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OCR for page 917
APPENDIX
C
Executive
Summary
The Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974 (PL93-523) required the Admin-
istrator of the Environmental Protection Agency to arrange for a study
that would serve as a scientific basis for revising the primary drinking-
water regulations that were promulgated under the Act. The Study was
conducted by the Safe Drinking Water Committee of the National Re-
search Council.
A thorough study of the scientific literature was undertaken in order
to assess the implications for human health of the constituents of drink-
ing water in the United States. Assessment of the health benefits and
the economic or technological feasibility of achieving a given level of
contaminant control was outside the scope of the study, although the
beneficial effects of some constituents of drinking water were considered.
The risk to man of contaminants ingested in drinking water was evalu-
ated on the basis of both epidemiological studies and studies of toxicity
in laboratory animals. The theoretical and experimental bases for extrap-
olating estimations of risk to low levels of dose were reviewed, and
some principles to guide the conduct of this and future studies were
defined.
Five classes of contaminants were examined: Microorganisms, Partic-
ulate Matter, Inorganic Solutes, Organic Solutes, and Radionuclides.
A great reduction in the incidence of gastroenteric diseases has re-
sulted from the control of pathogenic microorganisms by the standard
drinking-water treatments (coagulation, sedimentation, filtration, and
disinfection) adopted early in this century. However, in 1975, more
917
OCR for page 918
918 Appendix C
than 10,000 cases of waterborne enteric disease were reported, but in-
only about 10% of these cases were causal agents identified. There are
reasons to believe that many cases go unreported. Improved detection
and reporting systems are needed to determine more accurately the
nationwide incidence and causes of these diseases. Chlorine is the stan-
dard disinfectant against which others are compared. While it is not ideal
in every respect, much more research is required before any of the pro-
posed substitutes can be recommended to replace it in water treatment.
Questions concerning effectiveness of disinfection, toxicity of by-
products, and residual in the distribution system must be answered for
proposed substitutes, as well as for chlorine.
Finely divided solid particles are found suspended in many drinking-
water supplies, particularly in those not treated by coagulation and filtra-
tion. While certain particles may indirectly reduce the efficiency of dis-
infection treatments, and act as carriers of some other contaminants,
only in the case of particles derived from asbestos minerals are there
grounds for suspecting that direct effects on human health may result.
Inhalation of asbestos dust for long periods of time has been shown to
produce toxic effects, but evidence of the toxicity of ingested particles
of abestos minerals is not conclusive. Further research is necessary to
resolve this problem.
Health eRects associated with 22 inorganic solutes were reviewed.
Most were judged to present little or no threat to human health, either
because of low concentration in drinking water, minimal potential tox-
icity, or both. Thirteen are essential nutrients. Their potential toxicity
at high levels and nutritional role at lower levels complicate the issue,
but none of them poses a threat to health at the concentrations normally
found in drinking water. The inorganic contaminant with the greatest
potential for toxicity is lead. The present standard may not provide an
adequate margin of safety, especially for infants and young children. The
data presented justify reexamination of the current standards for arsenic
and selenium. The preponderance of evidence supports an inverse cor-
relation between the incidence of cardiovascular disease and water hard-
ness, but the underlying causal relationships are not clear.
On the basis of their relevance to the purpose of the study, 129
organic compounds (including 55 pesticides) were selected for detailed
examination.
A list of the compounds in drinking water that are known or suspected
carcinogens was prepared after a detailed analysis of the available data.
Estimates of cancer risk to man from a lifetime exposure were made
OCR for page 919
Appendix C 919
when sufficient data were available to permit a statistical extrapolation.
These projections were made for 22 compounds judged to be either
known or suspected human or animal carcinogens. Of these only vinyl
chloride is confirmed to be a human carcinogen. The available data on
mutagenicity and teratogenicity also were summarized.
Although the carcinogenic effects of the compounds were of primary
concern, evidence of other effects was considered. An "Acceptable
Daily Intake" (ADI) was calculated for 45 compounds that were
judged to be potentially toxic but not carcinogenic. The ADI is an
empirically derived value that reflects a particular combination of both
knowledge and uncertainty about the relative safety of a chemical. It
is the level at which exposure to a single chemical is not anticipated to
produce an observable toxic response in man. The ADI does not repre-
sent a safe level in drinking water because it does not specify what frac-
tion of the potential contaminant intake may come from water. Data
were insufficient to calculate an ADI for 61 of the compounds that were
considered.
The radiation associated with most water supplies is a small propor-
tion of the normal background to which all human beings are exposed.
Consequently, it is difficult, if not impossible, to measure with certainty
any adverse health effects that may be due to radionuclides in water.
In a few water supplies, however, radium can reach concentrations that
pose a higher risk of bone cancer for the people exposed.
Subgroups within the population have been identified that are more
susceptible to the adverse effects of certain constituents of drinking water
than would normally be expected of the population-at-large.
OCR for page 920
OCR for page 921
Index
absorption of chemical agents, 29
absorption rates differences between
species, 32, 53
At antham`'eba species, 113
acceptable risk, 24
acculturation and hypertension, 407409
acetaldehyde, 686-687
effects on animals, 687
effects on man, 686
acetylsalicylic acid toxicity, 37
acicular crystals, 144-147, 158-159
acrocyanosis, 324
Acrolein, 553, 554-556, 798
toxicity, 554-555
acroosteolysis, 784
acrylaldehyde (see Acrolein)
additives, food, 15
ADI (acceptable daily intake), 15-16, 492,
701
factors in calculating, 15
toxicological evaluation standard, 15
adenoviruses, 3, 88, 90, 96, 108
adrenal glands
degeneration, 724
necrosis, 724
adsorption
and pathogenic transport, 13
catalysis, on clays, 141
adverse dose response, defined, 802
921
aerosols, 140
air pollution, 373
interaction with cigarette smoking, 50
Alachlor, 525, 527-530
dose effects, 527-528, 796
toxicity data, 529
alcohol, ethyl (see acetaldehyde)
interactive effects, 50
aldehydes, 553
aldicarb, 635, 637-643
carcinogenicity, 641
effects in animals, 639-640
effects in man, 638-639
toxicity data, 643
Aldrin (see cyclodienes)
algae, 63
removal, 185
alkaline earth elements, isotopes of, 868
alkaline earth metabolism, 868
alkylmercury compounds, 274-275, 278
alpha activity. gross, 870
aluminum, 210-212, 218
sulfate, 106
amebiasis, 113, 120-121
amebic cysts, 113, 185
Amercide (see captan)
American Conference of Governmental
Industrial Hygienists, 23~231
American Water Works Association, 206
OCR for page 922
922 Index
Amiben, 519-521
ADI, 520, 796
amides, 525-533 (see also Alachlor,
Butachlor, Propachlor, propanil)
amosite, 144, 151-152, 162, 165
amphiboles, 145-150, 184
Ancylostoma duadenale, I 15
anemia, 238, 249
aplastic, 586
hemolytic, 682
myelocytic, 688
angiosarcoma, hepatic, 784
animal effects, application to humans, 15,
19, 22, 27-39, 52-54, 55-56, 165-168,
490, 791-792
absorption rates, 33-34
cellular barriers, 34
correlating, 15, 22
distribution rates, 33
excretion rates, 33
metabolic differences, 30
animals, test
design of laboratory experiments, 34-37,
5~57
homogeniety of, 30-31
lifetime feeding studies, 19
number, 32
selecting, 34-35
size, 31
design of laboratory experiments, 34-37,
56-57
anions, inorganic, 138- 140
anisole, 142
antagonistic interactions of water solutes,
15
anthophyllite, 144- 151, 152
Anticarie (see HCB)
anticholinesterase effects, 605
Aphelenchus species, 116
argyria, 290-291
arrhythmia, 782
arsenic, 28, 54, 212, 316-344, 428-430
absorption, 319
beneficial effects, 340-341
biotransformations, 320
carcinogenicity, 326-331, 336, 339, 429
430
chemical interactions, 340
mutagenicity, 331-333, 339, 429
teratogenicity, 339-340, 429
toxicity, 320-326, 333-336, 429
arsenic compounds
arsenates, 319-320
arsenic trioxide, 319, 328
arsenites, 319-321
arsines, 321
arsonium, 321
asbestiform, 144
asbestos, 13, 144-168
analysis, 155-159
concentrations in water and air, 152- 153,
189
dust and cancer deaths, 160-163
emission factors, 153
health effects including cancer, 160-168,
189-191
occurrence, 151-155, 189
redistribution, 152- 155
solubility, 150- 151
UICC reference samples, 147, 150, 151
asbestos fibers,
experimental studies, 163-168
sampling and analysis, 155- 159
asbestosis, 160
asbestos minerals, 135
mineralogy, 145-150
Ascaris lumbricoides, 1 15
atherosclerosis, 244
atomic-absorption analytical method, 226,
227, 235
Atrazine (see triazines)
attapulgite, 137
Aureobasidium pullulans, 177
azinphosmethyl, 604-608
carcinogenicity, 606
effects, 605-606
toxicity data, 608
Bacillus species, 67, 85
back-flushing, 117
bacteria, 13, 63-64, 66-88, 119-120, 179-
181, 186
coliform count, 75-76, 119
controlling in water supplies, 119- 120
correlations with viruses, 110- 111
disease potential estimation, 69-70
dose required for infection, 67-69
enteric, 67-68
gastrointestinal tract, 33
nitrate-reducing, 417
OCR for page 923
Index 923
standard plate count, 120
Balan (benefin) (see dinitroanilines)
baritosis, 230
barium, 207-208, 210-212, 218, 220-221,
229-231, 302-305
base exchange capacity, humic sub
stances, 170
beer, cobalt additive in, 248
beidellite, 142
BEIR. See National Academy of Sciences
Benefin (see dinitroanalines)
benzene, 28, 54, 142, 688-691
carcinogenic risk estimates, 690, 794
effects on animals, 689
effects on man, 688-689
benzene hexachloride (see BHC)
benzidine, 731
Benzo(a)pyrene, 691-694
carcinogenic risk estimates, 692, 794
effects in animals, 691
effects in man, 691
toxicity data, 694
Benzoics, 519-525 (see also Amiben, Di
camba)
Beryllium, 211-212, 218, 220, 231-235,
302-303, 305
beryllosis, 234
cancers, 234
pulmonary sarcoidosis, 234
beta activity, gross, 870
BHC (benzene hexachloride), 583, 585-594
carcinogenicity, 588-590
carcinogenic risk estimates, 591, 794
effects in animals, 587-588
effects in man, 586
toxicity data, 593-594
Bi.fidobacterium species, 75
bioassays, 10, 15, 48, 55, 791
biological receptors, 29
bipyridl, 543, 544-546
birth defects, 389-395
1,2-bis(chloroethoxy)ethane, 799
bis(2-chloroethyl) ether, 710-712
carcinogenic risk estimates, 712, 794
toxicity data, 714
bis(2-chloroisopropyl ether, 799
blackfoot disease, 325
Bloom's syndrome and cancer
incidence, 43
bone
cancer and radium, 17, 894-896, 898
disease, 282
brain disorders, 784
breast cancer, 50-51
Bromacil, 537, 540-543
ADI, 541-542, 796
dose levels, 540-541, 543, 796
toxicity, 543
bromamine, 109
bromination, water, 109
bromine, 119, 171
bromobenzene, 693, 694-695, 793
bromochlorobenzenes, 799
bromodichloromethane, 799
bromoform, 695-697
bronchi, constriction of, 782
bronchitis, 238
brucite-gibbsite materials, 139
burns, chemical, 699
Butachlor, 525, 527-530
dose effects, 527-528, 796
toxicity data, 529
I-butanol (see butylalcohol, tert-)
tert-Butyl alcohol, 697-698
Cadmium, 207-208, 211-213, 218, 220-221,
236-241, 302-303, 305-306
health effects, adverse, 238-239
Itai-Itai disease, 237-239
poisoning, 237-239
Calcium hypochlorite, 4
cancer, 20, 160 (see also carcinogenesis,
. . . . .
carclnogenlc, carclnogenlclty, car-
cinogens, dose-response, risk and in-
dividual herbicides, insecticides, met-
als, somatic effects)
bone, 17, 894-896, 898
dose-response models, 47-48
from asbestos, 13
from fluoridated water, 381-389
gastric, 422, 438
gastrointestinal, 162, 165- 167
lung, 288
mechanisms causing radiation-induced,
885-889
skin, 43
specific, estimating, 889-894
stomach, 387, 422
theories, statistical models, 39-47
cancer incidence, 13, 55
asbestos, 13-14
OCR for page 924
924 Index
fibers, 161, 189
radionuclides, 1~17, 894-896, 898
rates, 40, 49, 55
e-caprolactam, 698-700
Captan, 657, 660 666, 793
ADI, 796
dose levels, 796
effects in animals, 662-663
effects in man, 661
toxicity data, 665-666
carbamates, 635-649 (see also Aldicarb,
Carbaryl, Methomyl)
Carbaryl, 642, 644-649, 793
ADI, 796
carcinogenicity, 647
dose levels, 796
effects in animals, 645-646
effects in man, 645
toxicity data, 649
Carbon-14, 858-859, 862
carbon
activated, 186, 224-225
filters, 107
carbon disulfide, 700-703,
effects in animals, 701-702
effects in man, 701
carbon, powdered, in water
treatment, 186
carbon tetrachloride, 703-707
carcinogenic risk estimates, 705-706, 794
effects in animals, 704
effects in man, 703-704
toxicity data, 707
carcinogenesis, 25
and ionizing radiation, 38, 885-892,
894-896, 897-898
and synergistic effects, 32
assays, 20, 22
factors in predicting, 22
latency periods, 42, 189
possible thresholds, 38
tests to predict, 22
theories of, 39-47
. .
carcinogenic
effects, 25
initiators, 15
interactions, 15
mechanisms, 15
modifiers, 15
nitrosamines, 33
pollutants, nonthreshold approach, 21
promoters, 15
sensitivity of tests to detect effects, 27
. . .
carclnogen~clty
and chemical structure, 791
animal related to human, 53
correlation with mutagenicity, 20, 22,
37-38
carcinogens, 15, 19, 54
additive effects, 49-50
asbestos, 13
chemical in drinking water, 793
definition, 80~802
direct-acting, dose-response relation
ship, 39
exposure and cancer development, 21,
30
fibers, 166 167
ingested, 15
listing of, 794
nitrosamines, 416, 438
oral administration of test, 48-49
"positive" controls, 56
carcinoma, bronchogenic, 160
cardiac sensitization, 781
catalysis by clays, of organic species,
140- 143
catalytic alterations, 141 - 142
cation exchange capacity (CEC)
and binding of organisms to particles,
181
of soils, 171
cations, inorganic, 138- 140
CDC (National Center for Disease Con
trol), 12, 63, 64, 65, 66, 118
cell-culture systems, to detect viruses,
95-97
central nervous system, depressants, 693,
710, 724, 761, 777
cesium-137, 862, 871
cestodes, l l 5
Cheilobus species, 116
chemical agents. (see also arsenic,
fluoride, nitrate, selenium, sulfate,
and individual herbicides, insec
ticides, metals)
additive effects, 49-SO
and cell interactions, 23
animal testing of, 29-37
distribution by circulatory system, 33
excretion, 29
interactions, 15
OCR for page 925
Index 925
metabolism, 29
radioactive, 16-17
reabsorption, 29
reactions, 29
reaction with biological receptor, 29
variations in reaction to nutrition and
physical environment, 32
radionuclides, 858-865
chemicals
AD1 values, 15- 16
effects of injuries, 23
intoxication, 736, 747
safety and risk assessment, 19-62
structure and carcinogenicity, 791
toxic effects, 23
chemiso~ption, removing trace metals,
220
chloracne, 502
chloral, 708-709
Chloramben (see Amiben)
Chlordane (see cyclodienes)
Chlordeone (see Kepone)
chlorinated hydrocarbons, 21, 556-604
See also BHC, cyclodienes, DDT,
Kepone, Lindane, Methoxychlor,
Toxaphene
chlorination, water, 4-6, 21, 65, 86, 87, 93,
105, 108-110, 112, 117, 119, 185, 186
effect on bacteria, 119
effect on viruses, 108-9
history, 4-6
protozoa resistance, 120-121
chlorine cyanide (see cyanogen chloride)
chlorine dioxide (Cl02), 109, 119
chlorobenzene, 709-710
chlorodibromomethane, 799
chloroethene (see vinyl chloride)
chloroethyl methyl ether, 799
chloroform, 21, 185, 713, 715-718
carcinogenicity, 715-716
carcinogenic risk estimates, 716, 794
product of chlorination water treatment,
21, 179
toxicity data, 718
chlorohydroxybenzophenone, 799
chloromethane (see methyl chloride)
chloromethyl ethyl ether, 799
chlorophenoxys, 493-519 (see also 2,4-D;
2,4,5-T; TCDD; 2,4,S-TP; MCPA)
chloropropene, 799
cholera, 1-3, 7, 78
cholesterol levels, 442
cholinesterase, 26, 610, 630, 638, 646
chromium, 171, 207, 210-214, 218, 220-221,
241-246, 302-303, 306-307
atherosclerosis, 244
lung cancer, 246
chromosomes
aberrations, 875-877, 882
changes in number of (ploidy), 87~877,
882-883
chronic effects, defined, 22
chrysotile, 144-152, 164, 165, 184
cigarette smoking, effect on dose-
response, 50
circulatory systems, differences between
species, 33
cirrhosis, 26, 330
clay minerals in soil, 169
clays, 135-143
adsorption on, 137-145
classification, 137
removal, 184-185
Clostridium perfringens, 75, 120
coagulation
chemical, to remove trace metals, 217-
223
water treatment, 106, 185-186
Cobalt, 139, 208, 211-213, 218, 22~221,
24~250, 302-303, 307-308
beer additive, 248
thyroid impairment, 249
coccidomycosis, disseminated, 495
coliform counts, 75-84
coliform organisms, 67, 71-84
as indicators, 71-74
counting, 75-78
health significance of, 80-84
standards, 78-79, 84, 119-120
MPN technique, 72
MF technique, 72
color, water, 183
community fluorosis (mottling) index, 395
Community Water Supply Survey, USEPA,
77
congenital malformations and dose, 25
contaminants in drinking water (see also
chemical agents, pollutants, and indi-
vidual items)
critena for selection, 9-11, 13
organic solutes, criteria for determining,
14-15
OCR for page 926
926 Index
particulate, where found, 13
problems in assessing, 10- 11
radioactive, 16, 858, 870-872
varied susceptibility, 17
control groups, 28
copper, 139, 171, 207-208, 210-212, 214-
215, 218, 220-221, 250-254, 302-303,
308-309
gastrointestinal tract irritant, 252
glucose-6-phosphate dyhydrogenase,
253
Wilson's disease, 252
coproantibodies, 68
corrosion, piping, in water systems, 206
coxsackie viruses, 89-90, 100, 101
virus A, 95, 96, 100
virus A2, 108
virus B. 96, 100
virus B5, 103-104
"crib deaths," 409
critical dose, 23
crocidolite, 144-152, 164, 165
crotonaldehyde, 799
cummingtonite-grunerite mineral series,
144-149, 154
cummingtonite, 149
cumulative effects, 25
Curie, 899
Cyanazine (see triazines)
cyanogen chloride, 717, 719-720
cyanosis, 418
cyclodienes, 556-573
carcinogenic risk estimate, 567-568, 794
effects in animals, 564
effects in man, 563
food, residues in, 559-561
milk, residues in, 559, 561
occurrence, 557-558
standards, 558
toxicity data, 569-573
Cyclops, 115
cytopathic (liquid overlay) method, 95
cytopathology, 96
2,4-D (2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid),
493499
carcinogenicity, 496-497
dose, no adverse affect, 496, 498, 796
mutagenicity, 496
teratogenicity, 497-498
toxicity, 495-496, 499
Damage, fractional, 24
DBP (di-n-butylphthalate), 720-723
toxicity data, 723
DDE (see DDT)
DDT (2,2-bis-(p-chlorophenyl)- 1,1,1
trichloroethane), 178, 568, 574-580
and diet, 575
carcinogenicity, 577-578
carcinogenic risk estimates, 578-579,
794
dose effects, 576-577
in milk, 575
toxicity data, 580
DDT-T (see DDT)
debris, organic, 177
deficiency interactions of chemical agents,
51-52
DEHP, di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate, 726
729
toxicity data, 729
deletions, gene, 876-877
demineralization, by reverse osmosis, 225
dermatitis
acute, 535
chronic, 288
contact, 244, 699
subacute, 535
desalination, by reverse osmosis, 225
developmental effects, 16
diarrhea, 66, 90, 112, 282
diatomaceous earth filters, 107
diazinon, 607, 609-614
toxicity data, 614
dibromobenzene, 799
dibromodichloroethane, 799
Dicamba, 521-525, 526
dose levels, 522-524, 796
toxicity, 526
3,4-dichloraniline, 173
p-dichlorobenzene (see PDB)
1,3-dichlorobenzene, 799
dichlorodifluoroethane, 799
1,2-dichloroethane, 723
effects in animals, 724
effects in man, 724
dichloroiodomethane, 799
dichloromethane (see methylene chloride)
2,4-dichlorophenol, 725-726
2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (see
2,4-D)
1,2-dichloropropane, 799
OCR for page 927
Index 927
1,3-dichloropropene, 799
dichotomous response models of car
cinogenesis, 48
Dieldrin (see cyclodienes)
dietary intake, daily, and radionuclides,
859-861
differential thermal analysis of asbestos,
159
1,2-dimethoxybenzene, 799
dimethylbenzene (see xylenes)
2,4-dimethylphenol, 730-731
4,6-dinitro-2-aminophenol, 799
dinitroanilines, 547-553
AD1, 552, 796
dose effects, 549-550, 796
toxicity, 551-553
dioctylapidate, 799
dioxins, 493
diphenylhydrazine, 731-733
risk estimate, 794
toxicity data, 733
Diplogaster species, 116
Diquat, 140
diseases
chronic, 20
irreversible, 20
progressive, 20
transmission of, 63
disinfection methods, 5, 10, 107-111, 119,
121 (see also chlorination)
disinfection, sensitivity to, 73, 118
distribution of chemical agents, 29
disulfoton (see phorate)
Di-Syston R (see phorate)
Dithane M-45, 655, 657
dithiocarbamates, 650-660
carcinogenic risk estimates, 656-657
no-adverse effect levels, data, 655, 796
toxicity data, 655, 658-660
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), 19, 27, 51,
88, 37, 38
and 2,4-D, 497
xeroderma pigmentosum and
ultraviolet-induced skin cancer, 43, 51
dose rates
and mutations, 877-889, 894
evaluation of high animal, extrapolated
to low human, 15, 55-56
dose-response
adverse, defined, 802-804
curves, 24, 26, 37-39, 51
models, 47-48, 51, 59, 879-896
relationship, 15, 35, 37-49, 51, 58, 802,
872, 886
dose
animal related to human, 31
annual, estimated from natural radiation
in U.S., 858
critical, 23
duration, 36-37
effective, 41
estimation for heterogeneous popula
tions, 25
exponential model of retention of
radionuclides, 866
high, of carcinogens, extrapolation to
low, 47-49
high, relevant to human carcinogenesis
studies, 55
interactive effects, 49-52
low, effects of chronic exposure, 21
maximum tolerated, 54, 56-57
"no effect," 24, 43
"no-observed-adverse-effect," 15, 24,
25, 28, 54, 490
power function model of retention of
radionuclides, 866
"safe," 24, 27, 53, 54, 56-57
selecting for experiment, 34-35
threshold, 15, 25
dosimetric models, 866
Dracunculusmedinesis, 115
drinking water (see also chemical agents,
contaminants, water systems, water
treatment)
effects of pollutants, 20
European standards, 78-79
evaluating epidemiological information
from health authorities, 12- 13
inorganic solutes, 14
microbiology of, 63-134
organic solutes, criteria for selection,
14-16
origin of constituents, 11
per capita consumption daily, 11
radionuclide content, 859-862
selecting for study, 10
standards, purpose of, 22
U.S. standards, 6-9
dysentery, amebic, 112
dysentery, bacillary, 69
OCR for page 930
930 Index
epoxide, 556-568
herbicides, 140, 493-556 (see also indi
vidual herbicides)
ADI criteria, 492
evaluation methodology, 490-492
herpes simplex, 326
herpes zoster, 326
hexachloro-1,3-butadiene, 799
hexachlorocyclopentadiene derivatives
(see cyclodienes)
high LET radiation (see LET and radia
tion, high LET)
hit-theory models of carcinogenesis, 40-46
hookworms, 115-116
hornblende, 149
humic acids, 169- 174, 177- 179, 185
chemisorption by, 173
DDT and, 178
haloforms from chlorination of, 179
ion exchange capacity, 170
mechanisms of reaction, 173- 174
metal complexes, 171
reaction with organic species, 171
humin, 170
humus, soil, 169
hydrocarbons
chlorinated, 21
polycyclic aromatic, 691
hydroxides, 139
Hymenolepis nana, 1 15
hypomagnesemia, 264
hypernatremia, 409
hyperpigmentation, 325
hypertension, 403-409
hypochlorous acid, 108
illite, 137
immune mechanisms, 42
immunochemical methods for virus iden-
tification, 97
indicator organisms, 70-75, 97-100
false-negative and false-positive results,
74
industrial waste disposal, 174-176
infantile paralysis, 89
initiator-inhibitor interactions of chemical
agents, 50
initiator-promo/or interactions of chemical
agents, 50
. . . .
mutes, c. 1emlca
cumulative, 25
nonreversible, 23-24, 26
reversible, 23, 26
self-propagating, 25-26
types of, 22
inorganic contaminants of water, 14, 138
140 (see also arsenic, beryllium,
cobalt, copper, fluoride, magnesium,
manganese, molybdenum, nickel, ni
trate, selenium, sodium, sulfate, tin,
vanadium, zinc)
insecticides, 556-680 (see also chlorinated
hydrocarbons, organophosphates,
carbamates)
interactions of chemical agents, 49-50 (see
antagonistic, deficiency, "fertile
ground," initiator-inhibitor,
initiator-promo/or, organic-clay,
synergistic)
International Agency for Research on
Cancer, vi, 163
ICRP (International Commission on
Radiological Protection), 857, 865
868, 874, 878, 887, 889
International Standards for drinking
water, 78-79
in vitro tests, 22, 88-89
iodination, water, 109
iodine, 109, 119, 863
I-125, 864
I-129, 865
I- 131, 862-865
ion exchange, trace metal removal, 225
226
iron, 207, 210-212, 218
irreversible health effects, 23-26, 52
assessing, 53-58
congenital malformations, 25
self-propagating, 26
irreversible toxicity, 27, 52
isodecane, 799
Itai-Itai disease, 237-239
kaolinite, 137, 142, 185
kaopectate, 137
Katadyn process, 289
Kepone, 592, 596-599
carcinogenicity, 596-597
carcinogenicity risk estimates, 597-598,
794
effects in man, 595-596
OCR for page 931
Index 931
poisoning, 595
toxicity data, 599
keratoses, 327
kidney
failure, 406
tubular necrosis, 243
Klebsiella species, 75
group, 75
K. pneumonias, 72
krypton, 865
lactose
fermentation test, 71
reactions, atypical, 74
latent period, 22
defined, 899
laxative effect, 263, 426
lead, 171, 207, 210-212, 214, 218, 220-221,
254-261, 302-304, 309-311
bone storage of, 257
heme synthesis effect, 258
lead arsenate, 320
Pb-210, 861
Leptospira species, 67, 70
leptospirosis, 67
LET (linear energy transfer, high LET,
low LET) see also radiation
cancer induction, 38, 888-892
definition, 899
high, sources of, 858-861
low, sources of, 858-859
lethal dose (LD), 37 (see also individual
items)
leukemia, 586-587, 688
acute myeloblastic, 683
benzene-induced, 690
chronic lymphoid, 683
leukemogens, 688
leukopenia, 688
lime softening, 107, 223-224
Lindane (see BHC)
lithium, 442
liver
damage, chronic, 586
toxins, 757
log-probit method, of high to low dose
extrapolation, 47
low-blood-pressure populations, 407
low LET radiation (see LET and radiation,
low LET)
lung congestion, 788
lung disease, beryllium, 234
magnesium, 210, 221, 261-265, 302, 303,
311
malathion, 620-628, 793
ADI, 626, 793
effects in man, 622
toxicity data, 627
Maneb (see dithiocarbamates)
manganese, 207, 210, 212, 214-215, 218,
220-221, 265-270, 302-303, 311-312
manganism, 269
MCPA (2-methyl-4-chlorophenoxyacetic
acid), 509-519
carcinogenicity, 515
dose levels, 513-515, 796
mutagenicity, 515
teratogenicity, 515-516
toxicity, 513-515, 516, 518-519
mechanisms, carcinogenic, 15
membrane filter (MF) bacterial assay,
70, 72, 76, 78-79, 87
membranes, effects on toxic substances,
34
meningoencephalitis, 113
mental retardation, 259
mercury, 207, 208, 215, 220-221, 270-279,
302-303, 312-313
analytic methods, 277-278
ingestion, effects of, 275-276
kidney impairment, 275
Minamata disease, 276
Merkuran, 275
Merpan (see Captan)
mesothelioma, 160
metabolism
alkaline earth, 870
animal rates, 31
differences between species, 33, 53
factor in dose-response models, 46
glucose, 242
of chemical agents, 29, 33
metachloronitrobenzene, 799
metallic cations, interactions with clays,
138-139, 142
metal oxides, in soil, 169
metals
allowable concentrations of, 14
essential, 302
metals, trace, in water systems, 170-171,
OCR for page 932
932 Index
175-176, 205-316 (see also specific
metals, e.g., copper)
analysis of, 226-229
decaying vegetation and, 205
finished water, 209-210
in piping systems, 206-209
in raw water, 210-216
tap water, 206-209
removal, 217-226
me/hemoglobin, 416, 417-418, 424, 437
methomyl (see Aldicarb)
Methoxychlor, 579, 581-584
carcinogenicity, 583
dose effects, 582, 796
o-methoxyphenol, 740-741, 798
methyl chloride, 741-743, 798
methylene chloride, 743-745, 798
methylmercury compounds, 221, 272,
274-279
methyl methacrylate, 745-748
effects in animals, 746
effects in man, 746
toxicity data, 748
methyl parathion (see Parathion)
methylstearate, 799
microbiological contaminants, 12-13 (see
also bacteria, protozoa, viruses)
microbiology of water, 63-134, 179-183
bacteria, 67-88, 119- 120
epidemiology, 63-66, 91-94, 112, 118-119
helminths, 115-117
protozoa, 112-115
viruses, 88- 111, 120
water treatment practices and parasite
removal, 117-118, 120-121
Micrococcus species, 85
microorganism-particle interaction in
water, 179-183
microorganisms in water, action of, 179
183
bacteria, 180- 181
disinfection, difficulty of, 179-180, 182
hydroxide gel coated, 186
microbial aggregates, 179
viral aggregates, 179-180
viruses, 181- 183
microscopy (see electron microscopy,
optical microscopy)
milk of nursing mothers, 575, 758
Mills-Reincke theorem, 7, 8
Minamata disease, 276
mineral fibers (see also asbestos)
identification, 155-159
occurrence, 151-155
removal, 184
miticides, 172
molybdenum, 210-212, 218, 220-221, 279-
284, 302-303, 313-314
bone disease, 282
diarrhea, 282
gout, 283
toxicity, 283-284
mongolism, 377
monobromobenzene (see bromobenzene)
monochlorobenzene (see chlorobenzene)
montmorillonite, 137, 143, 185
monuron, 172
morbidity
minor, 26
major, 26
MPN (most-probable-number) procedure
of quantification, 70, 72, 79, 80
multievent theory of carcinogenesis,
40-41, 43, 45, 48
municipal waste disposal, 174-176
mutagenesis, 25, 53
assays, 20
chemical, 38
effects, 25, 52, 87~878
measuring in humans, 30, 877-884
mutagenicity, correlation with car-
cinogenicity, 20, 22, 37-38
mutagens, 15 (see also individual items)
definition, 802
mutations
cell, 47
change in chromosome number, 876-877
chromosome aberrations, 875-877
definition, 875
from toxic chemicals, 23
germ cell, 26, 875
induced, 877-884
in offspring, 23, 875-877
rate and dose, 879, 884-888
risk estimates, 879-881
somatic cell, 875, 884-889
mycoplasma, 63, 64
Nabam (see dithiocarbamates)
nacrite, 137
Naegleria species, 113
narcosis, 772
OCR for page 933
Index 933
NAS (National Academy of Sciences), v,
9, 25
Committee on Biological Effects of
ionizing Radiation, 38, 857, 872-874,
878-883, 886, 889, 892
Safe Drinking Water Committee, vi, 911
NCRP (National Council on Radiation
Protection and Measurements), 857,
861, 865-866, 878, 886
Necator americanus, 11 5
necrosis
centrilobular, 704
tubular, of kidney, 243
nematodes, 115-118, 121
neoplasms, 21
nephrosis, toxic, 334
neuropathy, peripheral, 757
nickel, 139, 207, 210-212, 215, 218, 220-
221, 285-289, 302-303, 314
health effects, 287-288
nicotine, 747. 749
nitralin (see dinitroanalines)
nitrates 41 1-425, 436-439
analytical methods for, 423-424
carcinogenicity, 416, 420-422, 425, 438
toxicity, 416-420, 437
nitrites, 414-416, 418-420, 424, 438
nitrosamines, carcinogenic, 33, 416, 438
N-nitroso compounds, 421, 424, 438
no-effect doses, 24
nomenclature
asbestos, 144-145
bacteria, 68
nonane, 799
noncarcinogens, 15
dose evaluation for, 57-58
thresholds, 58
nonmutagens, 57-58
nonreversible effects. 23, 24, 26
nonthreshold approach, 21
nontronite, 137, 142
no-observed-effect doses, 24, 25
divided by safety factor, 54
''Norwalk agent," 93
NRC (National Research Council), v, 9
N-substituted acetanilides (see amides)
nuclear fuel effluents. 865
nuclear weapon testing, 862
octyl chloride. 799
oil pollutants in sediments. 175
one-hit dose response model of car-
cinogenesis, 39-40, 45
optical microscopy, asbestos fibers, 156
organic debris, effects on water, 177
organic particles in soil, 135
organic particles in water, 135, 168-179
health effects, 19~191
in municipal and industrial wastes, 174-
176
in soil, 169-174
removal, 185
organic pollutants and clays, 140-143, 169
organoleptic test, 802
organophosphates, 604-635 (see also azin-
phosmethyl, diazinon, disulfoton,
malathion, methyl parathion, para-
thion, phorate)
Orthocide (see Captan)
oxime carbamates (see Aldicarb)
Oxychlordane, 568
ozonation, water, 109
ozone(O3), 109-110, 119
palygorskite, 137, 142
Paracide (see PDB)
Paraquat, 543, 544-546
toxicity, 544, 545, 546
parasites, 112-118, 120-121
nematodes, 115- 1 16
protozoa, 1 12-1 15
removal from water, 117
parathion, 626, 629-636
ADI, 796
dose levels, 796
effects in animals, 630-32
effects in man, 630
toxicity, 633-636
Parkinson's disease, 269
particles in water
microorganism interaction, 180-183
removal, 188
solid suspended, 179-188
viral interaction, 181-182
particulates, contaminants in water, 13-14
(see also asbestos)
particulates, removal from water, 183-186
carbon, 186
clay, 184
mineral fibers, 184
metal hydroxides, 186
polyelectrolytes, 186
OCR for page 934
934 Index
parvoviruses, 88, 101
pathogenic
fungi, 63
yeast, 63
pathogens, 67-69
affected by chlorination, 21
bacterial, 69-70
detection in finished water, 69-88
parasites, 117
transport, 13
PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls), 756-762
carcinogenic risk estimates, 760, 794
effects in animals, 758-759
effects in man, 757-758
toxicity data, 762
PCNB (pentachloronitrobenzene), 673-681
carcinogenicity, 677-678
carcinogenic risk estimates, 679, 794
effects in animals, 676-677
PCP (pentachlorophenol), 750-753
effects in animals, 751
effects in man, 750-751
toxicity data, 753
PDB (p-dichlorobenzene), 680, 682-686
ADI, 796
effects in animals, 683-684
effects in man, 682-683
toxicity data, 685
pentachlorophenyl methyl ether, 799
perchloroethylene (see tetra-
chloroethylene)
Pesticide Accident Surveillance System
(PASS), 661
pesticide reactions, clay catalyzed, 142
pesticides, 14, 140-142, 493-686 (see also
fumigant, herbicides, insecticides)
Phaltan (see Captan)
pharmacokinetic, 36, 58, 494
phenylacetic acid, 754-755
phenylamide herbicides, 172, 173
phenylmercuric acetate, 275
phorate, 613, 615-620
dose effects, 616-617, 796
poisoning, 616
toxicity data, 619
photosensitization, 669
phthalic anhydride, 755-756
phthalimides, 657, 660-666 (see also Cap-
tan, Folpet, HCB, PCNB)
picornaviruses, 88
Planavin (nitralin) (see dinitroanilines)
plankton, 183
plaque-forming unit (PFU), 89, 94, 100-
101, 103, 182
plaques, 89, 96
definition, 89
plaquing (agar overlay) method, 95
plasma cholinesterase inhibition, 26
pleural plaques, 160
plumbism, 258
plutonium, 865
pneumonoconiosis, 230
poliomyelitis, 89, 91, 102-103
virus, 89
polioviruses, 89-90, 93, 96, 100-105
poliovirus 2, 93
pollutants (see also contaminants, micro-
biology, particulates, radioactivity,
solutes)
air, 373
assessing in drinking water, 19
carcinogenic, nonthreshold approach,
21
effects, 20
fecal, 69, 72
methods of study, 19
oil, 175
predicting effects, 35-37
polonium-210, 858
polyelectrolytes, 106
polyelectrolytes, organic
in soils, ion exchange capacity, 171
in water, 177- 179
water treatment, 186
Polyram, 655
porphyria, 502
potassium-40, 858, 859, 871, 896
potassium fixation, 139
power function model, of radionuclide
retention, 866
procarcinogens, 421
Propachlor, 525, 527-530
dose effects, 527, 528, 796
toxicity data, 529
Propanil, 528, 532-534
Propazine (see triazines)
propylbenzene, 761, 763
Proteus mirabilis, 422
protozoa, 13, 63
parasitic, 121
pathogenic, 112-115, 117-118
removal, 117, 120-121
OCR for page 935
Index 935
Proteus species, 67, 85
Pseudomonas species, 75, 85, 86
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, 67
Public Health Service, U.S., 76, 78
pulmonary diseases, 160
sarcoidosis, 234
Rad, definition, 899
radiation, ionizing, 16, 38, 359, 857-858
adverse health effects, 16-17, 872, 874,
884, 892-898
background, 857-858, 892
carcinogenesis (see somatic effects)
carcinogenetic thresholds, 38-39
developmental and teratogenic effects
and risks, 872-874, 897
dose estimates, 865-872
dose effectiveness factors, 887-892
genetic effects and risks, 874-884, 894,
897
high LET, 38, 858, 859-861
low LET, 39, 858-859, 873, 878, 886-887
mutagenesis, 37, 877-884
somatic effects and risks, 16, 884-892,
894-896, 897-898
radioactive contaminants in water, 16- 17,
857-903
health effects, 896-898
radioactive CO2 test, 75
radioactive fall-out, 862
radionuclides in water, 16- 17,858-865,870
872
artificial, 862-865
cancer incidence, 16, 894-896, 898
dose factors, annual, 867, 871
hypothetical activity, 870-871
natural, 859-861
radionuclides, retention models
exponential, 866
power function, 866
radiopharmaceuticals, 862-865
radium
and bone cancer, 17, 894-896, 898
Ra-223, 861
Ra-224, 861 Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974, v, 9, 905
Ra-226, 858, 860-861, 866, 869-871, 896, safety, 12, 27, 56
898 definition, 801
Ra-228, 858, 860-861, 896, 898 evaluation of, 801
radon
inhalation and cancer, 50
Rn-220, 858
Rn-222, 858, 861
Raynaud's syndrome, 324, 325
receptor sites, differences between
species, 34
red-cell
cholinesterase, 630
protoporphyrin, 258
rem, defined, 899
renal
function, impaired, 379, 380
insufficiency, 704
stones, 238
reoviruses, 88, 90, 96, 100, 108
reverse osmosis water treatment, 97, 225
reversible health effects, 23, 24, 26, 28, 53
Rhabditis species, 116
riebeckite, 144
risk
absolute, 899
acceptable, 24
nonthreshold approach, 21
relative, 54, 879, 899
risk assessment
factors limiting, 19
procedures, 12, 15, 19-62, 792
risk-benefit, 56-57
comparisons, 21, 57
methods of determining, 12
risk estimate, evaluation, 15, 27-29, 48-49
risk estimating, 19-20, 39, 55-56, 490-491,
890-891
background radiation and, 879, 885,
892-894
genetic effects and, 872-889, 894, 897
radioactive drinking water, 892-894
specific cancers, radiation induced, 889-892
RNA (ribonucleic acid), 88
roentgen (R), definition, 900
ronnel, 142
roundworms (see nematodes)
rubidium-87, 858
safe doses, 24, 27-28, 37, 54
and exposure, 28
definition, 54
thresholds, 54
safety factors, 20-21, 24, 27, 54, 801-802
evaluation of, 49-52
OCR for page 936
936 Index
Salmonella species, 67-68, 70-72, 80, 83, 93
S. enteritidis, paratyphi A, 67-73
S. enteritidis, paratyphi B. 73
S. enteritidis, typhimurium, 73, 83, 86
S. typhi, 3, 66-68, 72-73, 81, 93
S. typhosa, 81, 93
salmonellosis, 65, 67, 78
sand filters, 3, 115- 116
for removal of protozoan cysts, 117
saponite, 137
sarcoidosis, pulmonary, 234
sauconite, 137
sediment in water, 86
sedimentation, water, 87, 94, 117, 183
selenium, 212, 344-369, 430-433
absorption, 349, 431
beneficial effects, 364-365
biotransformations, 352
carcinogenicity, 359
chemical interactions, 362-364
distribution, 349-351
mutagenicity, 361
toxicity, 354-359, 431-432
sepiolite, 137
serologic methods for virus identification,
97, 100
serpentine minerals, 144
Serratia species, 67
serum fluoride concentration, 373-374
serum-neutralization test, 97
sewage systems, 175
Shigella species, 69, 70, 71, 73, 80, 93
S. dys`~ntc~riac,, 67-69, 73
S. dysenteriae I (Shiga strain), 69
S. dysc~nt`~ria`, A-1, 68
S. dysenteriae M- 131, 68
S. c~ntc~ritidis, paratyphi A, 73
S. c~ntc~ritidis, paratyphi B. 73
S. c~nt`,ritidis, paratyphi D, 73
S. flexnc~ri, 67-68, 73
S. flexneri, 2A #, 68-69, 71
S. flexneri, 2A ##, 68
S. flc~xnc~ri, type 6, 65
S. sonnc~i, 64-65, 66. 67, 73, 93
S. typhi, 73
shigellosis, 64, 65. 66, 78
sickle-cell disease, 300
silica, 210
silicate minerals (s<~, asbestos)
silver, 207, 210-212, 215, 218. 220-221,
289-292, 302-303, 314
Silvex (see 2,4,5-TP)
Simazine (see triazines)
skin
diseases, 326
pigmentation, 50
slime deposits in water, 86
smectite, 137, 139, 142
sodium, 212, 400-411, 435-436
analytical methods for, 409
daily intake, 401-402, 435-436
epidemiology, 406-409
hypertension and, 403-409, 411
softening, water, 183-184 (see also hard-
ness)
soil particles in water, 169-174
solutes, inorganic, 205-488
defined, 14
solutes, organic, 849-857
defined, 14-16
somatic cell mutations, 884-892, 894-896
somatic effects, 16, 884-889, 894-895,
897-898
self-propagating effect, 26
SPC (standard plate count), 85-88, 120
spermatogenesis, alterations in, 258
standards for drinking water
U.S., 6-9
European, 78-79
stannous fluoride, 293
Staphylo~ oc c us species, 75
sterility, 596
Streptococci, 73
fecal, 75
S. b`'vis, 73
5. `~cluinus. 73
Streptr~my~ `~s species, 85
Strongyloid`~s species, 116
Str`'ngyl`'id`~s st<,rc`'ralis, I 15
strontium-90, 862, 866, 869-871. 896
styrene, 763-765
effects in animals, 764-765
effects in man, 764
toxicity data, 766
subchronic toxicology, 21
sulfates, 425-428
laxative effect, 426
removal, 425
sulfhydryl-arsenic reactions, 319, 332
surface water, treatment of, 206
synergistic interactions, 15, 32, 36
OCR for page 937
Index 937
2,4,5-T (2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic
acid), 499, 500-513, 796
ADI, 509
carcinogenicity, 506
dose levels, 501-506
esters of, 503
mutagenicity, 505
teratogenicity, 508
toxicity, 500-510
taconite ore tailings, 154
tapeworms, 115
TCDD (2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p
dioxin), 498, 500-513
acceptable daily intake, 509, 796
carcinogenicity, 506
dose levels, 501-506, 796
mutagenicity, 505
teratogenicity, 506-508
toxicity, 500-509, 512
technetium-99m, 865
teeth, mottled, 395-396
terata, defined, 23
teratogenesis, 53
teratogenic effects, 16, 53, 897
teratogens, 15, 793
definition of, 800
effect on water supplies, 16
1,1,3,3-tetrachloroacetone, 799
I, I,1,2-tetrachloroethane, 765, 767-770,
798
effects in animals, 768
effects in man, 767-768
tetrachloroethylene, 769-770
tetrachloromethane (see carbon tet
rachloride)
Thimet R (see phorate)
Thiram (see dithiocarbamates)
Thorium, 858, 860
Th-232, 859
threadworms, 115-116
threshold
actual, 42, 46
dose and long-term exposure, 27
dose concept, 15, 21, 24-25, 27, 37-47,
54-55, 58, 873
dose-response curves, effects showing,
37
practical, 42
radiation doses, 21, 865-872
thyroid function, decreased, 249
time-to-response models of car
cinogenesis, 48
tin, 221, 292-296, 302-303, 315
toluene, 770-773
effects in animals, 772
effects in man, 771-772
toxaphene, 600-604, 796
effects in animals, 601-602
effects in man, 601
toxic effects, mechanisms, 58-59
toxicity, acute, 29
toxicity, 12, 30, 57-58
chronic, assessing in animal testing, 22
data selection criteria, 15
definition of, 803
environmental variables affecting, 36
extrapolation from animals to man, 12,
19, 27-37
laboratory studies, 19
reversibility, 23-27, 53
studies of water, criteria for, 12, 16, 19
synergistic, 36
tests, laboratory animal, 29-37, 55-56
tests, standardized conditions, 30-31
toxicology studies, extrapolation to
humans
acute, 21, 29
subchronic, 21
toxic substances, criteria for testing
suspected, 16
toxification, 58
2,4,5-TP (2,4,5-trichlorophenoxypropionic
acid), 509-519
carcinogenicity, 515
dose levels, 513-515, 796
mutagenicity, 515
teratogenicity, 515-516
toxicity, 513-515, 516-517, 519
trace elements, concentrations, 218, 220
trace metals in drinking water (see metals,
trace)
Treflan (see dinitroanilines)
tremolite, 144, 151
actinolite mineral series, 148-149
triazines, 533, 535-539, 796, 798
ADI, 796
dose levels, 796
toxicity, 535-536
tribromomethane (see bromoform)
trichloroacetaldehyde (see chloral)
trichlorobenzene, 773-775
OCR for page 938
938 Index
1,1,2-trichloroethane, 775-777
trichloroethylene, 777-781
carcinogenic risk estimates, 779-780,
794
effects in animals, 778
effects in man, 777-778
toxicity data, 781
trichlorofluoromethane, 781, 782-783
trichloromethane (see chloroform)
2,4,6-trichlorophenol, 799
Trichuris trichiura, 115
Trifluralin (see dinitroanilines)
Trilobus species, 116
trimethylbenzene, 799
tritium, 858, 862, 871
tumors
growth time, 40
malignant, 23
turbidimetry, 187
turbidity, water, 94, 183- 188, 190, 217
causes of, 183
measuring, 187- 188
two-hit dose response model of car-
cinogenesis, 45
typhoid fever, 3-4, 6-7, 64, 78, 82-83
UICC (Unio Internationale Contra Can-
crum), asbestos reference samples,
147, 150-151
ultrafiltration method to recover entero-
viruses from water, 97
ultraviolet radiation, 50
uncertainty factor (see safety factor)
UNSCEAR (United Nations Scientific
Committee on the Effects of Atomic
Radiation), 857, 858, 859, 861, 878,
886, 889
Uracil (see bromacil)
uranium
concentrations in water, 858
U-238, 859
urea, 142
vaccines, oral, 101
vanadium, 210-212, 216, 218, 220-221,
296-298, 302-303, 315
Vancide 89 (see Captan)
Vanguard K (see Captan)
variable-threshold model of car-
cinogenesis, 45, 46
vermiculite, 139, 142
Vibrio cholerae, 2, 67-68, 70, 73
vinyl chloride, 783-787
carcinogenic risk estimates, 785-786,
794
effects in animals, 784-785
effects in man, 784
vinyl bichloride (see trichloroethane)
viruses, 13, 63, 88- 111, 120, 179, 181- 183,
186
correlations with bacteria, 110- 111
detecting waterborne, 94-95
epidemiology, 91-94
health effects in drinking water, 101-104
history of enteric, 89-91
recovery from water, 94- 101
resistance to disinfection, 104-110
water treatment to remove, 104-111
viruses, enteric (see enteroviruses)
waste disposal, 174- 176
wastewater, reclamation of, 104
waterborne disease (see epidemiology)
water consumption volume, human, 11
water distribution systems, 65-66, 77, 91
water hardness (see hardness, water)
water-softening (see lime softening)
water supplies
inorganic solutes in, 205-488
monitoring of, 76, 86
on ships and waterborne disease, 65-66
organic particulates in, 168- 179
safety, 7
sampling, 76-78
U.S. standards, history, 6-8
well, 93
water systems
individual and waterborne disease, 65
typhoid fever outbreaks, 64
municipal and waterborne disease, 65
semipublic and waterborne disease, 65
typhoid fever outbreaks, 64
water treatment (see also chlorination,
coagulation, filtration, sedimentation)
history, 2-8
indicator organisms, role of, in, 70-71
parasite removal, 117-118, 120-121
particulates removal, 184- 186
trace metals removal, 217, 220-226
transmission of hepatitis A, 91
virus removal, 104- 111
water uses, 17
OCR for page 939
Index 939
whipworms, 11 3- 1 1 6
~lson's gases, 252-253
Todd Head Own, 78
xeroderma pigmentosum, 4], j 1
x-ray dieact1On, asbestos analysis, 139
xylenes, 787, 788-789
xylenc1 isomers, 7]0
yeast, phrenic, O
If Or, ad,
Yusho disease, 738
zinc, 1]9, 17 1 , 207-208, 211-212, 216, 218,
220-221, 299-]~, ]16
Zineb Q~ dithioca~m~es)
Zimm 0~e dithioca~amates)
OCR for page 940
Representative terms from entire chapter:
drinking water
