|
Items in cart [0] |
Questions? Call 888-624-8373 |
PAPERBACK PDF BOOK Free Resources |
||||||||||||||||
|
||||||||||||||||
|
|
|||||||||||||||
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Copyright © 2009. National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Terms of Use and Privacy Statement |
Below are the first 10 and last 10 pages of uncorrected machine-read text (when available) of this chapter, followed by the top 30 algorithmically extracted key phrases from the chapter as a whole.
Intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text on the opening pages of each chapter.
Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages.
Do not use for reproduction, copying, pasting, or reading; exclusively for search engines.
OCR for page 63
111
Microbiology of
Drinking Water
The principal microbiological contaminants found in drinking water of
the United States are bacteria, viruses, and pathogenic protozoa. Each is
considered in a separate section of this chapter. Helminths are included
along with the protozoa. Little information is available on mycoplasma,
pathogenic yeast, and pathogenic fungi in drinking water. Microbiologi-
cal contaminants, such as fungi and algae, do not seem to be important
causes of waterborne disease, although they are sometimes associated
with undesirable tastes and odors.
EPIDEMIOLOGY
The average annual number of waterborne-disease outbreaks in the
United States reported since 1938 is shown in Figure III-1 (Center for
Disease Control, 1976b). There was a decrease in the number of outbreaks
during the late 1930's and 1940's, but this trend was reversed in the early
1950's. There has been a pronounced increase in the outbreaks reported
by the Center for Disease Control (CDC) in Atlanta, Georgia, since 1971.
The reason for this apparent increase is not entirely clear, but it could be
either the result of improved reporting or an overloading of our treatment
plants with source water of increasingly lower quality. Since 1971, the
CDC, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), state epidemiolo-
gists, and engineers in state water-supply surveillance agencies have
cooperated in the annual reporting of outbreaks. The purposes of such
63
OCR for page 64
64 DRINKING WATER AND H"LTH
50 _
CC
m 40
in
~ 30
of
LU 20
I:
I:
-
o
1938- 1941- 1946- 1951 - 1956- 1961 - 1966- 197 1
1940 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1974
YEARS
FIGURE III-l Average annual number of waterborne disease outbreaks, 1938-1975.
reports are to control disease by identifying contaminated water sources
and purifying them, and to increase knowledge of disease causation. The
roles of many microbial agents, including, for example, Yersinia
enterocolitica and mycoplasma, remain to be clarified.
The most important waterborne infectious diseases that occurred in
1971-1974 are listed in Table III-1. The etiologic agent was determined in
only 53% of 99 disease outbreaks that involved 16,950 cases (Craun et al.
1976~. The remainder were characterized as "acute gastrointestinal illness
of unknown etiology."
Shigellosis was the most commonly identified bacterial disease (2,747
cases) in 1971-1974. Most of the cases were associated with non-municipal
water systems. Four typhoid fever outbreaks affected 222 people and
involved semipublic and individual water systems.
In 1974, 28 waterborne-disease outbreaks, comprising 8,413 cases, were
reported to the Center for Disease Control (1976a). The largest was an
outbreak of giardiasis that occurred in Rome, N.Y., with an estimated
4,800 cases. The second largest involved about 1,200 cases caused by
Shigella sonnet. In the third largest, which involved 615 cases of acute
gastrointestinal illness, the etiologic agent was not definitely determined,
but Yersinia enterocolitica was suspected. The fourth largest was caused
by Shigella sonnet and involved 600 persons. Nineteen states reported at
OCR for page 65
Microbiology of Drinking Water 65
least one outbreak. Craun et al. (1976) stated that "this probably reflects
the level of interest in investigating and reporting in different states rather
than the true magnitude of the problem within the state."
Semipublic water systems were associated with 55% of the outbreaks
and accounted for 32% of the total cases in 1971-1974. Municipal systems
accounted for 31% of the outbreaks, but 67% of the cases. Individual
systems accounted for 14% of the outbreaks and only 1% of the cases, but
outbreaks associated with individual systems probably are under-report-
ed, as opposed to those associated with municipal and semipublic
systems.
Deficiencies in treatment and contamination of groundwater were
responsible for a majority of the outbreaks (onto) and cases (onto) in 1971-
1974. Inadequate or interrupted chlorination was involved in 31% of the
outbreaks and 44% of the cases.
Craun et al. (1976) have drawn attention to the large number of
waterborne disease outbreaks involving travelers. In 1971-1974, 49 (onto) of
the 68 outbreaks that occurred in connection with semipublic and
individual systems affected travelers, campers, visitors to recreational
areas, or restaurant patrons; and 86% of the 49 outbreaks occurred
during April-September.
Outbreaks on cruise ships are excluded from the above tabulations, but
they are of interest and should be mentioned because they involve the
traveling public. For example, in June 1973, about 90% of 655 passengers
and 35% of 299 crew were affected by an outbreak of acute gastroenteri-
tis. An epidemiological investigation identified Shigella flexneri type 6
among early cases, and contaminated water and ice aboard the ship were
implicated as vehicles of transmission (Center for Disease Control, 19731.
In 1975, outbreaks of diarrhea on 8 ships affected between 9% and 61% of
the passengers. In most of these outbreaks the causal agents and vehicles
TABLE III-1 Etiology Of Waterborne Outbreaks
and Cases, 1971-1974
Disease OutbreaksCases
Gastroenteritis 467,992
Giardiasis 125,127
Shigellosis 132,747
Chemical poisoning 9474
Hepatitis-A 13351
Typhoid fever 4222
Salmonellosis 237
TOTAL 9916,950
OCR for page 66
66 DRINKING WATER AND H"LTH
of transmission were unknown; water was identified as the vehicle in one
of them (Center for Disease Control, 1976b).
In 1975, 24 waterborne disease outbreaks involving 10,879 cases were
reported to the Center for Disease Control (1976b). No etiologic agent
was found for the two largest outbreaks (Sewickley, Pa. 5,000 cases and
Sellersburg, Ind. 1,400 cases). The third largest outbreak, involving over
1,000 persons, occurred at Crater Lake National Park, Oreg. Enterotoxi-
genic E. cold was isolated from residents of the park who became ill, and
from the park's water supply.
Seventeen of the 24 outbreaks and about 9070 of the cases reported to
CDC were designated as "acute gastrointestinal illness." This category
includes cases characterized by gastrointestinal symptoms for which no
specific etiologic agent was identified. Cases resulting from water
treatment deficiencies (2,695) or deficiencies in the water distribution
system (6,961) accounted for almost 89% of the total cases in 1975. As in
the past, most of the cases occurred in the spring and summer.
The reported numbers of outbreaks and illnesses represent only a
portion of the true totals. Craun et al. (1976) called attention to the
outbreak at Richmond Heights, Fla., in 1974 as an example of why good
disease surveillance is necessary and of the way in which many illnesses
may go unnoticed. Initially, only 10 cases of shigellosis in this outbreak
were recognized by authorities. An epidemiologic investigation revealed
that approximately 1,200 illnesses actually occurred. This large outbreak
might not have been detected if local health authorities had not been
conducting shigellosis surveillance. In another outbreak, some 1,400
residents of Sellersburg, Ind. (31% of the town's population) experienced
gastroenteritis. The high attack rate, rapid onset of the outbreak, review
of water sampling data, and the town-wide survey suggested that the
illness was waterborne, but no bacterial or viral pathogens or chemical
toxins were found in the town water supply. Until improved detection
and reporting systems are in use, the available epidemiological data will
represent only a small fraction of the waterborne-disease problems in this
country.
BACTERIA
The principal bacterial agents* that have been shown to cause human
intestinal disease associated with drinking water are: Salmonella typhi,
*Nomenclature in this report follows the 8th edition of Bergey's Manual of Determinative
Bacteriology (Buchanan and Gibbons, 1974).
OCR for page 67
Microbiology of Drinking Water 67
typhoid fever; Salmonella paratyphi-A, paratyphoid fever; Salmonella
(other species and a great number of serotypes), salmonellosis, enteric
fever; Shigella dysenteriae, S. pexneri, and S. sonnet, bacillary dysentery;
Vibrio cholerae, cholera; Leptospira sp., leptospirosis; Yersinia enterocoli-
tica, gastroenteritis; Francisella tularensis, tularemia; Escherichia cold
(specific enteropathogenic strains), gastroenteritis; and Pseudomonas
aeruginosa, various infections. Several other organisms have been
associated with gastroenteritis, such as those in other genera of the
Enterobacteriaceae: Edwardsiella, Proteus, Serratia, and Bacillus.
Number of Cells Required to Infect
In attempting to assess the hazards in drinking water, it is important to
know how many viable pathogenic cells are necessary to initiate an
infection. McCullough and Eisele (19Sla,b,c,d) found that a dose of 106-108
salmonellae per person was necessary for most strains, although 105 cells
of some strains could infect. More recent studies by Dupont, Hornick,
and associates on selected enteric bacterial pathogens are summarized in
Table III-2. Some enteric pathogens are highly virulent, causing infection
when relatively few cells are administered (e.g., Shigellaflexneri and S.
dysenteriae), whereas others require large numbers to infect (e.g.,
Salmonella typhosa and Vibrio cholerae).
Virulence is a genetic trait and can vary markedly from strain to strain
(Meynell, 19611. Phenotypic variation in virulence can occur within a
given clone. A small percentage of the cells in a population may be
unusually virulent (Meynell, 1961; Meynell and Meynell, 1965~. Thus, it
does not always follow that because large numbers of cells are required
for infection in feeding trials, that large numbers in drinking water are
necessary to cause infection. Some few individuals may become infected
by small numbers of unusually virulent cells. Recent evidence also
indicates the possibility of genetic transfer of virulence from invading
microbes into the resident intestinal population, providing another me.ans
by which small numbers of organisms might initiate a disease state.
The consequences of an increasing prevalence in livestock and their
excrete of coliform organisms containing infectious plasmids and giving
rise to clinical conditions were not examined in detail because of time
constraints and their lack of immediate relevance to standard setting.
Similarly, the consequences of adding antibiotics to animal and poultry
feed and the enhanced hazards-of spreading drug-resistant organisms
were not examined.
The infecting dose also varies with the age and general health of the
OCR for page 68
68 DRINKING WATER AND H"LTH
TABLE III-2 Infective Doses For Man of Bacterial Enteric
Pathogens
Subjects Infected/Total Tested
Enters Pathogen
Dose: Viable Cells 10i 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109
Shigella dysenteriae
Strain M131 1/10 2/4 7/10 5/6
Strain A-1 1/4 2/6
Shigella flexr~eri
Seam 2A# 6/33a 33/49b66/87 15/24
Strain 2A# # 1/4 3/4 7/8 13/19 7/8
Salmonella typhi
Strain Quailes 0/14 32/116 16/32 8/9 40/42
Vibrio cholerae
Strain Inaba
With NaHCO3 11/13 45/52 2/2
No NaHCO3 0/2 0/4 0/4 2/4 1/2
Enteropathogen~c
E. cold
Strain 4608 0/5 0/5 4/8
SOURCES: Shigella dysenteriae: Levine et al., 1973; Shigella flexneri: Dupont et al., 1972b;
Dupont et al., 1969; Salmonella typhi: Cornice et al.. 1970; Vibrio cholerae: Cash et al., 1974;
Enteropathogen~c E. coli: Dupont et al., 1971.
aD.ose 1.8 x 102.
bDose: 5 x 103.
host population (MacKenzie and Livingstone, 1968~. Infants and the aged
may be particularly susceptible. Previous exposure to a given pathogen is
important, in that coproantibodies may prevent infection with a strain
that is generally present in the population, whereas a new serotype
introduced into the water supply may present an increased hazard.
Not all strains of Shigella are highly virulent. Shaughnessy et al. (1946)
determined infecting doses of four strains of Shigella while studying
immunization in volunteers. They found that infectivity in mice could not
be directly correlated with infectivity in humans and that doses of 109
organisms or higher `.vere needed to produce human infection. In their
extensive studies to develop a Shigella vaccine, Hornick, DuPont, and
associates observed the infective dose for several strains. With S. flexneri
2A, 30 of 39 volunteers became ill from a dose of 105-108 organisms
OCR for page 69
Microbiology of Drinking Water 69
(DuPont et al., 1969~. They showed that Shigella must penetrate the
intestinal mucosa to produce symptoms of classic dysentery and that
addition of bicarbonate facilitated this process. Two vaccine strains of S.
exneri 2A, a hybrid of a Shigella mutant, E. colt, and a streptomycin-
dependent strain, could be safely administered orally in doses of 10~°
organisms or higher (DuPont et al., 1972a). A virulent strain could cause
symptoms in doses of as few as 180 organisms (DuPont et al., 1972b). With
Shigella dysenteriae 1 (Shiga strain)-an organism that has two pathogenic
modes, invasiveness and enterotoxin elaboration the infecting dose in
man was shown to be as low as 10 organisms (Levine et al., 19731.
With such high infectivity of Shigella, why are waterborne outbreaks
not more common? One possibility is that Shigella survives poorly in
water. Wang et al. (1956) pointed out that, in a number of bacillary
dysentery outbreaks involving water, the organism was not, or could not
be, isolated. Over several years of studying irrigation water in Colorado,
Wang et al. (1956) and Dunlop et al. (1952) were not successful in isolating
shigellae, although salmonellae were frequently isolated. The survival of
shigellae in water appears to be shorter than that of many other bacteria;
Dolivo-Dobrovolskiy and Rossovskaya (1956) found Shigella survival
times of only 0.5-4.0 h during the warmest time of the year. However,
enteric pathogens may survive much longer times in lake or river
sediment than in free waters, and resuspension of such pathogen-loaded
sediments at a later time may introduce a "slug" of bacteria into the
waters that is not completely removed by treatment systems.
Estimation of Disease Potential by Direct Quantitation of Bacterial
Pathogens
The detection of bacterial pathogens in water polluted with human or
animal fecal matter is relatively easy when large numbers of organisms
are present (American Public Health Association, 1975~. Pathogenic
bacteria have been isolated from relatively clean reservoirs, rivers,
streams, and groundwater; large samples, concentration techniques, and
often elaborate laboratory procedures are used. However, detecting the
presence of these pathogenic organisms in processed and disinfected
water is far more difficult.
Scientific literature presents a vast array of media and methods for
direct pathogen detection in finished water (Geldreich, 1975~. The
greatest emphasis has been on the Salmonella-Shigella group of enteric
organisms. Numerous modifications of well-known media are used for
OCR for page 70
70 DRINKING WATER AND H"LTH
pre-enrichment, enrichment, selective inhibition, and isolation, and there
are many recommended modifications of incubation temperature and
time. Some methods use the classic most-probable-number (MPN)
procedure for quantification; others use membrane filtration. Reviews of
proposed procedures may be found in the Journal of the Water Pollution
Control Federation (Geldreich, 1968, 1969, 1970b; Van Donsel, 1971;
Reasoner, 1972, 1973, 1974, 1975~. A recent review appeared in the
fourteenth edition of Standard Methods (American Public Health
Association, 1975~.
There are serious limitations to the use of direct isolation of specific
pathogenic bacteria for evaluating water quality. First, there is no single
procedure that can be used to isolate and identify all these microorgan-
isms. Second, only for salmonellae are the available procedures
sufficiently accurate; the methods for other major pathogens such as
Shigella, Vibrio, and Leptospira-are inadequate. Third, none of the
available procedures is applicable to quantitative isolation of small
numbers of pathogens in drinking water. Fourth, even if procedures
could be recommended, it is doubtful whether laboratories doing routine
bacteriologic studies of water would have the expertise to carry out the
procedures reliably.
In outbreaks caused by gross contamination, the standard procedures
would be of value. Recently, Reasoner and Geldreich (1974) reviewed
several of the rapid-detection methods proposed for water and concluded
that the cost per test, although perhaps higher than for conventional
procedures, must be tolerated for potable-water quality assessment in
emergency situations created by natural disasters, treatment breakdown,
or rupture in the distribution network. None of these procedures would
provide protection to the public as great as that provided by the currently
used indicator organism, the coliform.
Indicator Organisms
The term "indicator organism," as used in water microbiology, means: a
microorganism whose presence is evidence that pollution (associated with
fecal contamination from man or other warm-blooded animals) has
occurred. Indicator organisms may be accompanied by pathogens, but do
not necessarily cause disease themselves.
As noted above, pathogens are usually more difficult to grow, isolate,
and identify than indicator organisms, and often require special media
and procedures. Indicator organisms, rather than the actual pathogens,
are used to assess water quality because their detection is more reliable
OCR for page 71
Microbiology of Drinking Water 71
and less time-consuming. Pathogens appear in smaller numbers than
indicator organisms and are therefore less likely to be isolated. An
indicator organism should have the following characteristics:
· Applicable to all types of water.
· Present in sewage and polluted waters when pathogens are present.
· Number is correlated with the amount of pollution.
· Present in greater numbers than pathogens.
· No aftergrowth in water.
· Greater survival time than pathogens.
· Absent from unpolluted waters.
· Easily detected by simple laboratory tests in the shortest time
consistent with accurate results.
· Has constant characteristics.
· Harmless to man and animal.
No organism or group of organisms meets all these criteria, but the
"coliform group" of organisms fulfills most of them.
ESCHERICHIA COLI AND THE COLIFORM GROUP
Escherichia cold is commonly found in the human intestine. It is not
normally a pathogen, although pathogenic strains are known. Physiologi-
cally, E. cold and members of the genera Salmonella and Shigella are quite
similar. All are classified as enteric bacteria of the family Enterobacteria-
ceae (Cowan, 1974~. They are facultatively anaerobic, and are able to
ferment sugars with the production of organic acid and gas. These three
genera carry out a type of fermentation called "mixed-acid fermenta-
tion," but differ in a number of physiological characteristics. Many
physiological differences between various enteric bacteria are known
(Ewing and Martin, 1974), but at the beginning of the twentieth century
this was not so. In the early days of water bacteriology, some simple
operational distinctions were necessary. The lactose-fermentation test
became the prime diagnostic tool: E. cold ferments lactose with the
formation of acid and gas; Salmonella and Shigella do not ferment
lactose.
One source of confusion is the necessity to distinguish between E. cold
and the "coliform group" of bacteria. Although the taxonomy of bacteria
is constantly undergoing revision (see Buchanan and Gibbons, 1974, for
the latest version), the genus Escherichia is well defined. It is distinguished
from other mixed-acid fermenters of the Enterobacteriaceae primarily on
OCR for page 72
72 DRINKING WATER AND H"LTH
the basis of sugar-fermentation reactions, motility, production of indole
from t~yptophan, lack of urease, inability to utilize citrate as sole carbon
source, and inhibition of growth by potassium cyanide. However, the
"coliform group" is not so precisely defined. The "coliform group," as
defined in Standard Methods (American Public Health Association, 1975),
comprises all "aerobic and facultative anaerobic, gram-negative, non-
spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria which ferment lactose with gas
formation within 48 hr at 35 C." This is not a taxonomic grouping, but an
operational one that is useful in water-supply and sewage-treatment
practice. It includes organisms in addition to E. colt, most importantly
Klebsiella pneumoniae and Enterobacter aerogenes, which are not m~xed-
acid fermenters. The entry of the term "coliform" into sanitary
bacteriology was associated with a policy established by H. E. Jordan
when he became editor of the Journal of the American Water Works
Association; he stated that he would substitute "coliform" for "E. colf' in
papers submitted to him (Jordan, 1937~.
Although most isolates classifiable as Escherichia by modern methods
ferment lactose, about 5-9% of them do not (Ewing and Martin, 1974~. No
isolates of the genus Salmonella, either in the species S. typhi or in other
species, produce gas from lactose (Ewing and Martin, 1974~; therefore, a
water sample containing Salmonella and a lactose-negative E. cold would
be negative on the coliform test and would probably be discarded without
further examination, because of the definition of"coliform." Even if
glucose were substituted for lactose in a coliform analysis, a significant
fraction of organisms would be missed, inasmuch as about 9% of isolates
of Escherichia do not form gas from glucose (Ewing and Martin, 1974~.
Because there are two procedures the multiple-tube-dilution or most-
probable-number (MPN) technique, and the membrane-filter (MF)
technique-the coliform group of organisms requires two definitions
(American Public Health Association, 1975~. On the basis of the MEN
technique, the group consists of all aerobic and facultatively anaerobic,
gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that ferment
lactose with formation of gas within 48 h at 35°C. On the basis of the ME
technique, the group consists of all organisms that produce a dark colony
(generally puIplish-green) with a metallic sheen within 24 h of incubation
on the appropriate culture medium; the sheen may cover the entire
colony or appear only in a central area or on the periphery. These two
groups are not necessarily the same, but they have the same sanitary
. ·^
slgnlucance.
If the coliform group is to be used as an indicator of fecal pollution of
water, it is important to know that the coliforms do not lose viability in
the water environment faster than pathogenic bacteria, such as salmonel
OCR for page 73
Microbiology of Drinking Water 73
TABLE III-3 Comparative Die-Off Rates (Half-TimeJa of Fecal
Indicator Bacteria and Enteric Pathogens
Bacteria
Half-t~me Number
O of strains
1
Indicator Bacteria
Coliform (avg.) 17.~17.5 29
Enterococci (avg.) 22.0 20
Streptococci (from sewage) 19.5
S. equines 10.0 1
S. bovis 4~3 1
Pathogenic bacteria
Shigella dysenteriae 22.4 1
S. sonnet 24.5 1
S. pexneri 2S.8 1
S. enteritidis, paratyphi A&D 16.0 19.2 2
S. enteritidis, typhimurium 16.0 1
S. typhi 6.0 2
V. cholerae 7.2 3
S. enteritidis, paratyphi B 2.4 1
aTime required for 50~O reduction in the population. From McFeters et al. (1974).
lee and shigellae. Little information exists on the survival of bacteria in
finished water, and the data on other types of water are scattered and
fragmentary. McFeters et al. (1974) recently reviewed previous work and
presented their own data on die-o~ of intestinal pathogens in well water.
As seen in Table III-3, die-o~ rates for pathogens and coliforms are
approximately the same. Earlier work on the survival of salmonellae in
water was reviewed by McKee and Wolf (1963~.
Another factor to be considered is the relative sensitivity of coliforms
and bacterial pathogens to disinfection. Although this subject has been
studied little recently, the older work (Butterfield et al., 1943; Butterfield
and Wattle, 1946; Wattle and Chambers, 1943) indicated that there was
essentially no difference between these different organisms in sensitivity
to disinfection. This is not true when the coliform group is compared with
viral pathogens. Viruses survive longer than bacterial pathogens (Colwell
and Hetrick, 1976~.
SOME DEFICIENCES OF COLIFORMS AS INDICATOR ORGANISMS
Coliforms meet many of the criteria for an ideal indicator organism
previously listed; however, there are some deficiencies. There is after
OCR for page 124
124 DRINKING WATER AND HEALTH
Committee on the Enteroviruses. 1962. Classification of human enteroviruses. Virology
16:501-504.
Cowan, S.T. 1974. Enterobacteriaceae. In R.E. Buchanan and N.E. Gibbons, eds. Bergey's
Manual of Determinative Bacteriology, 8th ea., pp. 290 293. Williams & Willcins,
Baltimore.
Craig, C.F. 1934. Amebiasis and Amebic Dysentery. Charles C Thomas, Springfield, Ill. 315
PP
Craun, G.F. 1975. Microbiology-Waterborne outbreaks. J. Water Poll. Control Fed.
47:1566-1581.
Craun, G.F., and L.J. McCabe. 1973. Review of the causes of waterborne-disease outbreaks.
J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 65:7484.
Craun, G.F., L.J. McCabe and J.M. Hughes. 1976. Waterborne Disease Outbreaks in the
U.S. 1971-1974. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 68:420-424.
Culp, G.L., R.L. Culp, and C.L. Hamann. 1973. Water resource preservation by planned
recycling of treated wastewater. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 65:641-647.
Dahling, D.R., G. Berg, and D. Berman. 1974. BGM, a continuous cell line more sensitive
than primary rhesus and African green kidney cells for the recovery of viruses from
water. Health Lab. Sci. 11:275-282.
Dalldorf, G., and G.M. Sickles. 1948. Unidentified, filterable agent isolated from the feces of
children with paralysis. Science 108:61-62.
Danielsson, D. 1965. A membrane filter method for the demonstration of bacteria by
fluorescent antibody technique. 1. A methodological study. Acta Pathol. Microbiol.
Scand. 63:597-603.
Davis, B.D., R. Dulbecco, H.N. Eisen, H.S. Ginsberg, and W.B. Wood. 1967. Microbiology.
Harper and Row, New York. 1464 pp.
Denis, F. 1974. Les virus pathogenes pour l'homme dans les eaux de mer et dans les
mollusques: Survie-Recherche-Bilan. Med. Mall Infect. 4-6 bis:325-334.
DeBlanc, H.J., Jr., F. DeLand, and H.N. Wagner, Jr. 1971. Automated radiometric
detection of bacteria in 2967 blood cultures. Appl. Microbiol. 22:846-849.
Di Girolamo, R., J. Liston, and J.R. Matches. 1970. Survival of virus in chilled, frozen and
processed oysters. Appl. Microbiol. 20:58-63.
Dismukes, W.E., A.L. Bisno, S. Katz, and R.F. Johnson. 1969. An outbreak of gastroenteri-
tis and infectious hepatitis attributed to raw clams. Am. J. Epidemiol. 89:555-561.
Dolivo-Dobrovolskiy, L.B., and V.S. Rossovskaya. 1956. The problem of the survival of
dysentery bacteria in reservoir water. Gig. Sanit. 1956(6): 52-55. Cited in Biol. Abstr. 34:
13898 (1958).
Dougherty, W.J., and R. Altman. 1962. Viral hepatitis in New Jersey 1961) 1961. Am. J.
Med. 32:704716. ~
Duff, M.F. 1967. The uptake of enteroviruses by the New Zealand marine blue mussel
Mytilus edulis aoteanus. Am. J. Epidemiol. 85:486-493.
Dulbecco, R. 1952. Production of plaques in monolayer tissue cultures by single particles of
an animal virus. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 38:747-752.
Dulbeeco, R., and M. Vogt. 1954. Plaque formation, and isolation of pure lines with
poliomyelitis viruses. J. Exp. Med. 99: 167-182.
Dunlop, S.G., R.M. Twedt, and W.L.L. Wang. 1952. Quantitative estimation of Salmonella
in irrigation water. Sewage Ind. Wastes 24:1015-1020.
Dutka, B.J. 1973. Coliforms are an inadequate index of water quality. J. Environ. Health
36:39-46.
OCR for page 125
Microbiology of Drinking Water 125
DuPont, H.L., S.B. Formal, R.B. Hornick, M.J. Snyder., J.P. Libonati, D.G. Sheahad, E.H.
LaBrec, and J.P. Kalas. 1971. Pathogenesis of Escherichia cold diarrhea. New Engl. J.
Med. 285: 1-9.
DuPont, H.L., R.B. Hornick, A.T. Dawkins, M.J. Snyder, and S.B. Fornlal. 1969. The
response of man to virulent Shigella flexneri 2a. J. Infect. Dis. 119:296-299.
DuPont, H.L., R.B. Hornick, M.J. Snyder, J.P. Libonati, S.B. Formal, and E.J. Gangarosa.
1972a. Immunity to shigellosis. I. Response of man to attenuated strains of Shigella. J.
Infect. Dis. 125:5-11.
DuPont, H.L., R.B. Hornick, M.J. Snyder, J.P. Libonati, S.B. Formal, and E.J. Gangarosa.
1972b. Immunity in shigellosis. II. Protection induced by oral live vaccine or primary
infection. J. Infect. Dis. 125: 12-16.
Edwards, P.R., and W.H. Ewing. 1972. Identification of Enterobacteriaceae, 3rd ed. Burgess
Publishing Co., Minneapolis.
Enders, J.F., T.H. Weller, and F.C. Robbins. 1949. Cultivation of Lansing strain of
poliomyelitis virus in cultures of various human embryonic tissue. Science 109:85-87.
England, B., R.E. Leach, B. Adame, and R. Shiosaki. 1967. Virologic assessment of sewage
treatment at Santee, California. In G. Berg, ed. Transmission of Viruses by the Water
Route, pp. 401-417. Interscience, New York.
Ewing, W.H., and W.J. Martin. 1974. Enterobacteriaceae. In E.H. Lennette, E.H.
Spaulding, and J.P. Truant, eds. Manual of clinical microbiology, pp. 189-221. American
Society for Microbiology, Washington, D.C.
Ewing, W.H., R. Hugh, and J.G. Johnson. 1961. Studies on the Aeromonas group. U.S
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare Public Health Service. Communicable
Disease Center, Atlanta, Ga.
Fattal, B., E. Katzenelson, M. Nevo, and H.I. Shuval. 1973. Evaluation of difl~erent methods
for the detection and concentration of small quantities of viruses in water. Proc. Fourth
Scientific Conference, Israel Ecological Soc., Tel-Aviv, April 8-9, pp. A49-A69.
Favero, M.S. and C.H. Drake. 1964. Comparative study of microbial flora of iodinated and
chlorinated pools. Public Health Rep. 79:251-257.
Fenner, F., B.R. McAuslan, C.A. Mims, J. Sambrook, and D.O. White. 1974. The Biology of
Animal Viruses, 2nd ed. Academic Press, New York.
Fields, H.A., and T.G. Metcalf. 1975. Concentration of adenovirus from seawater. Water
Res. 9:357-364.
Foliguet, J.M., and F. Doncoeur. 1975. Elimination des enterovirus au cours du traitement
des eaux d'alimentation par coagulation-flocculation-filtration. Water Res. 9:953-961.
Foliguet, J.M., J. Lavillaureix, and L. Schwartzbrod. 1973. Viruses and water. II. General
review of the methods available to detect viruses in water. Rev. Epidemiol. Med. Soc.
Sante Publ. 21: 185-259.
Foliguet, J.M., L. Schwartzbrod, and O.G. Gaudin. 1966a. La recherche des virus dans les
eaux d'egout, de surface et d'alimentation en Meurthe-et-Moselle. II. Resultats
quantitatifs et qualificatifs definitifs. Rev. Hyg. Med. Soc. 14:411-432.
Foliguet, J.M., L. Schwartzbrod, and O.G. Gaudin. 1966b. La pollution virale des eaux
usees, de surface et d'alimentation; etude effectuee dans le departement francais de
Meurthe-et-Moselle. Bull. WHO 35:737-749.
Gallagher, T.P., and D.F. Spino. 1968. The significance of numbers ofcoliform bacteria es
an indicator of enteric pathogens. Water Res. 2: 169-175.
Gard, S. 1957. General discussion. In F.W. Hartman, G.A. LoGrippo, J.G. Mateer, and J.
Barron, eds. Hepatitis Frontiers, pp. 241-243. Little, Brown & Co. Boston.
OCR for page 126
126 DRINKING WATER AND HEALTH
Gartner, H. 1967. Retention and recovery of polioviruses on a soluble ultrafilter. In G. Berg,
ed. Transmission of Viruses by the Water Route, pp. 121-127. Interscience Publishers,
New York.
Geldreich, E.E. 1968. Literature review. Microbiology. J. Water Pollut. Control Fed.
40: 1052-1068.
Geldreich, E.E. 1969. Literature review. Bacterial pathogen detection in water. J. Water
Pollut. Control Fed. 41: 1054.
Geldreich, E.E. 1970a. Applying bacteriological parameters to recreational water quality. J.
Am. Water Works Assoc. 62: 113-120.
Geldreich, E.E. 1970b. Literature review. Bacterial pathogen detection in water. J. Water
Pollut. Control Fed. 42: 1060-1062.
Geldreich, E.E. 1973. Is the total count necessary? Proc. Am. Water Works Assoc. Water
Quality Technology Conference, pp. VII-l-VII-l l, Cincinnati (Dec.34, 1973).
Geldreich, E.E. 1975. Handbook for evaluating water bacteriology laboratories. Water
Supply Research Laboratory, Cincinnati, Ohio. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
EPA-670/9-75-006: 135-158.
Geldreich, E.E., H.D. Nash, D.J. Reasoner, and R.H. Taylor. 1972. The necessity of
controlling bacterial populations in potable waters: Communitv water sunolv. J. Am.
Water Works Assoc. 64:596-602.
~ I,
Gelfand, H.M., D.R. LeBlanc, A.H. Holguin, and J.P. Fox. 1960. Preliminary report on
susceptibility of newborn infants to infection with poliovirus strains of attenuated virus
vaccine. In Second International Conference on Live Poliovirus Vaccines, pp. 308-314.
Scientific Publication no. 50. Pan American Health Organization, Washington, D.C.
Gelfand, H.M., D.R. LeBlanc, J.P. Fox, and A. H. Holguin. 1961. The susceptibility of
infants to infection with natural ("wild") and attenuated (vaccine) strains of polioviruses.
In Poliomyelitis: Papers and Discussions Presented at the Fifth International Poliomyeli-
tis Conference, Copenhagen, Denmark, July 26-28, 1960, pp. 285-289. Lippincott,
Philadelphia.
Ginsburg, W. 1973. Improved total count techniques. In Proc. Am. Water Works Assoc.
Water Quality Technology Conference, pp. VIII-I-VIII-8, Cincinnati (Dec. 3-4, 1973).
Ginsburg, W., B. Crawford, and J.J. Knipper. 1972. Filter-fluorescent antibody technique
for rapid screening of indicator organisms. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 64:499-505.
Greenberg, A.E. and B. H. Dean. 1958. The beef tapeworm, measly beef and sewage-A
review. Sewage Ind. Wastes 30(3):262-269.
Grindrod, J. and D.O. Cliver. 1970. A polymer two-phase system adapted to virus detection.
Archiv Ges. Virusforsch. 31 :365-372.
Grinstein, S., J.L. Melnick, and C. Wallis. 1970. Virus isolations from sewage and from a
stream receiving effluents of sewage treatment plants. Bull. WHO 42:291-296.
Harmon. P.H. 1937. The use of chemicals as nasal soravs in the orophYlaxis of poliomyelitis
''~''''~ ~ -r~-J~ r--r--J-~ r
in man. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 109: 1061.
Hatch, M.H., and G.E. Marchetti. 1975. A comparative study of agar overlay and standard
tissue culture methods for isolation of enteroviruses. Public Health Rep. 90:29-33.
Hedstrom, C.E., and E. Lycke. 1964. An experimental study on oysters as ViIUS carriers.
Am. J. Hyg. 79:134142.
Hill, W.F., Jr., E.W. Akin, and W.H. Benton. 1971. Detection of Viruses in Water: A review
of Methods and Application. In V. Snoeyink and V Griffln, ed. Virus and Water Quality:
Occurrence and Control. Proceedings of the Thirteenth Water Quality Conference, vol.
69, no. 1, pp. 17-46. University of Illinois Bulletin, Urbana.
OCR for page 127
Microbiology of Drinking Water 127
Hill, W.F., Jr., E.W. Akin, W.H. Benton, and T. G. Metcalf. 1972. Virus in water. II.
Evaluation of membrane cartridge filters for recovering low multiplicities of poliovirus
from water. Appl. Microbiol. 23:880-888.
Hill, W.F., Jr., W. Jakubowski, W.E. Akin, and N.A. Clarke. 1976. Detection of virus in
water: Sensitivity of the tentative standard method for drinking water. Appl. Environ.
Microbiol. 31 :254261.
Hoff, J.C., and R.C. Becker. 1969. The accumulation and elimination of crude and clarified
poliovirus suspensions by shellfish. Am. J. Epidemiol. 90:53-61.
Holguin, A.H., J.S. Reeves, and H.M. Gelfand. 1962. Immunization of infants with the
Sabin oral poliovirus vaccine. Am. J. Public Health 52:600 610.
Hornick, R.B., S.E. Greisman, T.E. Woodward, H.L. DuPont, A.T. Dawkins, and M.J.
Snyder. 1970. Typhoid fever: pathogenesis and immunologic control. New Engl. J. Med.
283:686-691.
Horsfall, F.L., and I. Tamm. 1965. Viral and Rickettsial Infections of Man. Lippincott,
Philadelphia. pp. 574.
Horstmann, D.M. 1961. Factors affecting optimum dosage levels of live poliov~rus vaccines.
In Poliomyelitis: Papers and Discussions Presented at the Fifth International Poliomyeli-
tis Conference, Copenhagen, Denmark, July 26-28, 1960, pp. 304310. Lippincott,
Philadelphia.
Joklik, W.K., and J.E. Darnell, Jr. 1961. The adsorption and early fate of purified poliovirus
in HeLa cells. Virology 13:439447.
Jordan, H.E. 1937. Editorial statement-The coliform group of bacteria. J. Am. Water
Works Assoc. 29: 1999-2000.
Kapikian, A.Z., R.G. Wyatt, R. Dolin, T.S. Thornhill, A.R. Kalica, and R.M. Chanock.
1972. Visualization by immune electron microscopy of a 27-nm particle associated witb
acute infectious nonbacterial gastroenteritis. J. Virol. 10: 1075-1081.
Katz, M., and S.A. Plotkin. 1967. Minimal infective dose of attenuated poliovirus for man
Am. J. Public Health 57: 1837-1840.
Katzenelson, E. 1976. Virologic and engineering problems in monitoring viruses in water. I,
Viruses in Water. Proceedings of the International conference on Viruses in Water, pp
152-164. Mexico City, 1974, American Public Health Association, Washington, D.C
Katzenelson, E., B. Kletter, H. Schechter, and H.I. Shoval. 1974. Inactivation of viruses and
bacteria by ozone. In A.J. Rubin, ed. Chemistry of Water Supply, Treatment and
Distribution, pp. 409-421. Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Ann Arbor, Mich.
Kehr, R.W., and C.T. Butterfield. 1943. Notes on the relation between coliforms and enteric
pathogens. Public Health Rep. 58:589-607.
Kelly, S., and W.W. Sanderson. 1958. The effect of chlorine in water on enteric viruses. Am
J. Public Health 48: 1323-1334.
Kelly, S.M., and W.W. Sanderson. 1960. The effect of chlorine in water on enteric viruses
II. The effect of combined chlorine on poliomyelitis and Coxsackie viruses. Am. J. Publi~
Health 50: 14-20.
Klein, D.A., and S. Wu. 1974. Stress: A factor to be considered in heterotrophi~
microorganism enumeration from aquatic environments. Appl. Microbiol. 27:429-431
Klein, M. 1966. Adenovirus. In J.E. Prier, ed. Basic Medical Virology, pp.385 402. William~
~ WiLicins Co., Baltimore.
Kling, C. 1929. Recherches sur l'epidemiologie de la poliomyelitis. Svenska Laksallsk
Handl. 55:2348.
Koff, R.S. and H.S. Sear. 1967. Internal temperature of steamed clams. New Engl. J. Med
276:737-739.
OCR for page 128
128 DRINKING WATER AND HEALTH
Koff, R.S., G.F. Grady, T.C. Chalmers, J.W. Mosley, B.L. Swartz, and the Boston Inter-
hospital Liver Group. 1967. Viral hepatitis in a group of Boston hospitals. III.
Importance of exposure to shellfish in a non-epidemic period. New Engl. J. Med.
276:703-710.
Koprowski, H. 1956. Imm~ni~tion against poliomyelitis with living attenuated virus. Am.
J. Trop. Med. Hyg.5:440 452.
Krugman, S., J. Warren, M.S. Eiger, P.H. Berman, R.M. Michaels, and A.B. Sabin. 1961.
Immunization with live attenuated poliovirus vaccine. Am. J. Dis. Child. 101:23-29.
Kruse, C.W., V.P. Olivieri, and K. Kawata. 1971.The enhancement ofviralinactivation of
halogens. In V. Snoeyink and V. Griffin, eds. Virus and Water Quality: Occurrence and
Control. Proceedings of the Thirteenth Water Quality Conference, vol. 69, no. 1, pp 197-
209. Univasity of Illinois Bulletin, Urbana.
Kurstak, E., and R. Morisset. eds. 1974. Viral Immunodiagnosis. Academic Press, New
York.
Lal, S.M., and E. Lund. 1976. Recovery of virus by chemical precipitation followed by
elusion. In Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on Water Pollution
Research, Paris, 1974, vol. 1, pp. 687-693. (Technical Papers, S.H. Jenkins, ea.)
Pergamon, New York.
Lee, L.H., C.A. Phillips, M.A. South, J.L. Melaick, and M.D. Yowl 1965. Enteric virus
isolation in different cell cultures. Bull. WHO 32:657-663.
Lefler, E., and Y. Kott. 1974. Virus retention and survival in sand. In J.F. Malina, Jr. and
B.P. Sagik, eds. Virus Survival in Water and Wastewater Systems, pp. 8491. Center for
Research in Water Resources, University of Texas at Austin.
LeMaistre, C.A., R.W. Sappenfield, C. Culbertson, F.R.N. Carter, A.C. Offutt, H. Black,
and M.M. Brooke. 1956. Studies of a waterborne outbreak of amebiasis, South Bend,
Indiana. I. Epidemiological aspects. Am. J. Hyg. 64:30-45.
Lepow, M.L., R.J. Warren, V.G. Ingram, S.C. Dougherty, and F.C. Robbins. 1962. Sabin
type I oral poliomyelitis vaccine. Effect of dose upon response of newborn infants. Am. J.
Dis. Child. 104:67-71.
Levin, G.V., V.L. Stauss, end W.C. Hess. 1961. Rapid coliform organism determination with
C'4. J. Water PoDut. Control Fed.33: 1021-1037.
Levin, G.V., E. Usdin, and A.R. Slonim. 1968. Rapid detection of microorganisms in
aerospace water systems. Aerospace Med.39: 14-16.
Levine, Max. 1953. Should bacteriological standards for drinking water be reevaluated? J.
Am. Water Works Assoc. 45 :927-932.
Levine, M.M., H.L. DuPont, S.B. Formal, R.B. Hornick, A. Takeuchi, E.J. Gangarosa, M.J.
Snyder, and J.P. Libonati. 1973. Pathogenesis of Shigella dysenteriae 1 (Shiga) dysentery.
J. Infect. Dis. 127. 261-270.
Liu, O.C., H.R. Seraichekas, and B.L. Murphy. 1966a. Fate of poliovirus in northern
quahaugs. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 121:601 607.
Liu, O.C., H.R. Seraichekas, and B.L. Murphy. 1966b. Viral pollution ofshellfish. 1. Some
basic facts of uptake. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 123 :481487.
Liu, O.C., H.R. Seraichekas, and B.L. Murphy. 1967. Viral depuration of the northern
quahaug. Appl. Microbiol. 15:307-315.
Liu, O.C., H.R. Seraichekas, E.W. Akin, D.A. Brashear, E.L. Katz, and W.J. Hill, Jr. 1971.
Relative resistance of twenty human enteric viruses to free chlorine in Potomac water. In
V. Snoeyink and V. Griflin, eds. Virus and Water Quality: Occurrence and Control,
Proceedings of the Thirteenth Water Quality Conference, vol. 69, no.l, pp. 171-195.
University of Illinois Bulletin, Urbana.
OCR for page 129
Microbiology of Drinking Water 129
Loria, R.M., S. Kibrick, and W.A. Broitman. 1974. Peroral infection with group B
coxsackievirus in the newborn mouse: a model for human neonatal infection. J. Infect.
Dis. 130:225-230.
Lund, E., and C.E. Hedstrom. 1966. The use of an aqueous polymer phase system for
enterovirus isolations from sewage. Am. J. Epidemiol. 84:287-291.
Lurman, A. 1885. Eine Icterusepidemie. Berlin Klin. Wochschr. 22: 2~23.
Mack, W.N., L. Yue-Shoung, and D.B. Cochon. 1972. Isolation of poliomyelitis virus from
a contaminated well. Health Serv. Rep. 87:271-274.
MacKenzie, C.R., and D.J. Livingstone. 1968. Salmonellae in fish and food. S. Afr. Med. J.
42:999-1003.
Majumdar, S.B., W.H. Ceckler and O.J. Sprout. 1973. Inactivation of poliovirus in water by
ozonation. J. Water Pollut. Control Fed. 45:2433-2443.
Manwaring, J.F., M. Chaudhuri, and R.S. Engelbrecht. 1971. Removal of viruses by
coagulation and flocculation. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 63:298-300.
Mason, J.O., and W.R. McLean. 1962. Infectious hepatitis traced to the consumption of raw
oysters. An epidemiologic study. Am. J. Hyg. 75:9~111.
McCabe, L.J., and G.T. Craun. 1975. Status of waterborne diseases in the U.S. and Canada:
Committee report. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 67:95-98.
McCabe, L.J., J.M. Symons, R.D. Lee, and G.G. Robeck. 1970. Survey of community water
supply systems. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 62: 67~687.
McCullough, N.B., and C.W. Eisele. 195 la. Experimental human salmonellosis. I.
Pathogenicity of strains of Salmonella meleagridis and Salmonella anatum obtained
from spray-dried whole egg. J. Infect. Dis.88:278-289.
McCullough, N.B., and C.W. Eisele. 1951b. Experimental human salmonellosis. II.
Immunity studies following experimental illness with Salmonella meleagridis and
Salmonella anatum. J. Immunol. 66:595-608.
McCullough, N.B., and C.W. Eisele. 1951c. Experimental human salmonellosis. III.
Pathogenicity of strains of Salmonella newport, Salmonella derby and Salmonella
bareilly obtained from spray-dried whole egg. J. Infect. Dis. 89:209-213.
McCullough, N.B., and C.W. Eisele. l951d. Experimental human salmonellosis. IV.
Pathogenicity of strains of Salmonella pullorum obtained from spray-dried whole egg. J.
Infect. Dis. 89:259-265.
McFeters, G.A., G.K. Bissonnette, J.J. Jezeski, C.A. Thomson, and D.G. Stuart. 1974.
Comparative survival of indicator bacteria and enteric pathogens in well water. Appl.
Microbiol. 27:823-829.
McKee, J.E. and H.W. Wolf, eds. 1963. Water Quality Criteria, 2nd ed. The Resources
Agency of California State Water Resources Control Board, Publication no. 3-A
(Reprint December, 1971). Sacramento.
Melaick, J.L. 1957. A waterborne urban epidemic of hepatitis. In F.W. Hartman, ed.
Hepatitis Frontiers, pp.211-225. Little Brown & Co., Boston.
Melaick, J.L., V. Rennick, B. Hampil, N. Schmidt, and H.H. Ho. 1973. Lyophilized
combination pools of enterovirus equine antisera: Preparation and test procedures for
the identification of field strains of 42 enteroviruses. Bull. WHO 48:263-268.
Merson, M.H., W.H. Barker, Jr., G.F. Craun, and L.J. McCabe. 1974. Outbreaks of
waterborne disease in the United States 1971-1972. J. Infect. Dis. 129:614615.
Metcalf, T.G., and W.C. Stiles. 1965. The accumulation of enteric viruses by the oyster,
Crassostrea virginica. J. Infect. Dis. 115 :68-76.
Metcalf, T.G., and W.C. Stiles. 1968. Viral pollution of shellfish in estuary waters. Am. Soc.
Civil Eng. Sanit. Eng. Div. J. SA4:595-609.
OCR for page 130
130 DRINKING WATER AND HEALTH
Metcalf, T.G., C. Wallis, and J.L. Melnick. 1974a. Environmental factors influencing
isolation of enteroviruses from polluted surface waters. Appl. Microbiol. 27:921-926.
Metcalf, T.G., C. Wallis, and J.L. Melnick. 1974b. Virus enumeration and public health
assessments in polluted surface water contributing to transmission of virus in nature. In
J.F. Malina, Jr. and B.P. Sagik, eds. Virus Survival in Water and Wastewater Systems,
pp. 57-70. Center for Research in Water Resources, University of Texas at Austin.
Meynell, G.G. 1961. Phenotypic variation and bacterial infection. Symp. Soc. Gen.
Microbiol. 1 1:174195.
Meynell, G.G., and E. Meynell. 1965. Theory and Practice in Experimental Bacteriology,
pp. 199-203. Cambridge University Press.
Miller, R.S. 1975. Check sampling for monitoring bacteriological quality. J. Am. Water
Works Assoc. 67:28-32.
Mitchell, J.R., M.W. Presnell, E.W. Akin, J.M. Cummins, and O.C. Liu. 1966. Accumula-
tion and elimination of poliovirus by the,eastern oyster. Am. J. Epidemiol. 84:40-50.
Moore, B.E.D., L. Funderburg, and B. P. Sagik. 1974. Application of viral concentration
techniques to field sampling. In J.F. Malina and B.P. Sagik, eds. Virus Survival in Water
and Wastewater Systems, pp. 3-15. Center for Research in Water Resources, University
of Texas at Austin.
Moore, G.T., W.M. Cross, D. McGuire, C.S. Mollohan, N.N. Gleason, G.R. Healy, and
L.H. Newton. 1969. Epidemic giardiasis at a ski resort. New Engl. J. Med. 281:402 407.
Morse, R.B., and A. Wolman. 1918. The practicability ofadopting standards ofquality for
water supplies. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 5:198-228.
Mosley, J.W. 1967. Transmission of viral diseases by drinking water. In G. Berg, ed.
Transmission of Viruses by the Water Route, pp. 5-23. Interscience Publishers, New
York.
Neefe, J.R., and J.S. Stokes. 1945. An epidemic of infectious hepatitis apparently due to a
waterborne agent. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 128:1063-1075.
Neefe, J.R., J.B. Baty, J.B. Reinhold, and J. Stokes, Jr. 1947. Inactivation of virus of
infectious hepatitis in drinking water. Am. J. Public Health 37:365-372.
Newman, J.S., and R.T. O'Brien. 1975. Gas chromatographic presumptive test for coliform
bacteria in water. Appl. Microbiol. 30:584588.
Newton, W.L., and M.F. Jones. 1949. Effect of ozone in water on cysts of Endamoeba
histolytica. Am. J. Trop. Med. 29:669-681.
Newton, W.L., W.B. Figgat, and S.R. Weibel. 1948. The e~ects of sewage-treatment
processes upon ova and miracidia of Schistosoma japonicum. Sewage Works J. 20:657-
664.
Nupen, E.M. 1970. Virus studies on the Windhoek waste water reclamation plant
(southwest Africa). Water Res. 4:661-672.
Olivieri, V.P., C.W. Kruse, Y.C. Hsu, A.C. Griffiths, and K. Kawata. 1975. The comparative
mode of action of chlorine, bromine, and iodine on f2 bacterial virus. In J.D. Johnson, ed.
Disinfection-Water and Wastewater, pp. 145-162. Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Inc.,
Ann Arbor, Mich.
Parr, L.W. 1939. Coliform bactria. Bacteriol. Rev. 3: 148.
Pfeiffer, K.R. 1973. The Homestead typhoid outbreak. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 65:803-
805.
Plotkin, S.A., and M. Katz. 1967. Minimal infective doses of viruses for man by the oral
route. In G. Berg, ed. Transmission of Viruses by the Water Route, pp. 151-166.
Interscience, New York.
Prescott, S.C., C.E.A. Winslow, and M.H. McCrady. 1946. Water Bacteriology with Special
Reference to Sanitary Water Analysis. 6th ed. John Wiley ~ Sons, New York.
OCR for page 131
Microbiology of Drinking Water 131
Provost, P.J., B.S. Wolanski, W.J. Miller, O.L. Ittensohn, W.J. McAleer, and M.R.
Hilleman. 1975. Biophysical and biochemical properties of CR326 human hepatitis A
virus. Am. J. Med. Sci. 270:87-92.
Ptak, D.J., W. Ginsburg, and B.F. Willey. 1973. Identification and incidence of Klebsiella in
chlorinated water supplies. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 65:604 608.
Putnam, J.J., and E.W. Taylor. 1893. Is acute poliomyelitis unusually prevalent this season?
Boston Med. Surg. J. 129:509-510.
Rao, N.U., and N.A. Labzoffsky. 1969. A simple method for the detection of low
concentrations of viruses in large volumes of water by the membrane filter technique.
Can. J. Microbiol. 15:399403.
Rao, V.C., R. Sullivan, R.B. Read, and N.A. Clarke. 1968. A simple method for
concentrating and detecting viruses in water. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 60:1288-1294.
Reasoner, D.J. 1972. Literature review. Microbiological pathogens in animals and their
detection. J. Water Pollut. Control Fed. 44:1182-1193.
Reasoner, D.J. 1973. Literature review. Microbiology-Detection of bacterial pathogens
and their occurrence. J. Water Pollut. Control Fed. 45:1278-1289.
Reasoner, D.J. 1974. Microbiology-Detection of bacterial pathogens and their occurrence.
J. Water Pollut. Control Fed. 46:1395-1408.
Reasoner, D.J. 1975. Microbiology-Detection of bacterial pathogens and their occurrence.
J. Water Pollut. Control Fed. 47:1581-1587.
Reasoner, D.J., and E.E. Geldreich. 1974. Rapid bacteriological methods. Proc. AWWA
Water Quality Technology Conference, Dallas, Texas, pp. IX-1-IX-15.
Ritchie, L.S. and C. Davis. 1948. Parasitological f~ndings and epidemiological aspects of
epidemic amebiasis occurring in occupants of the Mantetsu apartment building, Tokyo,
Japan. Am. J. Trop. Med. 28:803-816.
Robbins, F.C., J.F. Enders, T.H. Weller, and G.L. Florentino. 1951. Studies on the
cultivation of poliomyelitis viruses in tissue culture. V. The direct isolation and serologic
identification of virus strains in tissue culture from patients with nonparalytic and
paralytic poliomyelitis. Am. J. Hyg. 54:286-293.
Robert, V.B., and L.B. Rorke. 1973. Pr~mary amebic encephalitis, probably from Acantha-
moeba. Ann. Int. Med. 79:174-179.
Roos, B. 1956. Hepatitepidemi spridd genom ostron. Svenska Lakartidn. 53:989-1003.
Rosen, L. 1965. Reovirus group. In F.L. Horsfall and I. Tamm, eds. Viral and Rickettsial
Infections of Man, 4th ed. pp. 569-579. Lippincott, Philadelphia.
Rowe, W.P., R.J. Huebner, L.K. Gilmore, R.H. Parrott, and T.G. Ward. 1953. Isolation of a
cytopathogenic agent from human adenoids undergoing spontaneous degeneration in
tissue culture. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 84:570-573.
Ruddy, S.J., R.F. Johnson, J.W. Mosley, J.B. Atwater, M.A. Rossetti, and J.C. Hart. 1969.
An epidemic of clam-associated hepatitis. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 208:649-655.
Sabin, A.B. 1957. Properties of attenuated polioviruses and their behavior in human beings.
In Cellular Biology Nucleic Acids and Viruses. vol. 5. on. 113-127. Soecial Publications
of the New York Academy of Sciences.
- ~ rr
Sabin, A.B. 1959. Reoviruses, a new group of respiratory and enteric v~ruses formerly
classified as ECHO type 10 is described. Science 130:1387-1389.
Scarpino, P.V. 1971. Bacterial and viral analysis of water and waste water. In L.L. Ciacco,
ed. Water and Water Pollution Handbook, vol. 2, pp. 639-761. Marcel Dekker, New
York.
Scarpino, P.V., M. Lucas, D.R. Dahling, G. Berg, and S.L. Chang. 1974. Effectiveness of
hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion in destruction of v~ruses and bacteria. In A.J.
OCR for page 132
132 DRINKING WATER AND HEALTH
Rubin, ed. Chemistry of Water Supply, Treatment and Distribution, pp. 359-368. Ann
Arbor Science Publishers, Ann Arbor, Mich.
Schafer, E. 1971. Experimentelle Untersuchungen zur quantitativen Erfassung van Polio-
Impfvirus Type II in Oberflachenwasser. GWF-Wasser/Abwasser 112:109-113.
Schaub, S.A., and B.P. Sagik. 1975. Association of enteroviruses with natural and artifically
introduced colloidal solids in water and infectivity of solids-associated virions. Appl.
Microbiol. 30:212-222.
Schmidt, N.J., H.H. Ho, and E.H. Lennette. 1975. Propagation and isolation of group A
coxsackieviruses in RD cells. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2: 183-185.
Schulz, M.G. 1975. Giardiasis. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 233:1383-1384.
Schwerdt, C.E. 1957. Physical and chemical characteristics of purified poliomyelitis virus. In
Cellular Biology, Nucleic Acids and Viruses. vol. 5. Do. 157-166. Special Publications of
the New York Academy of Sciences.
- ~ or
Scott, R.M., D. Seiz, and H.J. Shaughnessy. 1964. I. Rapid Cl4 test for coliform bacteria in
water. II. Rapid Cl4 test for sewage bacteria. Am. J. Public Health 54:827-844.
Seligmann, R. and R. Reitler. 1965. Enteropathogens in water with low Esch. cold titer. J.
Am. Water Works Assoc. 57:1572-1574.
Seraichekas, H.R., D.A. Brashear, J.A. Barnick, P.F. Carey, and O.C. Liu. 1968. Viral
deputation by assaying individual shellfish. Appl. Microbiol. 16:1865-1871.
Sharp, D.G., R. Floyd, and J.D. Johnson. 1975. Nature of the surviving plaque-forming
units of reovirus in water containing bromine. Appl. Microbiol. 29:94101.
Shaughnessy, H.J., R.C. Olsson, K. Bass, F. Friewer, and S.D. Levinson. 1946. Experi-
mental human bacillary dysentery. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 132:362-368.
Shuval, ELI., B. Fattal, S. Cymbalista, and N. Goldblum. 1969. The phase-separation
method for the concentration and detection of viruses in water. Water Res. 3:225-240.
Shuval, H.I., S. Cymbalista, B. Fattal, and N. Goldblum. 1967. Concentration of enteric
viruses in water by hydro-extraction and two-phase separation. In G. Berg, ed.
Transmission of Viruses by the Water Route, pp. 45-55. Interscience, New York.
Smith, R.J., and R.M. Twedt. 1971. Natural relationships of indicator and pathogenic
bacteria in stream waters. J. Water Pollut. Control Fed. 43:2200 2209.
Sobsey, M.D. 1976. Methods for detecting enteric viruses in water and wastewater, In G.
Berg, H.L. Bodily, E.H. Lennette, J.L. Melaick, and T.G. Metcalf, eds. Viruses in Water,
Proceedings of the International Conference on Viruses in Water, Mexico City, 1974.
American Public Health Association, Washington, D.C.
Sobsey, M.D., C. Wallis, M. Henderson, and J.L. Melnick. 1973. Concentration of
enteroviruses from large volumes of water. Appl. Microbiol. 26:529-534.
Sorber, C.A., B.P. Sagik, and J.F. Malina, Jr. 1972. Monitoring of low-level virus in natural
waters. Appl. Microbiol. 22:334338.
Sprout, O.J. 1971. Recent research results on virus inactivation by water treatment
processes. In V. Snoeyink and V. Griffin, eds. Virus and Water Quality: Occurrence and
Control, vol. 69, no. 1, pp. 159-169. Proceedings of the Thirteenth Water Quality
Conference, University of Illinois Bulletin, Urbana.
Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. 1975. 14th Ed. American
Public Health Association. Washington, D.C.
Sternberg, G.M. 1892. Manual of Bacteriology. William Wood and Co., New York.
Stevenson, A.H. 1953. Studies of bathing water quality and health. Am. J. Public Health
43:529-538.
Stringer R.P., W.N. Cramer, and C.W. Kruse. 1975. Comparison of bromine, chlorine and
iodine as disinfectants for ameobic cysts. In J.D. Johnson, ed. Disinfection-Water and
OCR for page 133
Microbiology of Drinking Water 133
Wastewater, Chapter 10, pp. 193-209. Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Inc., Ann Arbor,
Mich.
Sweet, B.H., R.D. Ellender, and J.K.L. Leong. 1974. Recovery and removal of viruses from
water utilizing membrane techniques. In Developments in Industrial Microbiology, vol.
15: Symposium: Detection of Viruses in Waste and Other Waters, August 1973, pp. 143-
159. Proc. 30th General Meeting of the Society for Industrial Microbiology.
Taylor, A., Jr., G.F. Craun, G.A. Faich, L.J. McCabe, and E.J. Gangarosa. 1972. Outbreaks
of waterborne diseases in the United States, 1961-1970. J. Infect. Dis. 125:329-331.
Taylor, D.G. and J.D. Johnson. 1974. Kinetics of viral inactivation by bromine. In A.J.
Rubin, ed. Symposium on the Chemistry of Water Supply, Treatment and Distribution,
Dallas, 1973, pp. 369408. Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Ann Arbor, Mich.
Thomas, H.A., Jr., and R.L. Woodward. 1955. Estimation of coliform density by the
membrane filter and the fermentation tube methods. Am. J. Public Health 45:1431-1437.
Thorup, R.T., F.P. Nixon, D.F. Wentworth, and O.J. Sprout. 1970. Virus removal by
coagulation with polyelectrolytes. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 62:97-101.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1975. NERC annual report. National Environmen-
tal Research Center, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio.
EPA 670/9-75-002.
U.S. Treasury Department. 1914. Bacteriological standard for drinking water. Public Health
Rep. 29:2959-2966.
U.S. Public Health Service. 1962. Drinking water standards. Public Health Service Publ. no.
956. U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Washington, D.C.
Van Donsel, D.J. 1971. Literature review. Microbiology-waterborne outbreaks. J. Water
Pollut. Control Fed. 43:1221-1236.
Veazie, L. 1969. Epidemic giardiasis. N. Engl. J. Med. 281:853.
Wallis, C., and J.L. Melnick. 1967a. Concentration of viruses from sewage on Millipore
membranes. Bull. WHO 36:219-225.
Wallis, C., and J.L. Melnick. 1967b. Concentration of viruses on aluminum and calcium
salts. Am. J. Epidemiol. 85:459-468.
Wallis, C., A. Homma, and J.L. Meloick. 1972. Apparatus for concentrating viruses from
large volumes. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 64:189-196.
Wallis, C., J.L. Melnick, and J.E. Fields. 1970. Detection of viruses in large volumes of
natural waters by concentration on insoluble polyelectrolytes. Water Res. 4:787-796.
Wang, W.L.L., S.G. Dunlop, and R.G. DeBoer. 1956.ThesurvivalofShigellain sewage. I.
An effect of sewage and fecal suspensions on Shigella flexneri. Appl. Microbiol. 4:3438.
Wanner, R.G., F.O. Atchley, and M.A. Wasley. 1963. Association of diarrhea with Giardia
lamblia in families observed weekly for occurrence of enteric infections. Am. J. Trop.
Med. Hyg. 12:851-853.
Warren, R.J., M.L. Lepow, G.E. Bartsch, and F. C. Robbins. 1964. The relationship of
maternal antibody, breast feeding and age to the susceptibility of newborn infants to
infection with attenuated poliovirus. Pediatrics 34:4-13.
Wattie, E., and C.W. Chambers. 1943. Relative resistance of coliform organisms and certain
enteric pathogens to excess lime treatment. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 35:709-720.
Wellings, F.M., C.W. Mountain, A.L. Lewis, J.L. Nitzlcin, M.S. Saslaw, and R.A. Graves.
1976. Isolation of an enterovirus from chlorinated tap water. J. Infect. Dis. (In press.)
White, G.C. 1975. Disinfection: The last line of defense for potable water. J. Am. Water
Works Assoc. 67:410-413.
Witt, M., R. Siegrist and W.C. Boyle. 1975. Rural household wastewater characterization. In
Proceedings of the National Home Sewage Disposal Symposium, Dec. 9-10, 1974, pp. 79-
88. American Society of Agricultural Engineers, St. Joseph, Mich.
OCR for page 134
134 DRINKING WATER AND HEALTH
Wolf, H.W. 1972. The coliform count as a measure of water quality In R. Mitchell, ed.
Water Pollution Microbiology. Wiley Interscience, New York.
Wolfe, M.S. 1975. Giardiasis. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 233:1362-1365.
World Health Organization. 1970. European Standards for ~inking-Water, 2nd ed.
Geneva.
World Health Organization. 1971. International Standards for Drinking-Water, 3rd ed.
Geneva.
World Health Organization. 1964. Soil-transmitted helminths: Report of a WHO Expert
Committee on helminthiasis. WHO Tech. Report Series no. 277. Geneva.
World Health Organization. 1969. Amoebiasis: Report of a WHO Expert Committee. WHO
Tech. Report Series no. 421. Geneva.
Zamcheck, N., L.C. Hoskins, S.J. Winawer, S.A. Broitman, and L.S. Gottlieb. 1963.
Histology and ultrastructure of parasite and intestinal mucosa in Human giardiasis:
Effect of Atabrine therapy. Gastroenterology 44:860.
Zdra~lek, J. 1974. Sensitivity of human diploid embryonic lung cells for isolation of
Echoviruses from sewage. J. Hyg. Epidemiol. Microbiol. Immunol. 18:2-8.
Representative terms from entire chapter:
finished water
