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OCR for page 225
v
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE EXPOSURE TO INDOOR ATR POLLUTANTS
The types and quantities of pollutants found indoors vary
temporally and spatially. Depending on the type of pollutant and its
sources, sinks, and mixing conditions, its concentration can vary by a
factor of 10 or more, even within a small area.
Human mobility constitutes an important kind of complexity in the
determination of exposure to air pollutants. Human activity patterns
differ between midweek and weekend, between one season and another, and
between one part of one's lifetime and another. Activity patterns
determine when and how long one is exposed to both indoor and outdoor
pollutants. Therefore, in reviewing the factors that influence
_ . . . . . . . .
a 1r-pollut~on exposures, we have specif ically separated them into two
major components: time (activity) and concentration (location}.
Information on the time spent in various activities is summarized
f irst, and then the variations In concentration encountered in
different locations. Unfortunately, most of the -studies discussed were
not longitudinal and thus do not offer information on seasonal ;
d ifferences in time spent indoors and outdoors or on regional
differences in activity patterns.
Outdoor concentrations of pollutants and rates of inf titration
affect the concentrations to which people are exposed indoors. The
emphas is of the second section of this chapter is on geographic
vat iations in outdoor pollution and their impact on indoor pollution .
Building construction techniques, as they vary geographically, and
their of feet on pollution inf titration rates are particularly
important. But the measurement techniques available are ~ imited; the
need for additional studies is discussed. The rates of inf iltration on
a neighborhood scale have been studied by only a few researchers.
Although their work has focused on energy conservation, their findings
can easily be applied to the study of the impact on indoor pollution.
As shown in Chapter IV, there can be large indoor-outdoor
differences in pollutant concentrations. Concentrations also vary
among indoor locations and from one time to another. In determining
total exposure to pollutants, therefore, both indoor and outdoor
concentrations must be well characterized. The ways in which building
characteristics affect indoor pollution vary with type of pollutant,
225
OCR for page 226
226
type of building, building location and orientation, and even room use
within a given building. Building characteristics are the subject of
the f inal section of this chapter .
RtMAN ACTIVITIES
Patterns of human behavior and activity determine the time spent in
any specific location, and thus knowlege of them is essential in
estimating exposures of populations to pollutants. As indicated by
Ott, s ~ a large number and variety of studies in which data on human
activities were collected from population samples have been completed
over the last 50 yr.
When one examines the literature on human activities, the term
"time budget. (.zeitbudget,~ Budget de tempt is encountered often.
A time budget produces a systematic record of how time is spent by a
person in some specified period, usually 24 h. It contains
considerable detail on a person's activities, including the locations
in which the activities take place.
One way of obtaining time budget information f rom the populations
surveyed is to ask each respondent to maintain a diary of his or her
activities over a 24-h period or longer. In another approach, the
so-called ~yesterday. survey approach, the interviewer asks each
respondent about his or her activities on the preceding day.
Several summer ies of the Hilton ical development of time-budge t
research have been published. ~ ~ ~ ~ s 2 7 ° Ott S ~ discussed the
literature on activity patterns in the context of estimation of
exposure to air pollution.
The Multinational Comparative Time Budget Research Project,
launched in September 1964 by a small group of social scientists from
eastern and western countries, used common principles for sampling,
interviewing, and data coding and tabulation on an international
basis . The population sample consisted of nearly 30, 000 persons in 12
countries (Belgium, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, France, East Germany,
West Germany, Hungary, Peru, Poland, United States, Soviet Union, and
Yugoslavia). A standardized coding sytem was developed for comparing
activities in different countries. The multinational study developed
coding system with 100 categories of activities represented by a
two-digit code (from 00 to 99~. The activities represented by these
codes can be grouped into 10 classes: working time and activities
related to work, domestic house work, care of children, purchasing of
goods and services, private needs (such as meals and sleep), adult
education and professional training, civic and collective
participation, sports and active leisure, passive leisure, and
spectacles, entertainment, and &ocis1 life. .'
The Project yielded a rich data base that has been summarized in a
number of tables, figures, and artic].es. 6t For example, the average
time spent by employed men, employed women, and married housewives in
var ious locations in 12 countries is shown in Table V-1 . The data show
that employed men in the 12 counts ies spend between 12 h ~ in Hungary
and 15 .2 h ~ in Belgiu - ) in tbeir homes, whereas housewives spend
OCR for page 227
227
TABLE V-1
Time Spent in Various Locations in 12 Countries
(Average Hours per Day ja
. ,
.
~ _
Y
., .
_
..
- E
_ _
_ ..
l
~ 1.1 E~by" ~. all - , s
ins,*ones home IS.2 I2.S 143 136 13.6 14.~ 138 12t, 12.41 1*t(t 13.4 13.6 134 '~u I jn
us' outs~r one's t~0mc (~.t (' ~ 0.3 0.3 1.0 O.t 0 4 1 f' f' 1 n ~ o.' o 1 t' ~ ~,.<
atone'`workptace S.O 77 S.9 7.2 S.4 4.1 6.g 7.S 64 7.0 67 b5 6.S
~ srans'1 1.S 2.1 1.6 I.S 1 7 2.2 1 ~ 2.0 2.S 1.7 1.6 1.< .,, ! R
v, othe'"ople's home O.S 0.2 0.3 O.S O.S 0.6 (~.3 (~.3 O.S 0.4 tI.4 0.6 (., (,, ~ ~
pl~esof buaness 0.7 0.6 0.6 O.S 0.4 0.4 t\.~ 0.4 0.? 0.4 ~ 7 0 7 ~ ~ O.S t'.<
a, res"~ants end "rs 0.2 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.4 U 1 ().2 0.3 0 0 0.4 t3.4 0.2 `' ~ r'`'
- allo~crhcat~ons 0.4, 0.2 0.9 0.2 0.9 0.6 0.3 0.6 0.6 0.' O.S 0.4 0.' ~ 3 U.1
toul 24.0 24.0 24.0 24~.0 24.0 24.0 24.0 24.() 24.0 24.0 24.0 24.0 24.0 ,4.D 24.
7 J. ~ t~po~t wo~. aN ^ws
ms~c or~e sh~ 17.1 14.e 16.0 IS.3 17.0 16.7 16.7 14.S 16.1 IS.O IS ~ Ic ~ 14.0 15 (' 1S O
ust outs~e one s home 0.1 0.3 0.' 0.0 0.7 0.2 0.2 0.3 1).4 0.1 0.0 ().1 Q.l t).3 ~t
at one s wo?lcpbec 3.6 6.S S.1 6.3 3.6 3.6 4.9 6.8 4.4 S 8 S.2 S.(' t.7 ,,. ~ h
sran512 }.' 1.6 1.3 1.} 1.1 1.3 1.1 1.4 1.8 I.S 1.3 1.3 1.7 1.4 ~ c
c'~er people's home O.4 0.2 0.2 O.S t,.4 0.9 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.6 0 7 0.h D.2 0.6 0.2
~ pl~s of buS~s5 1.0 0.6 Q8 0.6 0.6 (~.8 0.7 O.S 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.1 O.h 0 ~ O.4
u~re'"urantsandbsrs 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.~ 0.3 0.1 00 0.1 0.0 0.2 0.2 0.' V0 0.0
~n ~! other bcai'ons 0.4 0.2 0.4 O. 1 ().4 0.2 0.1 0.2 O.2 0.2 0.3 0.d t).4 0. ~ t,. i
to - 1 24.0 24.0 24.0 24.0 24.0 24.(1 24.0 24.0 24.0 '4.0 24.0 24.(J 24.0 24.0 24.u
~1.3 Ho-~. aU ~ys t~ °~J
msidco~v'sl~e 21.6 20.4 20.9 21.7 20.4 20.S 21.3 197 '1.0 20.9 20.S '119 19.6 205 19.,
JUst outs.,c one's hon" 0.2 1.4 0.3 ().1 0.8 0.4 0.3 2.! O.S 0. t 0.1 0.1 (` ~ O ~ 2
- ~an~t 1.0 O.9 1.: I.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.9 1.2 1.2 1.0 0.9 1 ~ 1 ~ 1 1
other people's t~ome 0.4 0 4 0 3 O.S 1~.6 O.6 0.) 0.2 0.4 t1.S 0.8 0.7 0. . ti ~ `i ~
mpbmsotb~ncss O.S 0.7 1.1 0.6 0.7 1.1 0.9 0.9 0.? 1.' 1.2 1.1 1.1 n.4 O.S
~n tcsr-urmts end bus O.J 0.1 0.0 (~.~) 0.1 0.1 0.U 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.] (~1 0.(' (~.(i (~.D
o~e'toesuons 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.3 0., 0 ~ ~ 1 ().1
toul 24.0 24.0 24.0 24.0 24.0 24.0 24.(} 24.0 24.0 24.0 24.D 2<.0 24.0 '4.0 24
-
aReprinted with permission from Szalai.69 Data are weighted to ensure
equality of days of the week and number of eligible respondents per
househol d.
OCR for page 228
228
between 19.7 h (in Hungary) and 21.6 h (in Belgium} in their homes. In
the 12 countries, therefore, employed men spend, on the average, 50-63t
of the day in their homes, and housewives spend 82-901 of the day in
their homes. It is difficult to determine the overall amount of time
spent indoors from these data, because categories like Hat one's
workplace. do not distinguish between indoor and outdoor workplaces.
Similarly, the categories Sin places of business. and tin all other
locations. do not specify whether they are indoors or outdoors.
However, if one assumes that all ~workplaces,. replaces of business,.
and Restaurants and bars. are indoors, along with the category tin
other person's hones,. and that the category Sin all other locations.
is assumed to be entirely outdoors, then it is possible to estimate the
amount of time spent by respondents in three general categories:
indoors, outdoors, and in transit (see Table v-2~.Si
Wi th these assumptions and the restructured data shown in Table
V-2, it is estimated that employed men in the 12 countries spend
between 84% ~ in Maribor, Yugoslavia) and 92% ~ in France) indoors . It
should be emphasized, however, that many of the entries in Table V-2
cannot be compared with each other on a statistical basis, because the
numbers of respondents in the samples vary . Also, the
representativeness varies, because some countries, such as the Soviet
Union, are represented by a single city and its suburbs (Pskov,
population 115, 000 ), whereas others , such as the United States (44
cities ), are represented by a national sample of metropolitan areas .
Finally, some assumptions as to whether a location was indoors or
outdoors need to be examined, because they may introduce error.
However, the estimates in Table V-2 appear useful as rough
approximations of the times spent by residents of 12 countries indoors,
outdoors, and in transit. 5 ~
I f only the data for the United States {44 cities ~ are considered,
it appears that, on the average, employed men spend 90% of the day
(21.7 h) indoors, whereas married housewives spend 95% of the day ,~2.8
h ~ indoors . Employed men in the United States are estimated to spend
2 . 9 ~ of the day ~ 0 . 7 h ~ outdoors, and housewives 1 . 7 % (0 . 4 h ~ .
Although the estimates in Tables V-1 and V-2 are useful for
determining the total amount of time spent in various locations, they
give little information about the time of day when persons are present
in each location. Data from the multinational study can be displayed
in a composite profile that shows the proportion of the population that
are engaged during the day in selected activities, such as sleeping.
eating, working, travel, and watching television {Figure it-l}.
In addition to the studies of activities in the United States by
Robinson, 57-55 activity-pattern studies have been carried out in
Durham, N.C., by Chapin and Hightower, ~' on a sample of 43 Standard
Metropolitan Statistical Areas (SMSAs) by Chapin and Brail, \2 on a
followap U.S. national sample by Brail and Chapin. ~ and on the
Washington, D.C., metropolitan area by Hammer and Chapin. ~ 2
Information supplied in this section is limited to urban areas; this
reflects the available published information. No comments are made on
variations in numbers, because it i'; beyond the scope of this document
to assess their reliability.
OCR for page 229
229
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MIDNIGHT 6 AM NOON 6 PM MIDNIGHT
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TIME
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FIGURE V-1 Diurnal profiles showing percentage of employed men in
United States (44 cities ~ engaged in nine types of activities as a
faction of time of day (weekdays only). Data weighted to ensure
equality of days of the week and numbed of eligible respondents.
Reprinted with permission from Szalai. 9
OCR for page 231
231
In the United States, legislation passed in 1952 required urban
areas to conduct metropolitan-area transportation studies as a
prerequisite for receiving federal funds for highway construction.
As a result, transportation studies have been undertaken in 200 areas
of the United Stares, and these studies have usually involved
collection of considerable detail about the transportation activities
of the urban population, particularly in cities with populations in
excess of 50,000. As reported by Robinson, Converse, and ssalai,6°
the multinational research project also collected information on the
average time spent in commuting to and from work in various countries
(see Table V-31. Most of the summaries of findings from time-budget
studies have presented only average values and seldom given histograms
or information on the variance of the time spent in various locations
or activities.
In 1969-1970, the U.S. Department of Transportation made
arrangements with the Bureau of the Census to carry out a nationwide
study of the transportation-related activities of the U.S population.
This study, called the Nationwide Personal Transportation Study, was
based on home interviews and covered individual activities in
considerable detail. ~ ~ ' 26 27 33 S. ~S-~. Figure V-2 shows a
f requency distribution of the amount of time spent in commuting based
on these data. Assuming two trips per day, the overall average of 22
min/trip compares reasonably well with the average of 46 min/d reported
by Robinson, Converse, and Szalai . ' °
There is a need for a special-purpose activity-pattern study
specifically tailored to the problem of estimating air-pollution
exposures. Previous activity-pattern studies have not considered
questions that apply to exposures to air pollutants. Such a survey
should begin with a pilot study on a single city, to perfect the
experimental design and data-collection methods, and should use
personal monitoring instruments to measure exposures. Once the pilot
study is completed and the results are evaluated, a large-scale
research investigation could be cart fed out on a number of cities or on
a national probability sample. The large-scale survey would use
diaries and personal monitoring instruments to characterize the
frequency distribution of air-pollution exposures of the population as
a whole and in selected cities . Information f ram the diar ies could be
compared with the measurements of exposure to determine how dif ferent
activities affect population exposure rates.
GEOGRAPHIC AND LOCAL VARIATIONS
The air quality of an indoor environment is often described on the
basis of one 24-h average obtained from one indoor sampling location.
The spatial distribution of indoor air pollutants within a structure is
a little-studied subject. Therefore, recent or current unpublished
works and technical papers related to environmental concerns, but not
nectar fly to indoor air quality, are incorporated in this review.
Some of the associations made and conclusions reached are clearly based
on explicitly stated assumptions, rather than on scientific
documentation.
OCR for page 232
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The types of pollutants and the concentrations of each type vary
between locations within a structure, between structures within a
geographic area, and between geographic areas. This section discusses
some of these interrelationships.
GEOGRAPHIC V0IATIONS IN I~R AIR QUASI"
Owing to the small number of field monitoring steadies, the
geographic distribution of indoor air pollutants has not been
determined. However, it is instructive to review the geographic
distribution of the major factors that affect variations in the
concentrations of pollutants and their impact on the quality of the
indoor environment. Outdoor air quality, air-infiltration rates, and
sources of emission of indoor pollutants are the major factors.
Outdoor air quality has been studied with respect to some pollutants,
and the gem raphic distribution of these few pollutants is well
understood. Descriptive statistics published annually by EPA and state
and local air~quality agencies furnish much scientific information
useful in discerning regional and ~ ocal differences in concentrations
of carbon monoxide, total suspended particles, ozone, NOk , sulfur
dioxide, sulfates, and others. Clearly, it is beyond the scope of this
document to summarize the existing information on geographic variations
in the types and concentrations of all ambient pollutants. It should
be noted that the geographic distribution of some criteria pollutants
has been studied and is easily accessible from the literature;
information on noncriteria pollutants is sparse and often collected and
analyzed by questionable methods.
Concentrations of chemically nonreactive pollutants in residences
generally correlate with those outdoors. Results from the six-city
study, " which monitored indoor and outdoor environments for an
extended period, clearly showed the influence of outdoor concentrations
on the indoor environments (see Figure V-33. Another study,., .'
sponsored by EPA, supported the conjecture that indoor concentrations
of inert gaseous contaminants correlate with outdoor concentrations.
The available data base i" not large enough to support statistical
conclusions, but there is little doubt that the variations in indoor
pollutant concentrations correlate with variation" in outdoor
concentrations. Thus, it is expected that a city with high outdoor
pollutant concentrations will have high indoor concentrations, unless
control strategies are used . Although this is a broad, general
conclusion, it must be emphasized that the indoor concentration of ~
given pollutant is expected to vary widely among residences within one
city. This variation may be sufficient to mask the impact of varying
outdoor concentrations
Distribution of indoor air quality is extremely difficult to
describe on a geographic scale, because indoor air quality is
determined by complex dynamic relationships that depend heavily on
occupant activity and highly variable structural characteristics.
Weather, which has a regional character, influences indoor air
concentrations of some chemicals, such as formaldehyde, and biologic
-
OCR for page 235
235
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FIGURE V-3 Annual nitrogen dioxide concentration outside and
inside electric- and gas-cooking homes ~ averaged across each
community' ~ indoor and outdoor network (May 1973-April 1978).
Reprinted with permission from Spengler et al.6
OCR for page 248
248
Pl]TSBURGH HIGH-RISE #3 171IJNE 77 TIME 1645
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FIGURE V-8 Episodic release of sulfur hg~afluoride gas. Reprinted
with permission from Moschandreas et al.
OCR for page 249
249
building's service life. The relationship between building factors and
indoor air quality teas not been quantified, or for that matter
extensively studied, but it is important. Designing and controlling
building factors may prove to be an effective mechanism for acbleving
desirable indoor air quality.
SITE CHARACTERISTICS
The characteristics of a building site that influence indoor air
quality are addressed as three related subjected air flow around
buildings, proximity to major sources of outdoor pollution, and type Of
utility service available.
The air flow around a building has been shown to be determined by
the local characteristics of the geometry of surrounding buildinqe. so
the location and type of surrounding vegetation,7' the terrain, 22
and the size and shape of the building itself. 3i Pollutants can be
transported by the air flow frown street level, over the facade of the
building, and onto the roof. A 20 35 Field tests of isolated
buildings have been reed to develop scaling coefficients for both
isothermal and stratified cases of surface wind pressures, turbulence,
and dispersion. t, s' Air flow around a building creates low pressure
on the leeward "ice and/or the sides adjacent to the windward face, as
well as the roof. 30 Air pollutants released from stacks, flues,
vents, and cooling towers in the region can reenter the building
through makeup-air intakes for ventilation. A
Trees and forests have been generally studied as -helter belts in
an agricultural context. Shelter belts affect, air flow around
building.. When an air current reaches a shelter belt, part of it is
deflected upward with only a slight change in velocity, part passes
through the crowns of the trees with very low velocity, and part is
deflected beneath the canopy with rapidly decreasing velocity. 2 ~ ~ ~
The changes ir, velocity of air flow outside may change the infiltration
rate and thus affect indoor air quality.
lithe location of a building relative to a major outdoor pollution
source can affect indoor air quality. For example, buildings near
major streets or highways often have high carbon monoxide and lead
concentration., owing to the infiltration of tbese pollutants. 15 t. 23
The type of utility service available is also related to the siting
of a building and may affect the character of its indoor environment.
The availability of particular fuels (e.g., natural gas and oil)
influences the types and concentrations of pollutants {e.g., combustion
products) emitted by space- and water-heating. Service moratoria,
development timing, and development scale are institutional elements
that contribute to the variability of utility services and thus can
affect indoor air quality.
OCCUPANCY
Occupancy factors that affect indoor air quality include the type
and intensity of human activity, spatial characteristics of a given
activity, and the operation schedule of a building .
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250
Several human activit$es--such as ~king, cleaning, and
cooking--generate gaseous and particulate contaminants indoors. Tbe
number of occupants of a space and the degree of their physical
activity (i.e., metabolic: rate at rest or under intense activity} are
related to the production of various pollutants, such as carbon
d ioxide, water vapor, and biologic agents. If the only source of
indoor carbon dioxide production is that caused by occupants,
ventilation rater may be proportional to the number of people and their
metabolic rates. Is Although studies have shown no constant
~ _
relationabip between carbon dioxide concentrations and the
concentrations of other pollutants, carbon dioxide concentration is
often used as a general indicator of the adequacy of ventilation in an
occupied space.
Building occupancy is often expressed as occupant density and the
ratio of building volume to floor area. The importance of occupancy in
indoor air quality is illustrated by the fact that the choice of
natural or mechanical ventilation is based on occupant density and the
spatial characteristics of the budding under consideration. The use of
Yaglou's early work on the relationship between occupant density and
detectable body odor in determining necessary ventilation rates is
discussed elsewhere.
Occupancy acbedules and associated building use may affect the
type, concentration, and time and space distribution of indoor
pollutants. Because most buildings are unoccupied for substantial
portions of each day, the manipulation of Operating schedule. is a
means of controlling energy use. ~ Efforts to conserve energy through
the design of ventilation system can result in tbe degradation of
indoor air quality. 55 However, detailed studies relating ventilation
capacity, occupancy Schedules, energy reguirements. and indoor air
quality bare only recently been implemented.
DESIGN
Elements of building design tbat affect the indoor environment
include interior-space design (apace planning), envelope design, and
selection of materials.
The evolution of space planning in many building types has resulted
in flexibility in assigning functions to specific locations. However,
this flexibility is accompanied by a decrease in the ability to predict
exposure to air pollutants. In particular, ~open-plan. offices and
schools have serious technical problems of redundant service
distribution, limited acoustic control, incomplete air diffusion, and
incomplete pollutant dispersion indoors. compared with ~fixed-plan.
floor layouts.
Evaluation of the success of a floor plan in achieving space
efficiency, structural economy, and energy efficiency is usually in
terms of net area per occupant and ratio of net usable area to total
area. Explicit planning for environmental quality must be included to
ensure that spatial arrangements are acceptable to the occupants.
A building's structural envelope consists of both primary
elements--foundations, floors, walls, and roofs--and secondary ~skin.
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2S1
elements--facings, claddings, and sheathing. To various degrees, the
function of these is to maintain the integrity of the structure under
the stresses caused by structural load, wind pressure, thermal
expansion, precipitation, earth movement, and fire. me integrity of
the building envelope is a major consideration in uncontrolled air
movement into and out of a building--usually referred to as
~infiltration. ~ This in a major factor in indoor air quality. There
teas been no systematic survey of infiltration rates of buildings in the
United States. The dominant factor in determining a building's
infiltration rate is the total area of effective leakage, as measured
with fan pressurization. Following the leakage area in importance are
the terrain and shielding near the building, the mean climatic
conditions during beating {or cooling) periods, and the building
height.'2 There is muab evidence,)' both in the United States and
in Europe, that house. in mild climates are Every leaky, ~ whereas
houses in severe climate- are ~tight..
Greater height of a building increases the attack effect,. or
updrafting, and exposes the building to higher wind speeds. lout,
higher wind pressures drive air through existing openings, referred to
as ~leakage,. increasing the infiltration rate. 62
The dominant building factor" that determine infiltration have not
been identified, but a catalog of leakage openings found in typical
structures z. as follows:
· Walls: Leakage around sill plates (the opening. at the bottom
of wallboard), electric outlets, plumbing penetrations, and headers in
attics for both interior and exterior walls.
· Windows and doors: Window type in more important than
manufacturer in determining window leakage. " This source of leakage
tends to be overrated; it contributes only about 20% of the total
leakage of a house.' 7~
· FireDlaces: This includes damper-, glass screens, and
fireplace caps.
· Beating and cooling sY-~temB : The variables include combustion
air for furnaces, dampers for stack air draft, air-conditioning units,
and location of ductwork.
· Vapor bar r ier and insulation penetrations .
· Utility accesses: This includes recessed lighting and
plumbing and electric penetrations leading to attic or outside.
· Terminal devices in conditioned space: This includes leakage
of dampers, especially those for large air-handling systems.
· Structural types: Examples are drop ceilings above cupboards
or bathtubs, prism-shaped enclosures over staircases in twos tory
houses, and elevator and utility abafts that lead from basement to
attic.
Wall and ceiling materials and floor finishes are the constituents
of the building interior. Modular components, weight, strength,
thermal insulation, thermal stability, sound insulation, f ire
resistance, ease and speed of installation, and ease of maintenance are
among the criteria considered in the selection of materials for walls,
ceilings, and floors. But emphasis on first cost, ease of
installation, maintenance, and long service life has also led to the
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252
use of materials that may be sources of indoor contaminants, as
mentioned in Chapter IV.
OPERATIONS
Depending on the type of ownership Owner Occupied or
developer~owned}, building operation may vary considerably, and this
variation may have an impact on indoor air quality. Building
operation. pertains to the following elevate of a buildings the
building envelope, service and plant, building facilities, equipment,
and landscaping. Cleaning, preventive maintenance, and replacement and
repair of defects are also included in building operation. ace staff
responsible for building operation include ~nageaent, engineering, and
custodial personnel. The care responsibilitiea are operation of the
treating, ventilation, and air~conditioning systems and building
services, such as hot water, lighting, and power distribution.
Building operation has an impact on indoor air quality in numerous
ways, but the magnitude of this impact is not know.
SUMIARY AND R~BNDATIONS
. .
The nearness of ~ building to pollution sources and its orientation
with respect to wind affect the impact of airborne pollutants ~ritbin
its envelope and the performance of its OVAL: system. Air flow around
buildings, protective building placement. and landscaping at the site
and on an urban scale are useful in mitigating indoor contamination.
The magnitude and duration of activity in a building affect the
generation and dispersion of pollutants. Building classificatione that
specify occupancy limits for safety and fire protection can also be
used to determine its environmental Control reguireaente. The control
of indoor pollutants depends on floor layout, pollutant concentrations.
emission rates of Sources, and type of ventilation system. Theme
factors vary with the age, region, and type of construction of the
buildings.
A systematic formulation of interactions of air turbulence,
stratification, and pressure distribution between buildings needs '^5-ii,''' ~6
developed to predict the effect of site conditions and design a amputee
for buildings. Also, obiecti~re aeasure~nte of concentrations of
~ . _ . . . . . _
contaminants for aaJor cla608 of builds - e now to be ~~e for use In
predicting the effects of building factors on the requirements for
pollution mitigation within buildinqe. The messure~nt of dispersion
characteristice for basic floor layouts and sys tees should be
undertaken to identify cathode of dilution or masking of pollutants.
The manhunt of energy required for mitigation with various control
strategies should be studied to optimize energy efficiency and indoor
air quality. The lifetime costs of various mitigation strategies
should be measured to identify promising first cost and annual~cost
alternatives both for the design of new buildings and for the redesign
of existing buildings.
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2S3
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.
.
Representative terms from entire chapter:
air infiltration
