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OCR for page 259
HI
MONITORING ED MODELING OF I~R AIR POLLUTION
This chapter discusses the research tools required for measuring or
estimating indoor pollution and exposure to it.
Techniques and instruments used for the measurement of outdoor
pollution may be modified for the sampling of indoor environments.
Several problems emerge with such modif ications, and those problems are
discussed here, as well as instruments designed specif ically for the
sampling of indoor air.
Personal monitors are increasingly recognized as powerful
scientific tools for determining individual and population exposure to
a it pollutants . Although they are still in the early stages of
application, it is clear the personal monitors can yield data that are
useful in associating human activities with exposure to air pollution.
The benefits and def iciencies of personal monitors are discussed in a
separate section of this chapter.
The extent of indoor air pollution can be estimated with numerical
models; mass-balance equations are used to estimate concentrations of
indoor pollutants as fractions of outdoor concentrations and to
estimate infiltration rates, indoor source strengths, pollutant decay
r ates, and mixing factors . Several models have been developed, but f ew
have been validated against data obtained from measurements.
In estimating the total exposure of humans to pollutants {exposure
to pollutants encountered indoor and outdoors, in industrial sites and
other workplaces, etc.), it is essential to know not only the pollutant
concentration., but also individual patterns of mobility and use of
t ime . The available information pertinent to the last two
characteristics has been gathered roo~;~cly by social scientists and,
although interesting, does not meet the information needs for assessing
exposure to air pollution. The final section of this chapter discusses
the idea of total exposure and what knowledge is needed to measure it.
FIXED-STATION SAMPLING AND MONITORING
There is an extensive data bare on outdoor air quality, and much of
the knowledge gained from studies of outdoor air quality is applicable
2S9
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260
to the characterization of nonindustrial indoor environments. However,
the characteristics of indoor air quality in residentis1 and commercial
buildings and at other indoor sites can be quite different from those
of outdoor and hea~y-industrial environments. Thus, a n',mher of
special problems arise: the quality of indoor air is affected by a
broad spectrum of pollutants from both outdoor and indoor sources;
measurements of indoor air concentrations may require sampling
instruments considerably different from those used in the outdoor or
industrial environment; and the air volume inside a building is finite,
and the rate of air exchange (especially in residential units) may be
very low, and therefore, when air samples are drawn from an occupied
space by external samplers, the s~mplinq flow rate must be so low a. to
have only a negligible effect on indoor air movement and on the air-
exchange rate.
Because of the effects of equipment heat and noise, an well as
occupant inconvenience, sampling and monitoring equipment should (and
usually can) be placed in remote locations outside the building being
evaluated. Thus, it is common practice is to locate the instruments
outside the building space and draw air-~ple streams to them.
Se~plinq technigues fall into the following broad categories:
-
· Continuous sampling : Provides ~real-time. sampling: required
to observe temporal fluctuations in concentration over abort periods.
· Integrated or continuous asm-Dlinq: Provides an average
sampling over a specified period; used when the mean concentration is
either desirable or adequate for the purpose.
· Grab or spot sampling: Provides single samples taken at
specified intervals; typically consists of admitting an air sample into
a previously evacuated vessel, drawing a sample into a deflated bag for
later analysis, or drawing (by mechanical pump) a sample through a
sample collector to extract a contaminant from the sir; suitable when
.spot. samples are adequate for the measurement of a pollutant and
knowledge of temporal concentration Variation over short periods is not
important.
Some instruments sample and measure pollutants directly, and others
ample for later laboratory analysis. The direc~c-reading inetruments
required for continuous monitoring use various types of physicocl~emical
detectors that can measure the concentrations of pollutants in situ.
Integrated or grab-sampling method. are used when there ts no suitable
concentration sensor available, when the pollutants of interest are
present at concentrations too low to permit use of direct-reading
instruments, or when sampling sites are inaccessible to bulky
instruments. Further information on Sampling and measurement methods
for air pollutants is available elsewhere. ~ 53 l.'
CONTINUOUS MONITORING
~-
Cont~nuous monitoring is a technique for sampling and measuring the
real-time concentration of pollutants. Indoor sir quality in subject
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261
to both temporal and spatial variations, and data on these variations
would be needed to determine the concentrations to which occupants are
exposed or to model indoor air pollution. The choice of monitoring
techniques must be consistent with the types of information desired and
the resources and manpower available. Although continuous monitoring
has numerous benef its, it also has a number of disadvantages.
Two positive features
of continuous monitoring are that peak
short-term concentrations can be determined, in addition to average
concentrations calculated over any period, and that concentration
variation as a function of time can be correlated with source
generation , inf iltration-ventilation , and other characteristics.
The availability of continuous-monitoring instrumentation depends
on many factors, including the chemical properties of the pollutant and
the range of concentrations to be measured. Continuous monitors are
commercially available for all the gaseous pollutants that are
designated ~criteria. pollutants by the EPA--carbon monoxide, sulfur
dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, ozone, and total nonmethane hydrocarbon. .
The EPA has specif fed performance criteria for the instruments used to
measure each of these pollutants, and all analyzers that meet these
specifications in performance sts are designated ~EPA-approved.
Continuous-monitoring system a, even with high~quality
instrumentation, are not troub.' ~-free. For example, continuous
monitors are expensive and rep ire frequent calibration and routine
maintenance. In addition, they have their own power and ambient-
temperature requirements and can create safety, heat, and noise
problems if they are placed at the sampling points. For these reasons,
monitoring systems are generally designed to have all equipment for
continuous analysis and recording at a single remote site, often a
mobile laboratory. Such a laboratory usually contains facilities for
calibration and maintenance, and it may also provide electric power and
suitable environmental conditions for the equipment. If sampling lines
made of flexible fluorocarbon tubing or other nonreactive materials are
used, air from several sampling points can be drawn into the laboratory
for analysis. One set of continuous monitoring equipment can be shared
by several sampling sites if the individual lines are sequentially
sampled.' In this scheme, all instruments obtain air samples from a
colon manifold, which, in turn, is supplied with air from one of four
sampling sites (one of which is usually outdoors) or from a calibration
system. ' ~ The length of the sampling interval for each site can be
determined by the response times of the individual instruments , the
actual transit time in the sampling line, and the details of temporal
information required at each sampling site.
Continuous monitoring requires highly trained field personnel,
rigorous quality-control (calibration} procedures, and provisions for
quality assurance ~ independent performance audits of routine monitoring
and data-handling operation" ~ . Securing electric
_ power and a suitable
location for a mobile laboratory equipped with sampling lines and
cables can require long-term planning and entail considerable expense.
This type of f~xed-station monitoring is not suitable for large-scale
s urveys, because of these time and cost considerations . For
large-scale survey work, integrated sampling and grab-sampling
techniques are generally snore appropriate.
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262
INTEGRATED SAMPLING
Integrated sampling, in which a known sampling rate is maintained
over some period, is commonly used for pollutants that must be
accumulated to permit analysis. The period of collection may be
several minutes or several weeks or month.. Analysis may be performed
at the collection mite or in a laboratory. The data resulting from
analysis of integrated samples are expressed as an average
concentration over the sampling period. A variety of particles, gases,
and vapors are sampled by this technique.
Particles can be collected on filter media for later gravimetric
and chemical analyses. Size-selective particle samplers, such as
various dichotomous air samplers58 and portable cyclone sailers, i. l.2
are used in indoor aerosol sampling when it is desirable to determine
the concentration of fine particles (less than 2.5 ~ in aerodynamic
diameter} or respirable particles (less than 3.S am in aerodynamic
diameter ~ . The samples can be analyzed by beta gauge or gravimetric
techniques capable of determining mass concentration; by x-ray
fluorescence, neutron-activa~cion analysis, etc., to determine their
elemental,composition; and by ~ variety of separation and analytic
techniques to determine chemical Composition. Aerosol samplers must be
placed directly at the sampling sites, to avoid the particle losses
that occur when air i. drawn through sampling lines. me
sophistication of particle samplers ranges from hand-held unit. that
require manual operation to fully automated units that can be programed
to operate unattended for several weeks.
Gaseous substances can be collected by both passive
(diffusion-controlled) and active {powered bulk air-flow) samplers.
Soluble vapors, such as formaldehyde and ammonia, can be collected by
liquid gas washers and bubblers. Air sampling with bubblers, as well
as with other accumulating sample collectors {such as ad~orbers and
condensation traps), requires that the total volume of the air sample
be accurately known. This can be accomplished with dry- or wet-test
meters, which measure sampled volume directly, or by measuring or
controlling the sampling rate and tie e .
Many techniques have been used to measure the concentrations of
radon and radon daughters. Because of the low level of radioactivity
usually found in buildings, integrated measurements are often
necessary. Passive devices that use sensitive thermoluminescent
dosimeter (TLD) chips, 23 passive fi", or track~tch techniques25
can record alpha decay over periods of weeks or Months to determine
average radon concentrations. Radon-daughter concentrations can be
determined by Massing a known volume of air through a filter paper
. · . . . ~ · _ ~ ~
(typically for 10 min) and then measuring total alpha acezvley on one
filter with an alpha-decay ratemeter.
Integrated sampling techniques have several advantages: they are
less expensive and require lest manpower than continuous monitors, they
can be used to measure concentrations that are too low to be measured
directly, samples can often be analyzed later at a more convenient time
or place, and average concentrations over long periods are easily
obtained. But they also have some disadvantages: short-term temporal
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263
information is lost; samples must be taken frequently if temporal
variability in concentration in to be assessed; transporting the sample
to its point of analysis may require special handling, special
environmental conditions, or rapid delivery to avoid deterioration; and
quality control may be more difficult deco implement.
GRAB SAMPLING
In grab sampling, one sample is collected over a very short
period. Grab samples have to be taken frequently, if temporal
variability in pollutant concentrations is to be assessed. It is
usually the least expensive technique for field sampling, unless very
f requent samples are required. It may simply involve f illing a
container with an air sample and transporting it to a laboratory for
analysis, or it may involve extractive sampling, as in calorimetric
detector tubes. It is moat useful when the laboratory equipment
required for analysis is at a remote location, when a very large number
of samples are required, or when manpower and equipment are limited.
Sampling vessels commonly used include plastic bottles, glass tubes
f illed with adsorbent, stainless-steel containers, and bags of aluminum
polyester (Mylar), P~C film, and fluoroplastic film. '' Grab sampling
has been used to estimate concentrations of radon, tracer gases, and
organic compounds.
Grab sampling can be used to measure radon concentrations by
pumping a known volume of air through a filter into a Tedlar24 bag,
which is impervious to radon. The time at which the sample is taken
must be recorded, and, because of the decay properties of radon gas,
analysis must be performed within a few days. If necessary, the sample
can be concentrated with a cryogenic trap or transferred directly into
a z inc sulf ide scintillation chamber s ~ for alpha-counting. The bags
are inexpensive and can be mailed, with manual pumps, to field sites.
Similarly, air samples can be qualitatively and quantitatively analyzed
for organic compounds with gas-chromatographic techniques.
Grab sampling, with its low cost and minimal manpower requirement,
is suitable for large-scale survey work. However, a number of problems
are associated with this technique. No information other than an
~ instantaneous. concentration can be obtained, and this value could be
greatly affected by something as simple as the opening of a door or
window. Sampled volumes are relatively small, and the laboratory
measurement technique must be sensitive enough to determine ambient
concentrations directly. Inward and outward diffusion of various gases
has been observed for many material'; used in collection bags, and leaks
in the containers and connectors are common. Par tickler attention must
be given to degradation, adsorption, oontamina~ion, transformation, and
the possible formation of artifact pollutants. The expeditious
transport of grab samples with reference to time, temperature, sealing,
and handling is important. Quality control is difficult to maintain,
but must be established before this technique can be used with
confidence.
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264
MONITORING OF VENTILATION RATE
Indoor air quality is directly affected by the rate at which
outdoor air enters a building. Ventilation can be used to maintain low
concentrations of indoor-generated pollutants . In turn, hen comfort
conditions, such ss temperature and relative humidity, can be the
determining factors in setting ventilation rates. Measurement of the
infiltration-ventilation rate, the meteorologic factors that affect it
(outdoor temperature, wind speed, and wind direction), and comfort
factors (temperature and relative humidity} can be an integral part of
fixed-location field monitoring.
ventilation systems; vary considerably. Detached single residential
units are ventilated primarily by infiltration--the uncontrolled
leakage of air through cracks in the building envelope {around doors
and windows, through walls and floor joints, etc.~--and by the
controlled opening of windows and dove. Large buildings are usually
ventilated by mechanical systems of varied complexity.
So-called f resin air enters detached residential structures by
infiltration; the term fair changes per hour. (ach) is routinely used
for thin source of ventilation--~1 ache means that a volume of outdoor
air equal to the volume of the interior building space ~leaks. inside
each hour. That does not idly that the incoming air drives out or
displaces the old air as it enters; rather, it is assumed that perfect
mixing takes place. In practice, however, perfect mixing is impossible
to achieve. Tberefore, an estimate of outdoor-air flow rate is based
on the assumption of perfect mixing and homogeneity of indoor air to
facilitate calculating infiltration rates.
I3y far the most c ~ only used method of estimating air~exchange
rates is the tracer-gas decay technique..' In this method, a tracer
gas is released into the building space at one or more points, possibly
a; - ~ - ~~ t~ ~¢ ~~
_~ "~= "~= ~^ arm. -~ this way' an attempt is made to produce a
uniform concentration throughout the building ~pace. If homogeneity is
maintained, the decay of the tracer gas is exponential, and the
infiltration rates can be determined by sampling the air at several
times. The air-exchange rate can be obtained from the slope of a
semilogarithmic plot of tbe natural logarithms of the pollutant
concentration versus time.
In a similar method, the equilibrium-ooncentration method, ~ tracer
gas is released at a constant rate into the building space. .' In the
s~eady-steee condition with perfect mixing, the indoor concentration
will reach a steady-atate value. From this and the injection rate, We
infiltration rate can be calculated. With this technique, although it
is simple to perform, it often takes many hours to reach a steady-state
equilibr in - .
More complex tracer~gas system can measure infiltration rates on a
semicontinuous or continuous basis.~, Many gases have been used for
tracer-gas measurements. Some of the properties that such a gas should
have are easy measurement at low concentrations, minimal interference
from other air constituents, chemical stability, nonreactivity, lack of.
absorption by building contents, a density comparable with that of air,
safety for hens, lack of explosiveness and flannosbility, absence of
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265
other interior or exterior sources, low cost, and ready availability.
Some gases commonly used are sulfur hexafluoride, nitrous oxide, and
ethane.~°
Mechanical ventilation systems vary considerably in design and
complexity, and methods chosen to estimate ventilation rates must be
suitable for the systems under consideration. The methods commonly
used to estimate the ventilation rate for systems that use
recirculation include pressure-measuring devices (such as inclined
manometers and U-tubes), velocity meters (such as pilot tubes, hot-wire
flow~eters, heated-thermistor flowmeters, and heated-thermocouple
flow~eters), mechanical gas-flow indicators (such as rotating and
deflecting-vane anemometers), tracer-gas techniques, and heat-balance
techniques.S, Care must be taken to distinguish between the total
rate at which air enters a particular zone and the rate at which
outside air enters the zone.
Temperature-measuring devices suitable for continuous monitoring
include thermocouples, semiconductors, and thermistors. Typical indoor
temperatures range f rom 15 to 40 °C. Thermocoupler present problems
with low voltage outputs near 0°C and have nonlinear characteristics,
but only when the cold junction is at 0°C. Semiconductor temperature
sensors Chat use integrated circuits and have a voltage output linear
with temperature are suitable for continuous recording. The most
common temperature probe for measuring temperatures in this range is
probably the thermistor, because of its high resistance ratio (which
yields large voltage changes for small changes in temperature), its
linearized output, and its wide operating range. Temperature gradients
can be large in a building and even in an individual room. Probes
should be placed where they will sense the temperature experienced by
the occupants. Temperature probes should be calibrated against mercury
thermometers that meet the specifications of the American Society for
Testing and Materials (ASTM}.
Relative humidity can be measured with sensors of the human hair.
type, which expand and contract with changes in humidity, or with
dewpoint-measuring devices. Commercially available dewpoint
hygrometers, based on the principle that the vapor pressure of water is
decreased by the pressure of an inorganic salt, are well suited to
continuous monitoring. Relative humidity can be readily calculated
from dry-bulb and dewpoint temperatures. Relative-humidity measuring
devices can be calibrated with the aid of sling psychrometers.
PERSONAL MONITORS
Over the last 2 decades, a wide variety of miniaturized air
samplers have become available that collect gaseous and particulate
samples from the immediate vicinity of people, even as they conduct
their normal activities. The initial devices used battery-powered
samplers, defined as ~nonpassive.. Although widely used. there devices
are often larger and heavier than desirable. Mare recently, a variety
of diffusion- and permeation-con~rolled samplers have become
available. These ~passive. devices are applicable solely to gas- and
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266
vapor-~ling and are very seall and light. They all use sensitive
chemical or physical analytic methods.
Three recent workshops reviewed candidate technologies for personal
sampling and monitoring of air-pollution exposure. A BrooNhaven
group.' identified potential methods for gas- and particle-
monitoring. An EPA feasibility study38 identified useful methods for
monitoring sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, and ozone. Another EPA
symposiums' explored the use of available technology for
health~ef fects studies and other uses .
Blood carboxyhe~oglobin {COBb) can be used as a measure of the
actual dose of carbon Monoxide received by a person.
Respirable-particle concen~crations are also of prime concern in
health-effect" studies; come of the factors involved in obtaining
reliable data have been evaluated. t.2
PERSONAL SAMPLING DEVICES
Gas-SamPling
The major techniques developed for sampling gaseous pollutants are
passive (based on membrane permeation or diffusion through a
geometrically defined air space) and nonpassive (in which air-pu~eping
devices draw defined air volumes through devices of known collection
e f f iciency) .
Passive S~plere. Passive samplers use the kinetic energy of gas
Molecules and the efficiency of the adsorbent collector to extract
pollutant Molecules from the air at ~ known rate. The Ampler must be
placed at the collection site, but has no requirement for ~ pump, flow
regulator, or batteries. Such samplers therefore have major advantages
with respect to weight, cost, and Maintenance. mere are two basic
types: diffusion and permeation. Their use is liaised by the rate and
amount of gaseous diffusion through a geometrically controlled air
space or by transport through a permeable membrane that is specific for
the pollutants being sampled.
The choice and use of the diffusion-collector technique require
knowledge of the coefficient of diffusion of the pollutant to be
sampled in air under conditions similar to those normally encountered.
Humidity effects have been encountered; ~ese are most probably caused
by changing absorbent efficiency.
One diffusion sampler has been developed.'''. for the measurement
of abut nitrogen dioxide. It uses the principle of diffusion
through the bore of an open tube that defines the rate of transport to
the collector. The quantity of nitrogen dioxide diffused fras the open
end of the tube to the collector surface (triethanol~ine) is
calculable by Fick's fires law of diffusion, which may be expressed as:
QNO2 D{A/L}Ct,Wh~re QNO2 ~ number of stoles of nitrogen dioxide
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267
transferred during time t, A a cross-sectional area of tube (cm2),
L ~ distance from open end to collector surface (cm), C ~ concentration
difference between tube entrance and closed end (mol/cm3), and D a
coeff icient of dif fusion of nitrogen dioxide in air (cm2/s) . The
required nitrogen dioxide absorbed ~ 2 iS given as a time-weighted
average concentration for the -sampling period. 2
Substituting typical values of the parameters--D ~ 0.154 cm Is,
A ~ 0.71 cm2, and L = 7.1 cm--simplifies the expression to:
Q~O2 = 2 ~ 3 (ppm-h) x 10-9 .
In principle, this method is applicable to determination of any
gaseous air pollutant for which an efficient, selective absorbent is
available and for which an appropriate analytic chemical procedure may
be devised. The size of the sampler can be varied, but attention must
be given to scaling factors. ~ ~ ' ° Diffusion samplers have reportedly
been used for water vapor and sulfur dioxide," nitric oxide,' t Is
aniline,~3 benzene, 4 Is ammonia,'2 carbon monoxide, and
NQx ' s An activated-carbon element has been used as the collector
in a badge that has an open grid to define the geometry of the gaseous
diffusion port. 32 This method of sampling requires use of
gas-chromatographic (GC) analysis for measurement of the specif ic
gaseous pollutant absorbed. A variety of organic compounds can be
sampled and measured by this technique.
A large variety of permeation samplers used for monitor systems are
available commercially. All use membranes fabricated and calibrated to
control the rate of permeation of the pollutant to the collector, which
may be a solid medium, such as charcoal or Tenex GO for specif ic
chemicals . Process ing of the collected sample var ies widely;
chromatographic or calorimetric procedures are commonly applied for
measurement.
Transport of a gaseous pollutant across a membrane resembles the
diffusion process. ~°7 However, permeation involves solution of the
gaseous species in the membrane . Specif ic interaction between the gas
and the polymer matrix introduces variables. As in a diffusion
collector, the concentration of the gas approaches zero on the side of
the membrane next to the collector, causing a gradient that results in
flow from the ambient-air side.
The permeability constant, P. of a membrane is def fined by the
equation N = PA (C1 - C2) /S, where ~ ~ rate of transport across the
membrane (mol/s ), p a permeably ity constant (cm2/s ), A ~ cross-
sectional area (cm2 ), S ~ membrane thickness (cm), C1 ~
concentration of gas on ambient side of membrane ~ ~/m3}, and C2
= concentration of gas on collector side of membrane ~ ~g/m3) .
As a function of time, Nt = PAClt/S. If W - Nt, the amount of gas
that passes through the membrane in time t, then. because P. A, and s
are constant for any device and gas, W = Clt/k, where k = s/PA, or
C1 = Wk/t.
Thus, the amount of a gaseous pollutant, W. trapped in the
collector medium is proportional to its concentration, C1, in the
air. The value of k must be determined by calibration.
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268
Membranes used in permeation collectors are made from polymeric
materials, such as dieethylailicones, silicone polycarbonate,
silicones, cellulose acetate, TFI: Teflon, F!:P Teflon, Mylar, polyvinyl
fluoride, Iolon, and Silastic. Thicknesses of 2.5-25 x 10 3 cm have
been tested. "
The permeation collector with activated absorbents is particularly
useful for organic pollutants when GO analysts ts abetted. Co~ercia1
monitors are available from the all Corporation35 and Du pant that
allow determination of Pore than 80 compounds by this method. Sulfur
dioxide,63 .. i~ chlorine,37 ~~ vinyl chloride I'' "'
nitrogen dioxide, ~ .. alkyl lead, I" and benzene ~ " have been
determined. The utility of a spectrum of absorbents in these passive
collectors teas been tested..
Nonpassive Svate~. A considerable variety of smopling system
using pu - s to move the air have come into use over the last 2 decades,
including impinger systems and solid adsorbere for gases and impingers,
filters, and infractors for solid particles. Directly indicating
devices using impregnated papers, chalks, and crayons and
stain~detector tubes have also been used. 'these techniques have been
reviewed in detail by Linch55 and Saltz~n.~
A recent development in personal monitors involves ~ pump that is-
positioned next to the wearer's diaphragm by a light harness. The
volume of air pumped by the motion of the thoracic cavity is recorded
by an electronic package, which may be checked by ~ detached readout
system. This system samples air for gases through costed
diffusion-tube collectors or for particles through sasI1 filters at
flow rates of 7S-SOO ml/min, depending on the wearer's breathing rate.
m e complete apparatus weighs 590 9. In conjunction with spira~eter
calibration, actual exposures to measured pollutants may be calculated.
Particle-Samplinq
Particulate samples are collected by using the same principles used
for large-acale samplers: filtration, impaction, and liquid
impingement. The separation of the respirable fraction of particles is
of considerable importance for personal monitors, and collection of
adequate numbers of samples for analysis is critical. All particle-
sa~plers use some device for souring the sir sable and for separating
the respirable~particle fraction. Collection is preceded by such ~
device as ~ cyclone presa~ler. me relatively low power available to
drive the air- - plink pop usually limits particle collection by
personal monitors to filtration, either in ~ single stage or in a
second stage that follows a cyclone that collects the large.
nonrespirable particles. For respizable-particle-~mpling. the
air-flow rate must be precisely controlled.
The theory of aerosol collection by filtration has been extensively
reviewed by Dorman,2i Pich, " Fuchs, 28 Green and Lane,36 Liu
and Lee,5' and Lippeann.~. Small-a cale impactors suitable for
respirable-dust-sa~pling with a personal monitor bane been described by
Marble and Willeke.~.
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269
Biologic Monitoring
Measurements made on the human body and its excretions constitute
an alternative way of measuring exposure to environmental pollutants.
They include measurements of blood, urine, feces, and hair. The
methods that can be used to relate environmental pollutant exposure to
human composition have been reviewed at length in other NBC reports (on
carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide., and various trace metals).
USE OF PERSONAL MONITORS IN EXPOSURE STUDIES
Exposures to air pollution usually vary with a person's mobility
patterns and activities. Therefore, estimating the total exposure of a
person from one or a few air-pollution measurements at stationary
locations cannot properly characterize the variation in a population's
or a person's actual exposures. To evaluate health effects, it ts
necessary to know actual personal exposures and the distribution Of
those exposures in a population.
The need for direct measurement of
personal exposure to pollution has been noted by several author. 67
Personal monitors for various pollutants are commercially
available. The Brookhaven workshop identified four basic experimental
designs:
1. Use of Individual Air Pollution Monitors for Direct
.
Determination of EX ~ sure. Each person in the study
population would wear or carry an individual air pollution
~ . . . .
monitor during the course of the study. The same individuals
would also be subjected to continuous or periodic evaluation
of health responses Individual exposure and response would
thus be measured. . . . Because of economic constraints, only
relatively small populations could be studied by this direct
approach.
2. Use of Individual Air Pollution Monitors to Adiust
Results from Fixed Stations. As previously indicated, there
can be substantial variations between area level measurements
and personal exposure measurements. By monitoring exposure
of individuals with individual air pollution monitors in
areas also monitored with fixed stations, one would obtain
the distribution of individual exposures in relation to
measurement. obtained at the fixed stations. If one or
several relatively constant relations were found in various
areas, fixed-station data would then be corrected for use in
estimating population exposures.
3. Use of Representative Sampling to Determine Subgroup
Exposure. A carefully selected sample of the study
population would be asked to wear or carry individual air
pollution monitors. The sample would be stratified, grouping
those expected to have similar exposures (e.~., office
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291
ott77 definer an ~exposure. of person i to concentration c
statistically as the joint occurrence of two independent events:
person i is present in microenvironment j, and the concentration Ctj}
c occurs in microenvironment j . C (; ~ denotes the probability
distribution of the concentrations associated with the microenvironment
and is based on f ield monitoring data . Then, the integrated exposure
Hi of person i is computed as the sum of the products of the
concentrations encountered in each microenvironment and the time spent
there:
£ =
_ .
~ Cjtij,
j = 1
where c. is the concentration associated with microenvironment j,
ti is {he time spent by person i in microenvironment j, and J is the
total number of microenvironments occupied by person i in some period
of interest. Conceptually, this model can be represented by a
three-dimensional array (see Figure VI- that is similar to a
three-dimensional space developed by Moschandreas and Morse. 70
However, the computer simulation follows one person at a time through
his or her daily activities, and the resulting distribution of
exposures is obtained by considering those of all persons in the
simulation. The times ti spent in the microenvironments are
variable and do not need lo be integer multiples of 1 h.
REFERENCES
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Environmental Protection Agency {Environmental Monitoring and
Support Laboratory, and Bealth Effects Research Laboratory)
Report No. EPA-600/9-79-032. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government
Printing Office, 1979.
OCR for page 301
301
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.
Representative terms from entire chapter:
carbon monoxide
