, 151, 299-302
and estimated outflow from 80,000 DWT tankers, 149, 296, 302
and ranking of 40,000 DWT tankers, 148-150
and ranking of VLCC tankers, 144-148
of selected design and design combinations, 143-144
Pollution prevention
barriers for, 104-105, 114-122, 132
classification requirements for, 44-46
Coast Guard responsibilities for, 47-51
domestic legal requirements for, 44
implementation of international law regarding, 43-44
implementation of U.S. requirements for, 46-47
international legal requirements for, 39-42
significance of MARPOL for, 42-43
Pollution risk
acceptability of, 24-26
background of, 23-24
control of, ix, xviii, 110-111, 132-137
defining, 24
of transporting oil by tanker, 26
Port depth limitations, U.S., 8
Port states
explanation of, 8
regulations of, 44
Ports
requirements for, 34
traffic at U.S., 2
transshippment in foreign, 177
PRESIDENTE RIVERA, 20
Protectively located segregated ballast tankers (PLBST), xxvi, 104 -105, 115, 219, 221
Pump rooms, as ignition source, 69
Pumping systems
alternative, 96
capability of, 94-96
R
RACHEL B., 20
Ramming, 27-28n.18
Reefs, 91
Research programs
needs, xxvii-xxviii, 188
new focus on, 184-188
presently in works, 183-184
recommended strategy for U.S., 188-189
as result of EXXON VALDEZ accident, 182-183
Residual strength
following damage, 65
models for, 187-188
Resilient membrane
as barrier, 104-105, 114, 120-122
Retrofitting
in double bottoms, 117
in double hulls, 120
in double sides, 118-119
of intermediate deck, 126-127
of intermediate oil-tight deck with double sides (IOTD w/DS), 127-128
in ocean-going barges, 117-120
Risk. See Pollution risk
Risk ratios, 25-26
Royal Norweigian Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (NTNF) , 183
S
Sacrificial anodes, 71
magnesium and aluminum, 67
Safety considerations
introduction of, 30
regarding design, 37-39, 79, 229, 230
Safety Construction Certificate, 45
Salvage
cargo systems and, 94
computer programs and, 96-97
concerns regarding, 89-90
definition of, 92
double-bottom tankers and voids in, 90-94
emergency cargo pumping capability and, 94-96
Scantlings
classification societies on use of, 211
selection of, 210
Segregated ballast tanks (SBT).
See also Ballast tanks
arrangements, 86-88
cargo capacity of, 221-225
oil outflow in, 155
protective location for, xxvi, 104-105, 219, 221
requirements for, xxvi, 40, 42-43, 53n.5, 83
safety of crew and condition of, 97-98
salvage concerns related to, 89-97
susceptibility to corrosion of, 70-71, 80
Service tank location, 108-109, 132
Shear forces, 209
Ship owner associations, 183
Ship to Ship Transfer Guide, 36
Shipping regulation enforcement, vii
Single-port moorings (SPMs), 34
Single-skin tank vessels
cargo carrying capacity of, 221-222
conclusions concerning, xix
damage stability of, xxv, 218, 219, 223
latest designs for, xxi
worldwide use of, 8
Size. See Tank vessel size
Slamming, 209
Slop tanks, 42
Sloshing, 123, 210, 211, 213, 214
Sloshing analysis, 214
Sluice valves, 94
Small tanks
accident response and, 142-143
committee view of, xxi, 132, 141
deflecting hull in, 133
outflow management in, 108-109, 131-132
transport costs for, 313
void spaces in, xx
Societal insurance analysis, 159
SOLAS requirements
class and, 45
time frame for implementation of, 41
Sparks, as ignition source, 66
Spill reduction analysis, 165-167
Spillage. See Oil outflow
S.T. ARROW, 162
Stability. See Tanker Stability
Static electricity, as ignition source, 66
Steel
high-strength, 32
high-tensile, 80-81
Steel-on-steel contact, 67
Stress analysis
hull strength and, 79
Stress corrosion, 70
Structural behavior
criteria for, 52
need to understand, 185-186
Structural/machinery damage
in collisions or groundings, 59
definition of, 28n.18
Structural weight reduction, 30, 32
Submerged reefs, 91
Surveys
large tanker structural, 215-217
types of, 45-46
T
Tank cleaning, 215-216
Tank subdivision requirements, 42, 204-207
Tank vessel size.
See also various types of tankers
as design issue, 82-85
limitations on, 40-41, 202-204
trend to less-regulated, 176
in U.S. trade, 8-10
Tank vessels.
See also various types of vessels
application of standards for existing, xxv-xxvi
characteristics of, 32-33
description of operations of, 34-36
diversion of cargo to barges from, 176
extending life of existing, 178
number of ocean-going, 2, 26n.1
risk presented by, 1
two-tier market for, 177-179
types and control of, xvii, 6-10
Tanker stability.
See also Damage stability
double-hull, xxv, 88-90, 223, 229-237
requirements for, xxiv-xxv, 42, 83, 204-207
salvage and, 93
Tanks.
See also individual types of tanks
convertible, 106-107, 127, 140
small. See Small tanks
TexPort, 36
Thermal loads, 210
Thermal stress analysis, 214
Tides, role in groundings of, 91
Towing fittings
Traffic
concentrations of, 4
increases in, 1-4
intercoastal and intracoastal, 4-5
Transfer systems. See Cargo transfer systems
Transport cost data
development and use of, 170, 171, 178
for various vessels, 303-313
Transshipping, 177
Trim requirements, 40
U
Unidirectionally stiffened hull structure, 110-111, 134-135
V
Vacuum systems
barges and, 142
committee view of, 129, 131, 140
hydrostatically driven, 108-109, 129-130
mechanically driven, 106-107, 128-129
summary of, 131
Vessels. See Tank vessels
Vibration analysis, 214
VLCCs (very large crude carriers)
committee interpretations of DnV report regarding, 300-301
inspection of, 81-82
oil outflow from, 85, 144, 152, 153, 331-332
probabilistic ranking of, 144-148, 252-277, 297
structural surveys of, 46, 215-217
Void spaces
in double-bottom tankers, 90-94
flooding of, xxv
in small tanks, xx
Voyage costs, 168
W
Water, green, 210
Weight reduction, structural, 30, 32
West Coast traffic patterns, 4
WORLD PRODIGY, 20
Z
Zinc sacrificial anodes, 67
