Index
A
Advisory Committee on Federal Pay, 95
Age effects on performance ratings, 64-65
Air Force task inventory, 49, 139
American College Testing, 59
Applied tradition, 3, 45-46, 137-138, 145-146, 150
Army Selection and Classification Project, 61
Automatic step system, 101
B
Behaviorally anchored rating scales, 56, 66-67n.2, 75, 78
validity of, 62-63, 71, 142, 143, 149
Behavioral measures, objective, 59
Bias, demographic, 64-65, 66, 106, 141
Bonus plans
executives and managers, 79, 87, 88, 114, 125-126, 157
negative effects of, 83
Brownlow Commission, 17
Bureau of National Affairs, 117
C
Campbell, Alan, 18
Carter, Jimmy, 17-19
Civil Rights Act (1964), 35, 138
Civil Service Commission, 15, 19
Civil Service Reform Act (1978)
employee expectations of, 22-26
merit pay, 14, 17, 21-22, 27-28, 135-136
Merit Pay System, 8, 21-22, 28
Performance Management and Recognition System, 28-30
Reagan administration and, 26-27
Senior Executive Service, 19-20
Classification Act (1923), 15-16
Classification Act (1949), 16
Cognitive ability tests, 60, 63-64, 66
Cognitive models, supervisor appraisal, 50, 66-67, 144
Collective bargaining agreements, 10
Communication, management-employee, 36-37, 108, 118, 120, 136, 145 , 148
Comparability increases, 20, 22, 29
Conference Board survey, 102, 104, 113, 115, 117
Constructionist school, 49
Construct validity, 58, 63-65, 66
Context variables. See Organizational context
Contingency theory, 67-68
Contingent labor, 124
Convergent validity, 58, 61-63
Cost-effectiveness, organizational, 36-37
Criterion-referenced appraisal, 55
Criterion-related validation, 58, 59-61, 63, 142
Critical incident technique, 49-50, 58, 66, 139
Critical job behaviors, 21, 56, 62, 70
D
Defense Department, 51
Demographic bias, 64-65, 66, 106, 141
Devine, Donald, 26-27
Discriminant validity, 58, 61-63
Distributive justice, 92, 93, 95, 154, 155
Due process requirements, 10, 133
E
Economic environment, 83, 89, 90, 130-131
Employee motivation
group incentive plans, 10-11, 86-89, 115
individual incentive plans, 81-84
merit pay and, 5, 84-86, 99, 165
organizational context and, 122, 129, 130-131, 158-159
pay for performance and, 5, 36-37, 80-81, 89-90, 136, 153-154, 165
performance appraisal and, 3, 28, 67-69, 146
public sector, 163
Employee perceptions
economic pressures and, 130-131
of fairness, 11, 92, 95-96, 101, 112, 129, 148, 150, 155, 156
meaningfulness of pay increases, 5, 30, 81, 85, 99, 153, 165
of performance appraisal systems, 106, 111, 145, 161
of performance goals, 5, 81, 85, 97, 99, 153, 165
of performance-pay link, 5, 21, 27-28, 29, 32, 68, 81, 85, 117, 120 , 153, 161, 165
trust in management, 69, 83, 89, 95, 130, 133, 153
Employees
attraction and retention of, 90-92, 98, 100, 113, 154
decision-making participation, 86-87, 93
fair and equitable treatment of, 5, 11, 36-37, 92-96, 100-101, 113 , 154-155
information sharing with, 10, 118-119, 120, 125-126, 156-157
legal protections, 5, 132-133, 163
organizational commitment, 88
participation in setting performance goals, 99, 104, 105, 108
performance appraisal feedback, 63, 65, 69, 72, 75, 146
personal characteristics, 56, 62
supervisors' knowledge of, 50-51, 60-61, 66-67, 142, 150-151
See also Federal employees;
Individual job performance;
Performance appraisal
Employment discrimination, 132
Environmental factors
economic climate, 83, 89, 90, 130-131
laws and regulations, 132-133, 160, 162
rating distortion, 147-148
unionization, 90, 131-132, 160
Environmental Protection Agency, 31, 126
Equity and fair treatment, 32-33, 92-96, 154-155, 165
employee perceptions of, 11, 92, 95-96, 100-101, 112, 129, 148, 150 , 155, 156
Equity theory, 73-74
Evolutionary (dynamic) strategies in organizations, 125-126, 159
Executive Position Description Questionnaire, 49, 52
Executives, 38, 88, 113, 114, 125
See also Managers
Expectancy theory, 80-81, 82, 86, 88, 89, 99, 146, 153
Expectancy X Valence model, 67-68
External factors. See Environmental factors
F
Federal Employee Attitude Survey, 22
Federal employees
attitudes toward Civil Service Reform, 22-26, 28, 136
attitudes toward employment conditions, 7, 26, 29-30, 32
attitudes toward pay for performance, 94-95, 101, 111, 155
managers, 5, 13, 19-20, 21, 27, 28, 30-31, 118-119, 124, 155
merit system, 7, 8, 14-17, 21-22, 23, 27-30, 31, 44
organizational commitment, 28
pay information, 10, 118-119, 157
performance appraisal, 13, 16, 23, 28, 38, 54, 76, 126, 133, 135
private-sector pay gap, 7, 30, 32, 136, 165-166
recruitment, 30-31
regulatory protections, 132-133, 163
unions and professional associations, 131-132
Federal Labor Relations Authority, 19
Federal policy implications
pay for performance research, 98-101, 134
performance appraisal, 3, 5, 138, 150, 160, 164-165
private-sector practice, 5-6, 7-8, 31, 40, 119-121, 135
Federal Reorganization Act (1939), 17
Fortune 100 firms survey, 102, 106, 108, 113, 118, 120, 156
G
Gainsharing plans
employee acceptance of, 131
and organizational performance, 8, 11, 79-80, 86, 87-88, 90, 114, 115, 116, 154, 157, 158
Garfield, James Abram, 14
Gender effects, 64
General Accounting Office, 28, 30, 32, 132, 163
General Aptitude Test Battery, 63
General Schedule, 16, 22, 27, 28, 136
General Services Administration, 30
Global ratings, 54-55, 67, 74-75, 144, 149
Goal-setting theory, 81, 82, 86, 88, 89, 99, 152, 153
Group incentive plans
context, 97
pay increases, 10, 79-80, 95, 155
performance effects, 86-89, 154
private-sector practice, 90, 114, 134, 151, 157, 159
H
Halo error, 55, 62, 67, 144, 147
Hawthorne effect, 40-41
Hay Company, 10
Health and Human Services Department, 31
Hewitt Associates survey, 114, 115
Hoover Commission, 16
Hourly employees, 103, 113, 114
I
Incentive Awards Act (1954), 16
Individual incentive plans
economic pressures and, 130-131
negative consequences of, 83-84, 89, 99, 133
performance effects, 81-84, 153, 158-159
unions and, 97-98
Individual job performance
measurement of, 45, 48-55, 58, 66, 78, 126, 132-133, 137-138, 140-141, 149-150
merit pay and, 4, 9, 99, 100, 157-158
and organizational effectiveness, 21, 76, 112-113
perceived link with pay increases, 5, 21, 27-28, 29, 32, 68, 81, 85, 117, 120, 153, 161, 165
See also Performance appraisal
Information sharing about performance and pay, 88, 118-119, 120, 156-157
Instrumentality models of motivation, 73
Internal Revenue Service, 126
Intrinsic motivation, 68
J
Job analysis, 2, 49-52, 74, 124, 138, 139-140, 150
validity of measures, 58-59, 66, 148
Job complexity and interdependence, 97, 99-100, 123
Job (work) samples, 60, 63-64, 66
Job security, 131
Joint-Service Job Performance Measurement Project, 51-52, 54
L
Labor cost regulation, 8, 10-11, 79, 80, 96-98, 100, 113, 115, 120 , 155-156
Labor productivity. See Employees;
Productivity
Labor regulations, 132-133, 160, 162
Office of Personnel Management, 19, 21, 132, 138
Labor unions, 7, 97-98, 100, 131-132, 160
Litigation, 31, 35, 67, 94, 144
M
McKinley, William, 15
Management
systems, 127-129
Management by objective, 9, 47-48n.1, 76, 84, 104, 108, 124
Management Excellence Inventory, 53
Managers (supervisors)
beliefs about performance and pay, 94, 95, 106-107, 110-111, 118-119, 155
employee appraisal, 2, 3, 50-51, 60-61, 63-65, 66-67, 74, 96, 108-110, 142, 148, 149, 150-151, 164
employee trust in, 69, 83, 89, 95, 130, 133, 153
federal, 5, 13, 19-20, 21, 27, 28, 30-31, 118-119, 124, 155
flexibility and discretion, 5, 23, 31, 32, 120-121, 133, 156, 161, 163, 164
group incentive plans, 88-89
merit pay plans, 38, 84, 85-86, 156, 157
performance of, 47, 49, 52-54, 59, 66, 74, 75-76, 105, 133, 139, 140, 159
rater training, 70-72, 75, 106, 108, 146-147
rating distortion, 72-74, 145-146
use of performance appraisal systems, 5, 10, 11, 84-85, 105-106, 108, 149, 164-165
Measurement
see also Rating errors
individual job performance, 45, 48-55, 58, 66, 78, 126, 132-133, 137-138, 140-141, 149-150
organizational performance, 116
performance appraisal system success, 3, 106, 112
quantitative, 54, 81, 86, 90, 96, 97, 99, 124
rating scale formats, 55-57
validity and reliability of, 37-38, 57-67
Mechanistic organization, 127-128
Merit pay
effectiveness of, 4, 117-118, 119
employee attraction and retention, 91, 100, 154
employee motivation, 5, 84-86, 89, 99-100, 131, 153-154, 165
federal civil service, 7, 8, 14-17, 21-22, 23, 27-30, 31, 44
performance ratings, 81-82, 96-97, 109-110, 149, 151-152, 164-165
plan administration, 116-117
plan budgets, 115
plan design, 115-116
private-sector practice, 9-10, 113-121, 156-157, 160-161
public-sector attitudes toward, 94-95, 101, 111, 155
See also Pay for performance
Merit Pay System, 8, 21-22, 27-28, 30, 136
Merit Systems Protection Board, 19, 29-30, 32, 163
Meta-analysis, 59-60, 63, 64, 65
Mid-level managers, 1, 21, 27, 28, 88-89, 110, 157.
See also Managers
Military job performance, 51-52, 60, 61, 142
Mixed Standard Scale, 56-57, 61, 143
Motivation theory, 11-12, 152.
See also Employee motivation
Multimethod-multirater technique, 61-62
N
National Commission on the Public Service, 30-31
National Institute of Standards and Technology, 31
National Institutes of Health, 31
National Science Foundation, 31
Navy studies, 22, 24-25, 73, 91
Neutral competence, 14, 17, 31-32
Nixon, Richard M., 18
Norm-referenced appraisals, 55
O
Objectivity in measurement, 48, 59, 140
Office of Personnel Management, 1, 7, 36, 135
federal employee survey, 22, 24-25
Management Excellence Inventory, 53
Opinion surveys, 106, 112, 120
Organic organization, 127
Organizational context
boundary, 162-163
culture and personnel practice, 39, 43, 110-111, 112, 118, 119, 120 , 152
effect on employees, 86-88, 93
labor relations, 130
and rating distortion, 72
research and, 4, 40-41, 47, 137, 158
size, 129-130
strategy and goals, 124-127, 133, 134
structure and management systems, 127-129, 134, 159-160
technological fit, 123-124, 158-159
Organizational justice, 42, 92, 93, 154
Organizational performance
individual performance effects, 10-11, 48, 76, 112-113, 145-146, 158
pay for performance systems and, 36-37, 38, 41-42, 79, 89, 90, 114 -115, 136, 158
P
Pay for performance
economic climate and, 130-131
employee motivation, 4, 80-90, 136, 153-154, 157-158
fair treatment and equity, 92-96, 154-155
federal civil service, 13, 20, 21-22, 26, 27-33, 98-101, 161
labor cost regulation, 96-98, 155-156
organizational context and, 4, 122, 130, 134, 158-160
and organizational performance, 36-37, 38, 41-42, 79, 89, 90, 114-115, 136, 158
and rating distortion, 73-74, 75
research on, 11-12, 35-36, 77, 80
See also Individual job performance;
Merit pay
Pay increases
seen as meaningful, 5, 30, 81, 85, 99, 153, 165
See also Performance-pay link
Pay satisfaction and dissatisfaction, 29-30, 32, 92-94, 95
Pay system objectives, 77, 80, 96, 98, 101, 113, 114, 151
Peer ratings, 65
Pendleton Act (1883), 14-15
Performance appraisal
applied tradition, 3, 45-46, 145-146
confidentiality of information, 39
effectiveness of, 43, 106-107, 112, 145, 148
employee feedback, 63, 65, 69, 72, 75, 146
employee performance objectives, 5, 54, 81, 84, 85, 94, 97, 99, 108 , 148, 153, 165
federal civil service, 3, 5, 13, 15-16, 20, 21, 22-23, 28-29, 135, 138, 160, 162-163
intended use of ratings, 3, 72, 73, 147
job analysis, 139-140
job performance measurement, 2-3, 45, 48-55, 138-139
legal protections and, 132-133, 163
legitimation aspects, 44, 75, 133
managerial judgment in, 2, 3, 109-110, 148, 149, 151
managerial performance, 47, 49, 52-54, 59, 66, 74, 75-76, 133, 139 , 140, 159
and motivation, 3, 28, 67-69, 146
organizational context and, 4, 47, 122, 125-126, 128, 134, 158, 160
private-sector practice, 5, 67, 102, 103-113, 119-120, 124, 148, 164
process emphasis, 42, 109, 112, 120, 148, 149
psychometric properties, 55-67, 74-75, 140-144, 150
quantitative measures, 54, 81, 86, 90, 96, 97, 99, 124
rater training, 70-72, 75, 106, 108
rating distortion, 72-74, 75, 147-148
rating quality, 69-72, 146-147, 149
reliability, interrater, 55, 65-66, 140-141
research on, 34-35, 46-48, 137-138
technology and, 123-124
validity of measures, 57-65, 141-142
Performance management, 109
Performance Management and Recognition System, 1, 5-6, 7, 8, 28-30, 43, 135-136, 146, 164, 166
Performance-pay link, 5, 21, 27-28, 29, 32, 68, 81, 85, 117, 120, 153, 161, 165
Performance Rating Act (1950), 16
Performance Review Board, 20, 27
Performance Standards Review Boards, 29
Personnel Management Project, 18-19
Personnel managers. See Managers;
Organizational context
Piece rates
cost of implementation, 96, 97, 100
distortion of data, 83
Political appointments, 14-15, 18, 136, 161-162
Political neutrality. See Neutral competence
Position Analysis Questionnaire, 49
Private-sector practice
attitudes toward pay for performance, 29, 94, 95, 110-111, 155
federal government implications, 31, 40, 44, 119-121, 135, 160-166
merit pay, 9-10, 113-119, 156-157, 160-161
performance appraisal, 5, 54, 67, 102, 103-113, 119-120, 124, 148, 164
See also Pay for performance;
Performance appraisal
Procedural justice, 42, 43, 120
employee perceptions of, 93, 94, 95-96, 101, 154, 155
pay for performance and, 82, 87-88, 96, 157
performance appraisal feedback and, 63, 65, 146
See also Individual job performance;
Organizational performance
Profit-sharing plans, 8, 10, 90, 152
performance effects, 88-89, 154
private-sector practice, 79, 86, 114, 157
unions and, 131
Psychological testing, 58;
see also Standardized tests
Psychometric properties
interrater reliability, 46, 65-66, 76, 140-141, 149-150
scale formats, 55-57, 66-67, 74-75, 138-139, 143-144
validity of measures, 57-65, 66, 141-142, 149-150
See also Performance appraisal
Q
Quality step increase, 16-17, 22
Quantitative performance measures, 54, 81, 86, 90, 96, 97, 99, 124
R
Ramspeck Act (1940), 16
Rank in position, 15
Rating distortion, 72-74, 147-148
Rating errors, 2, 46, 55, 70, 71, 143, 147
See also Halo error;
Leniency error;
Reliability
rater training, 70-72, 75, 106, 108
rating sequence, 71
Rating scale formats
behaviorally based, 56, 62, 71, 75
evaluation of 66-67, 74-75, 143-144
federal civil service, 16
number of anchors, 3, 65-66, 75, 144
Reagan, Ronald, 26-27
Reliability, 139, 140-141, 148, 149
See also Performance appraisal
Reorganization Plan No. 2, 17-18, 19
Research findings
convergence with private-sector practice, 102, 112-113, 119
cost regulation, 96-98, 155-156
employee motivation, 67-69, 80-90, 153-154
employee retention, 90-92
fair treatment and equity, 92-96, 154-155
pay for performance, government implications, 42-44, 98-101
performance appraisal, 35, 46, 67-69, 74-75, 149-151
quality of rating data, 69-72
rating distortion, 72-74
Restriction in range error, 55
Roosevelt, Franklin D., 15, 17
S
Salary Reform Act (1962), 16-17
Sales commissions, 10, 38, 78-79, 114, 151-152
Scholastic Aptitude Test, 58, 59
Selection tests, 59
Senior Executive Association, 27
Senior Executive Service, 16, 19-20, 21, 26, 27
Social Security Administration, 31, 85-86
Standard Descriptive Rating Scale, 63
Standardized tests, 46, 138-139, 142
Statistical analysis, 41, 142, 147
Steady-state organizations, 125-126, 134, 159
Supervisors. See Managers
T
Task inventory, 49, 50, 51, 52, 90
Technological fit, 123-124, 158-159
Temporary employees, 17
U
V
Validity, 37-38, 57-58, 67, 74, 76, 133, 139, 141-142, 148, 149, 150
convergent and discriminant, 58, 61-63
See also Performance appraisal
Variable pay plans, 3, 103, 151-152, 155