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THE CHILDREN OF ATOMIC BOMB SURVIVORS: A Genetic Study
THE EFFECT OF EXPOSURE TO THE ATOMIC BOMBS ON PREGNANCY TERMINATION IN HIROSHIMA AND NAGASAKI
By
J.V.NEEL AND W.J.SCHULL
DEPARTMENTOF HUMAN GENETICS UNIVERSITYOF MICHIGAN
in collaboration with
R.C.ANDERSON
W.H.BORGES
R.C.BREWER
S.KITAMURA
M.KODANI
D.J.MCDONALD
N.E.MORTON
M.SUZUKI
K.TAKESHIMA
W.J.WEDEMEYER
J.W.WOOD
S.W.WRIGHT
J.N.YAMAZAKI
ATOMIC BOMB CASUALTY COMMISSION
HIROSHIMA, JAPAN
Publication No. 461
NATIONAL ACADEMYOF SCIENCES—NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL
WASHINGTON 25, D.C.
1956
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THE CHILDREN OF ATOMIC BOMB SURVIVORS: A Genetic Study
LIBRARYOF CONGRESS CARD CATALOGUE No. 56–60060
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THE CHILDREN OF ATOMIC BOMB SURVIVORS: A Genetic Study
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. BACKGROUND
1
1.1 THE GENERAL ADMINISTRATIVE FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY
1
1.2 THE BEGINNINGS OF THE GENETICS PROGRAM
2
1.3 THE EARLY JAPANESE EFFORTS ALONG THESE LINES
2
1.4 SCIENTIFIC AND ADMINISTRATIVE CONSIDERATIONS SHAPING THE NATURE OF THE PROGRAM IN JAPAN
3
1.5 LOCAL CONSIDERATIONS SHAPING THE NATURE OF THE PROGRAM IN JAPAN
3
II. THE PLAN
5
2.1 PREGNANCY REGISTRATION
5
2.2 SPECIAL STUDIES ON ABNORMAL TERMINATIONS
9
2.3 THE “10-PER CENT SAMPLE”
9
2.4 THE ACCURACY AND REPRODUCIBILITY OF THE ANAMNESTIC DATA OBTAINED ON THE GENETICS SHORT FORM AND THE GENETICS LONG FORM.
9
2.5 THE AUTOPSY PROGRAM
14
2.6 THE COLLECTION OF DATA ON INFANTS AGED 9 MONTHS
14
2.7 THE PROCESSING OF THE DATA
18
2.8 THE STUDY OF SPONTANEOUS ABORTIONS
18
2.9 CYTOGENETIC EFFECTS OF THE ATOMIC BOMBS
18
2.10 THE DECISION TO DISCONTINUE WORK IN KURE
18
2.11 THE TERMINATION OF THE PROGRAM IN JANUARY, 1954
19
2.12 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
19
III. A COMPARISON OF HIROSHIMA AND NAGASAKI
21
3.1 THE PEOPLING OF JAPAN; POSSIBLE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE INHABITANTS OF HONSHU AND KYUSHU
21
3.2 NON-JAPANESE ELEMENTS IN THE TWO CITIES
21
3.2.1 EARLY NAGASAKI CONTACTS WITH THE WEST
21
3.2.2 THE DUTCH ON DESHIMA
22
3.2.3 FROM THE REOPENING OF JAPAN TO WORLD WAR II
22
3.3 THE BIOLOGICAL INFLUENCE OF “FOREIGNERS” ON NAGASAKI AND HIROSHIMA
23
3.4 THE DIFFERENT IMPACTS OF THE ATOMIC BOMBS ON THE TWO CITIES.
28
3.4.1 TYPES OF BOMBS
28
3.4.2 EFFECTS OF THE BOMBS ON THE TWO CITIES
28
3.5 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ABCC PROGRAM IN THE TWO CITIES
29
IV. THE CRITERIA OF RADIATION EMPLOYED IN THE STUDY
33
4.1 THE COMPLICATED NATURE OF THE INJURIES SUSTAINED BY SOME SURVIVORS; “DISASTER EFFECT” VS. “RADIATION EFFECT”
33
4.2 THE QUESTION OF RESIDUAL RADIATION FOLLOWING AN ATOMIC BOMBING
33
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THE CHILDREN OF ATOMIC BOMB SURVIVORS: A Genetic Study
4.3 FACTORS DETERMINING THE NATURE OF THE RADIATION DATA COLLECTED IN THIS STUDY
34
4.3.1 THE SYNDROME OF RADIATION SICKNESS DUE TO WHOLE-BODY IRRADIATION
34
4.3.2 THE RELATION BETWEEN DISTANCE FROM THE HYPOCENTER AND RADIATION DOSAGE
36
4.3.3 THE ROLE OF SHIELDING IN DETERMINING RADIATION DOSE
36
4.4 THE TYPE OF RADIATION DATA COLLECTED IN THIS STUDY
38
4.5 THE RELATION BETWEEN DISTANCE, SHIELDING, AND SYMPTOMS IN THESE DATA
41
4.6 FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO THE VALIDITY OF THE RADIATION HISTORIES
44
4.7 DEFINITION OF RADIATION CATEGORIES
44
4.8 CONSIDERATIONS IN THE ESTIMATION OF THE AVERAGE AMOUNT OF RADIATION RECEIVED BY PERSONS IN EACH OF THE FIVE RADIATION CATEGORIES
45
4.8.1 THE ESTIMATED DISTANCE-DOSAGE CURVE
46
4.8.2 THE OBSERVATIONS OF THE JOINT COMMISSION REGARDING LEUCOPENIA
46
4.8.3 THE PROPORTION OF INDIVIDUALS PROTECTED BY VARIOUS TYPES OF SHIELDING
50
4.9 ESTIMATES OF THE AVERAGE AMOUNT OF IRRADIATION RECEIVED BY INDIVIDUALS IN THE VARIOUS EXPOSURE CATEGORIES
50
V. THE COMPARABILITY OF IRRADIATION SUBCLASSES
53
5.1 CONSANGUINITY
53
5.2 AGE AND PARITY
55
5.3 ECONOMIC STATUS
59
5.4 FREQUENCY OF POSITIVE SEROLOGICAL TEST FOR SYPHILIS
61
5.5 FREQUENCY OF INDUCED ABORTIONS AND OF DILATATION AND CURETTAGE OF THE UTERUS (D AND C)
61
5.6 THE FREQUENCY OF REPEAT REGISTRATIONS
63
5.7 PARENTAL COOPERATION
63
5.8 LATE SEQUELAE OF EXPOSURE TO THE BOMBS
69
5.9 THE CHANGING PROPORTION OF CONTROL AND IRRADIATED FROM YEAR TO YEAR
69
5.10 THE BACKGROUND OF GROUP 1 INDIVIDUALS
71
5.11 SUMMARY
71
VI. STATISTICAL METHODS
72
6.1 THE PROBLEM AND THE GENERAL PLAN
72
6.2 INDICATORS OF RADIATION DAMAGE AND THE PROBLEM OF NON-OVERLAPPING MEASUREMENTS
72
6.3 CONCOMITANT VARIATION
73
6.4 REJECTED OBSERVATIONS
77
6.5 THE ANALYSIS OF THE ATTRIBUTE DATA
78
6.6 THE ANALYSIS OF THE MEASUREMENT DATA
82
6.7 SOME FURTHER PROBLEMS
85
6.8 THE USE OF EXPOSED PERSONS AS CONTROLS
86
6.9 PRESENTATION OF MATERIAL
87
VII. ANALYSIS OF THE SEX RATIO DATA
88
7.1 THE TRAIT
88
7.2 THE GENETIC ARGUMENT FOR RADIATION-INDUCED CHANGES IN THE SEX RATIO
88
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THE CHILDREN OF ATOMIC BOMB SURVIVORS: A Genetic Study
7.3 CONCOMITANT VARIATION INFLUENCING THE INDICATOR
89
7.4 THE DATA
89
7.5 SUMMARY
96
VIII. ANALYSIS OF THE MALFORMATION DATA
99
8.1 THE TRAIT
99
8.2 RELIABILITY OF DIAGNOSIS
99
8.3 THE GENETIC ARGUMENT FOR RADIATION-INDUCED CHANGES
104
8.4 CONCOMITANT VARIATION INFLUENCING THE INDICATOR
105
8.5 THE “AT-BIRTH” DATA
110
8.6 THE “9-MONTHS” DATA
115
8.7 ANALYSIS BY SPECIFIC MALFORMATION TYPE
117
8.8 SUMMARY
117
IX. ANALYSIS OF THE STILLBIRTH DATA
118
9.1 THE TRAIT
118
9.2 THE GENETIC ARGUMENT FOR RADIATION-INDUCED CHANGES
118
9.3 CONCOMITANT VARIATION KNOWN TO AFFECT THE STILLBIRTH RATE
118
9.4 THE DATA
124
9.5 SUMMARY
129
X. THE ANALYSIS OF THE BIRTHWEIGHT DATA
131
10.1 THE TRAIT
131
10.2 THE GENETIC ARGUMENT FOR IRRADIATION EFFECTS
131
10.3 CONCOMITANT VARIABLES KNOWN TO AFFECT BIRTHWEIGHT
131
10.4 THE DATA AND THEIR ANALYSIS
132
10.5 SUMMARY
150
XI. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA CONCERNING DEATH DURING THE NINE-MONTH PERIOD FOLLOWING DELIVERY
151
11.1 THE TRAIT
151
11.2 THE GENETIC ARGUMENT FOR RADIATION-INDUCED CHANGES IN THE NEONATAL DEATH RATE
151
11.3 CONCOMITANT VARIABLES KNOWN TO INFLUENCE THE OCCURRENCE OF A NEONATAL DEATH
152
11.4 THE DATA
157
11.5 SUMMARY
162
XII. THE ANALYSIS OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC DATA
164
12.1 THE MEASUREMENTS OBTAINED AT NINE MONTHS
164
12.2 THE GENETIC ARGUMENT FOR IRRADIATION EFFECTS
164
12.3 CONCOMITANT VARIABLES KNOWN TO AFFECT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT DURING THE FIRST YEAR OF LIFE
164
12.4 THE DATA
165
12.4.1 THE MULTIVARIATE MEANS
168
12.4.2 THE EQUALITY OF THE GENERALIZED VARIANCES
175
12.4.3 WITHIN-CELL HETEROGENEITY
179
12.5 SUMMARY
179
XIII. THE AUTOPSY FINDINGS
184
13.1 THE RANDOMNESS OF THE HIROSHIMA AUTOPSIES
184
13.2 THE DATA
187
13.3 SUMMARY
191
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THE CHILDREN OF ATOMIC BOMB SURVIVORS: A Genetic Study
XIV. RECAPITULATION
192
14.1 THE FINDINGS
192
14.2 THE QUESTION OF EVALUATING THE OVER-ALL DIRECTION OF THE INDICATORS
196
14.3 THE CONFIDENCE LIMITS DETERMINED BY THESE OBSERVATIONS
196
14.4 A RÉSUMÉ OF WORK ON MAMMALIAN MATERIAL PERTINENT TO THE INTERPRETATION OF THESE FINDINGS
199
14.4.1 EFFECTS ON SEX RATIO
200
14.4.2 EFFECTS ON MALFORMATION FREQUENCY
201
14.4.3 EFFECTS ON STILLBIRTH FREQUENCY
202
14.4.4 EFFECTS ON BIRTHWEIGHT
203
14.4.5 EFFECTS ON NEONATAL DEATH RATES
203
14.4.6 EFFECTS ON GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
203
14.5 INTERPRETATION OF THE FINDINGS
203
XV. PERMISSIBLE INFERENCES
205
15.1 BASIC DATA NECESSARY TO REACHING PERMISSIBLE INFERENCES
205
15.2 THE SPONTANEOUS MUTATION RATE IN MAN
205
15.3 THE RADIATION-INDUCED MUTATION RATE IN MAN
210
15.4 ESTIMATES OF THE NUMBER OF GENES IN MAN
212
15.5 THE “ACCUMULATION FACTOR”
212
15.6 THE NATURE OF NATURAL SELECTION
213
15.7 CONCLUDING REMARKS
216
APPENDIX
218
PROCEDURE FOR CODING GENETICS SHORT-FORM QUESTIONNAIRES
218
CODING INSTRUCTIONS FOR GENETICS FOLLOW-UP QUESTIONNAIRES
221
CODING INSTRUCTIONS FOR PEDIATRICS FOLLOW-UP QUESTIONNAIRE
225
REFERENCES
230
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THE CHILDREN OF ATOMIC BOMB SURVIVORS: A Genetic Study
LIST OF TABLES
Chapter II
TABLE 2.1
Per Cent of All Registrations (Including Those Involving Parental Consanguinity) with At Least One Parent Heavily Exposed (Radiation Categories 4, 5)
19
Chapter III
TABLE 3.1
Population Figures by Nationality for Foreigners Resident in Nagasaki City between 1864 and 1870
23
TABLE 3.2
The “Foreign” and Total Population of Nagasaki City, and the “Foreign” Population of Nagasaki Prefecture, 1897–1923
24
TABLE 3.3
The Ethnic Composition of the Foreign Component of Nagasaki City, for the Years 1910 and 1930
25
TABLE 3.4
The Age Composition and Ethnic Status of the Total Foreign Population of Nagasaki in 1920, as well as of the Four Principal Ethnic Groups in This Population
26
Chapter IV
TABLE 4.1
Frequency of Occurrence of Certain Symptoms in Persons Alive 20 or More Days Following the Atomic Bombings, as Related to Distance from the Hypocenter
35
TABLE 4.2
The Effectiveness of Shielding in Protecting against Radiation Sickness in Hiroshima
37
TABLE 4.3
Distribution by Distance and Shielding of Husbands of Wives Registering Pregnancies with the Genetics Program: Hiroshima
38
TABLE 4.4
Distribution by Distance and Shielding of Wives Registering Pregnancies with the Genetics Program: Hiroshima
39
TABLE 4.5
Distribution by Distance and Shielding of Husbands of Wives Registering Pregnancies with the Genetics Program: Nagasaki
40
TABLE 4.6
Distribution by Distance and Shielding of Wives Registering Pregnancies with the Genetics Program: Nagasaki
41
TABLE 4.7
The Definition of “Exposure Categories” to be Employed in This Analysis.
44
TABLE 4.8
Distribution of Registered Births by Parental Exposure
45
TABLE 4.9
The Findings of the Joint Commission in Hiroshima with Regard to the Occurrence of Epilation, Petechiae, and Leucopenia in Persons Falling into Various Exposure Categories
47
TABLE 4.10
The Exposure Categories Defined by the Joint Commission, to be Applied to the Interpretation of Table 4.9
47
TABLE 4.11
The Distribution of Leucocyte Values in Hiroshima Japanese Who Failed to Develop Epilation, Petechiae, or Gingivitis Following the Bombing, in Relation to Distance from Hypocenter and Type of Shielding
48
TABLE 4.12
Proportions of Parents Exposed in the 1,800–2,500 Meter Ring Who Reported Various Types of Shielding
50
Chapter V
TABLE 5.1
Frequency of Consanguineous Marriages (First Cousins, First Cousins Once Removed, Second Cousins) by City and Parental Exposure
54
TABLE 5.2
Chi-Square Analysis of the Frequency of Consanguineous Marriages by City and Parental Exposure
55
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THE CHILDREN OF ATOMIC BOMB SURVIVORS: A Genetic Study
TABLE 5.3
Mean Maternal Age by City and Parental Exposure
56
TABLE 5.4
Analysis of Variance: Mother's Age by City and Parental Exposure
57
TABLE 5.5
The Distribution of Mean Squares for Maternal Age by City, Sex of Infant, and Parental Exposure
57
TABLE 5.6
Mean Parity by City and Parental Exposure
58
TABLE 5.7
Analysis of Variance: Parity by City and Parental Exposure
59
TABLE 5.8
The Distribution of Mean Squares for Parity by City, Sex of Infant, and Parental Exposure
59
TABLE 5.9
Economic Status by City and Parental Exposure
60
TABLE 5.10
Chi-Square Analysis of the Distribution of Economic Statuses by City and Parental Exposure
61
TABLE 5.11
Frequency of Positive Serology by Parental Exposure, City, and Group: “Zero” Parents Only
62
TABLE 5.12
Chi-Square Analysis of the Frequency of Positive Serologies by City and Parental Exposure
63
TABLE 5.13
Frequency of Mothers Reporting One or More Induced Abortions by Parental Exposure, City, and Time
64
TABLE 5.14
Chi-Square Analysis of the Frequency of Mothers Reporting One or More Induced Abortions by Parental Exposure, City, and Time
66
TABLE 5.15
Frequency of “Dilatation and Curettage” by Parental Exposure and City: Zero Terminations
67
TABLE 5.16
Chi-Square Analysis of the Frequency of “Dilatation and Curettage” by Parental Exposure and City: Zero Terminations
68
TABLE 5.17
Mean Number of Registered Pregnancies per Mother by Parental Exposure and City
68
TABLE 5.18
Incidence of Leukemia in the Hiroshima Survivors of the Atomic Bombing as Related to Distance from the Hypocenter and the Presence of Severe Radiation Complaints (After Moloney and Kastenbaum, 1955)
70
TABLE 5.19
The Frequency of Malformations by Year among the Offspring of Parents Neither of Whom Was Exposed to the Atomic Bombs
70
TABLE 5.20
The Frequency of Stillbirths by Year among the Offspring of Parents Neither of Whom Was Exposed to the Atomic Bombs
71
Chapter VI
TABLE 6.1
The Number of Infants Rejected from the Study, Tabulated by Reason for Rejection
77
TABLE 6.2
An Accounting of the Number of Observations Considered at Representative Stages in the Analysis of the “At-Birth” Data, and the Number of Rejected Observations with the Cause of Rejection
79
TABLE 6.3
An Accounting of the Number of Observations Considered at Representative Stages in the Analysis of the “9-Months” Data and the Number of Rejected Observations with the Cause of Rejection
79
Chapter VII
TABLE 7.1
The Frequency of Male Births by Parental Exposure and City
90
TABLE 7.2
Chi-Square Analysis of the Frequency of Male Births by City and Parental Exposure
91
TABLE 7.3
Selected Comparisons Regarding the Effect of Irradiation on Sex Ratio
92
TABLE 7.4
National Statistics of Livebirths, 1935–1952
94
TABLE 7.5
The Frequency of Male Births among Infants Born After April, 1946 but Prior to June, 1948, by Parental Exposure
95
TABLE 7.6
Chi-Square Analysis of the Frequency of Male Births among Infants Born After April, 1946 but Prior to June, 1948
95
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THE CHILDREN OF ATOMIC BOMB SURVIVORS: A Genetic Study
TABLE 7.7
The Frequency of Male Births by Parental Exposure and City, 1954– 1955
97
TABLE 7.8
Chi-square Analysis of the Frequency of Male Births during the Years 1948–1955 by Time of Birth, City, and Parental Exposure
98
Chapter VIII
TABLE 8.1
An Alphabetical Listing of Those Malformations Observed in This Study which Occurring Alone or in Combination with One Another Were Graded as Major Congenital Defect
100
TABLE 8.2
The Types and Frequency of Various Major Congenital Malformations Observed at the Tokyo Red Cross Maternity Hospital during the Years 1922 through 1940
101
TABLE 8.3
A Comparison, for Hiroshima and Nagasaki, of the Findings as Regards Major Congenital Malformation in Infants Examined at Approximately Age 9 Months, and in Those Same Infants When Examined Shortly After Birth
103
TABLE 8.4
The Effect of Maternal Age at Fixed Parity on the Frequency of Malformed Infants
106
TABLE 8.5
The Effect of Maternal Parity at Fixed Age on the Frequency of Malformed Infants
108
TABLE 8.6
The Frequency of Malformed Infants by Parental Exposure, Sex of Infant, and City
111
TABLE 8.7
The Frequency of Malformed Infants by Parental Exposure, City, and Maternal Age
113
TABLE 8.8
Chi-Square Analysis of the Frequency of Congenitally Malformed Infants by Sex, City, and Parental Exposure
114
TABLE 8.9
Chi-Square Analysis of the Frequency of Congenitally Malformed Infants by City, Maternal Age, and Parental Exposure
114
TABLE 8.10
The Distribution of Frequency of Malformed Infants Classified by Mother's Age and Exposure Only
115
TABLE 8.11
Chi-Square Analysis of the Effect of Mother's Exposure on the Frequency of Malformed Infants at Each of Five Different Age Levels
115
TABLE 8.12
The Distribution by Maternal Exposure and Parity of Malformed Infants Born to Mothers of Ages 15–20
115
TABLE 8.13
The Distribution of Frequency of Malformed Infants Classified by Mother's Age and Father's Exposure Only
115
TABLE 8.14
The Frequency of Malformed Infants among All Infants Re-examined at 9 Months of Age, by City and Parental Exposure
116
TABLE 8.15
Chi-Square Analysis of the Frequency of Malformed Infants at 9 Months of Age by City and Parental Exposure
116
TABLE 8.16
The Distribution by Maternal Exposure of the Seven Most Common Major Congenital Malformations in the Japanese, Exclusive of Congenital Heart Disease
116
Chapter IX
TABLE 9.1
Congenital Syphilis among Living Infants Born in Nagasaki in 1951: Incidence and Relation to Maternal Age (After Wright, S.W. et al., 1952)
119
TABLE 9.2
The Effect of Maternal Age at Fixed Parity on the Frequency of Stillborn Infants
120
TABLE 9.3
The Effect of Maternal Parity at Fixed Age on the Frequency of Stillborn Infants
122
TABLE 9.4
Frequency of Stillbirths by Sex, Parental Exposure and City
125
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THE CHILDREN OF ATOMIC BOMB SURVIVORS: A Genetic Study
TABLE 9.5
Chi-Square Analysis of the Frequency of Stillbirths by Sex, Parental Exposure and City
127
TABLE 9.6
The Frequency of Stillbirths by Parental Exposure, City and Parity
128
TABLE 9.7
Chi-Square Analysis of the Frequency of Stillbirths by Parental Exposure, City and Parity
129
TABLE 9.8
The Frequency of Stillbirths among Firstborn Infants by City and Paternal Exposure
129
TABLE 9.9
The Frequency of Stillbirths among Firstborn Infants by Paternal Exposure and Maternal Age
130
Chapter X
TABLE 10.1
Mean Birthweight by Parental Exposure, Sex and City
134
TABLE 10.2
Analysis of Variance of Birthweight by Parental Exposure and City
135
TABLE 10.3
The Distribution by Parental Exposure of the Weighted Mean Squares of Deviations
136
TABLE 10.4
Analysis of Covariance of Birthweights: Males, Hiroshima
136
TABLE 10.5
Tests of the Significance and Homogeneity of the Regressions of Birthweight on Maternal Age and Parity: Males, Hiroshima
137
TABLE 10.6
Analysis of Variance on the Adjusted Birthweight Means: Males, Hiroshima
138
TABLE 10.7
The Adjusted Birthweight Means: Males, Hiroshima
138
TABLE 10.8
The Residual Mean Squares from the Individual Cell Regressions: Males, Hiroshima
139
TABLE 10.9
Analysis of Covariance of Birthweights: Females, Hiroshima
139
TABLE 10.10
Tests of the Significance and Homogeneity of the Regressions of Birthweight on Maternal Age and Parity: Females, Hiroshima
140
TABLE 10.11
Analysis of Variance on the Adjusted Birthweight Means: Females, Hiroshima
140
TABLE 10.12
The Adjusted Birthweight Means: Females, Hiroshima
141
TABLE 10.13
The Residual Mean Squares from the Individual Cell Regressions: Females, Hiroshima
141
TABLE 10.14
Analysis of Covariance of Birthweights: Males, Nagasaki
142
TABLE 10.15
Tests of the Significance and Homogeneity of the Regressions of Birthweight on Maternal Age and Parity: Males, Nagasaki
142
TABLE 10.16
Analysis of Variance on the Adjusted Birthweight Means: Males, Nagasaki
143
TABLE 10.17
The Adjusted Birthweight Means: Males, Nagasaki
143
TABLE 10.18
The Residual Mean Squares from the Individual Cell Regressions: Males, Nagasaki
144
TABLE 10.19
Analysis of Covariance of Birthweights: Females, Nagasaki
144
TABLE 10.20
Tests of the Significance and Homogeneity of the Regressions of Birthweight on Maternal Age and Parity: Females, Nagasaki
145
TABLE 10.21
Analysis of Variance on the Adjusted Birthweight Means: Females, Nagasaki
145
TABLE 10.22
The Adjusted Birthweight Means: Females, Nagasaki
146
TABLE 10.23
The Residual Mean Squares from the Individual Cell Regressions: Females, Nagasaki
146
TABLE 10.24
A Summary of the Salient Findings of the Covariance Analysis
147
TABLE 10.25
The Distribution by Parental Exposure of the Residual Mean Squares After Removal of Variation Due to Year of Birth of the Infant: Males, Hiroshima
149
TABLE 10.26
The Distribution by Parental Exposure of the Residual Mean Squares After Removal of Variation Due to Year of Birth of the Infant: Females, Hiroshima
149
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THE CHILDREN OF ATOMIC BOMB SURVIVORS: A Genetic Study
TABLE 10.27
The Distribution by Parental Exposure of the Residual Mean Squares After Removal of Variation Due to Year of Birth of the Infant: Males, Nagasaki
149
TABLE 10.28
The Distribution by Parental Exposure of the Residual Mean Squares After Removal of Variation Due to Year of Birth of the Infant: Females, Nagasaki
149
Chapter XI
TABLE 11.1
The Effect of Maternal Age at Fixed Parity on the Frequency of Neonatal Deaths
154
TABLE 11.2
The Effect of Parity at Fixed Maternal Age on the Frequency of Neonatal Deaths
156
TABLE 11.3
The Frequency of Neonatal Deaths by Parental Exposure, City and Sex of Infant
158
TABLE 11.4
The Frequency of Neonatal Deaths by Parental Exposure, City and Parity
160
TABLE 11.5
Chi-Square Analysis of the Frequency of Neonatal Deaths by Parental Exposure, City and Sex
161
TABLE 11.6
Chi-Square Analysis of the Frequency of Neonatal Deaths by Parental Exposure, City and Parity
162
TABLE 11.7
The Frequency of Deaths between Birth and Nine Months of Age by Parental Exposure and City
163
TABLE 11.8
Analysis of the Frequency of Deaths between Birth and Nine Months of Age, by Parental Exposure and City
163
Chapter XII
TABLE 12.1
Distribution of Mean Weight in Decagrams at 9 Months of Age by City, Sex and Parental Exposure
165
TABLE 12.2
Distribution of Mean Height in Millimeters at 9 Months of Age by City, Sex and Parental Exposure
166
TABLE 12.3
Distribution of Mean Head Girth in Millimeters at 9 Months of Age by City, Sex and Parental Exposure
167
TABLE 12.4
Distribution of Mean Chest Girth in Millimeters at 9 Months of Age by City, Sex and Parental Exposure
168
TABLE 12.5
Analysis of Dispersion (All Exposure Cells). (a) Sums of Squares and Cross Products of Deviations for the Two-Factor Interactions, (b) Mean Squares for Individual Analyses of Variance
169
TABLE 12.6
Analysis of Dispersion (All Exposure Cells). (a) Sums of Squares and Cross Products of Deviations for Main Effects and Additivity. (b) Mean Squares for Individual Analyses of Variance (on Main Effects and Additivity). (c) Analysis of Dispersion Test, Wilks' (Using Bartlett's Approximation)
170
TABLE 12.7
Estimates of Constants and Their Variances for Tests of Equality
171
TABLE 12.8
A Summary of the Significance of Tests Comparing All Possible Pairs of Exposure for Each Parent with Respect to the Variables w, x, y, and z
172
TABLE 12.9
Analysis of Dispersion (Only Those Cells Where Both Parents Were Exposed), (a) Sums of Squares and Cross Products of Deviations for the Two-Factor Interactions, (b) Mean Squares for Individual Analyses of Variance (on Two-Factor Interactions)
173
TABLE 12.10
Analysis of Dispersion (Only Those Cells Where Both Parents Were Exposed), (a) Sums of Squares and Products of Deviations for Main Effects and Additivity. (b) Mean Squares for Individual Analyses of Variance for Main Effects and Additivity
174
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THE CHILDREN OF ATOMIC BOMB SURVIVORS: A Genetic Study
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HULSE, F.S. 1943. Physical types among the Japanese. In: Coon, C.S. and Andrews, J.M. IV., editors. Studies in the Anthropology of Oceania and Asia. Papers of thePeabody Museum20:122–133.
IVES, P.T. 1950. The importance of mutation rate genes in evolution. Evolution4:236– 252.
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SUBJECT INDEX
Abortions, reporting of, 9
spontaneous, 18
therapeutic (induced), 19, 61, 76
Acetabulum, dysplasia of, 15, 102, 104
“Accumulation factor,” in man, 212
Age, maternal
allowance for, in analysis, 76
differences in irradiation subclasses, 55
Age effects, maternal
on birthweight, 132, 148
on death during first 9 months, 152
on growth and development, 165
on malformation frequency, 105, 189
on sex ratio, 89
on stillbirth frequency, 119
Ainu, 21
Americans, in Nagasaki, 23
Analytic methods, general
attribute data
“interactions,”78, 162
“main effects,”78, 162
measurement data, 83, 84
Analytic methods, specific
analysis of dispersion, 168
Bartlett's test, 137, 175, 179
concomitant variation, approach to, 73
confidence limits, 197
covariance analysis, 75, 133, 137
determinants of matrices, 168
F test, 179
heterogeneity, within-cell, 85, 133, 137, 168, 175, 179
index of absolute difference, 105, 185
L statistic, 148, 170
means, multivariate, 164, 165, 168, 170, 175, 179
“omnibus” tests, 84
“portmanteau” tests, 84
power curves, 197, 198
pyramidal handling of data, 73
regression, 82, 132, 133, 148
significance test, one-tailed, 89, 198
variance, generalized, 164, 168, 175, 179
variance analysis, 82, 86, 133, 137, 150, 157, 175
Wilks' test, 168
Anamnestic data, reliability of, 14
Anthropometric studies
genetic component in, 164
measurements obtained, 164
variation, effect of maternal age on, 165
parity, 165
radiation, 165, 196
Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, 47
Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission, 2
Atomic bombs, mortality from, 28
radiation from, 33
Austrians, in Nagasaki, 23
Autopsy program, 9
description of, 184
of Hayashi, 189
randomness of autopsies, 184
type of data, 187
Biases, of sampling, 191
see also “comparability of irradiation subclasses”
Birth injury
death during first 9 months, 152
effect on stillbirth rate, 119
Birth rates, Japanese, 19
Birthweight
accuracy of, 131
effect on, of maternal age, 132, 148
economic status, 131, 148
nutrition, 131
parental radiation, 132, 196
parity, 132, 148
year of birth, 148
genetic component in, 131
“Black market,”4, 132
Blood group (A-B-O) frequencies, 25
Cataracts, radiation, 33, 69
Chest circumference of child, in relation to parental radiation, 164
Chikuzen type, of Japanese, 171
China, 21
Chinese, in Nagasaki, 22, 28
Chi-square, 82
factorial, 82
in analysis of age and parity effects on malformations, 105
Christianity, ban against, 22, 24
Codes for data, 18
Genetics Long Form, 221
Genetics "9 Follow-up, 225
Genetics Short Form, 218
Committee for the Investigation of the Effects of the Atomic Bombs (Japanese), 2, 20
Committee on Atomic Casualties, 1, 19, 87
Comparability of irradiation subclasses
age, 55, 73
background, 71, 192
consanguinity, 53, 73
dilatation and curettage of uterus, 61, 73
economic status, 59, 73
induced abortions, 61, 73
parental cooperation, 63
parity, 55, 73
positive serological test for syphilis, 61, 73
repeat registrations, 63, 73
sequelae of exposure, 69
year to year changes in proportions, 69
Confidence limits, of attribute data, 196
Congenital defect—see “malformation, congenital”
Consanguinity
allowance for, in analysis, 76
differences, in exposure subgroups, 53, 73
effect of Christianity on, 55
Controls, use of exposed persons as, 86
see also “comparability of irradiation subclasses”
Cooperation, of parents, 63
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Covariance analysis, 75, 133, 137
Cytogenetic studies, 18
Danes, in Nagasaki, 23
Death, from birth to 9 months of age
frequency of, as affected by birth injury, 152
congenital syphilis, 152
maternal age, 152
maternal nutrition, 152
parental radiation, 157, 196
parity, 152, 162
genetic component of, 151
neonatal, definition of, 151
operating characteristic curve of, 198
Degrees of freedom
in analysis of attribute data, 81
Deshima, 22, 24
“Disaster effect,” vs. “radiation effect,”33, 150, 192
Distance, in relation to symptoms, 41
Distance-dosage relationship, 36, 46
Drosophila, 199, 203, 204, 208, 209, 212, 213, 216
mutation rate, induced, 211
mutation rate, spontaneous, 206
number of genes in, 212
Dutch, in Nagasaki, 22, 23, 24
Economic status, allowance for, in analysis, 76
effect on birthweight, 131
effect on frequency of autopsy, 186
of control and irradiated, 59
English, in Nagasaki, 22, 23
Errors, clerical, 15
diagnostic, 15
Exposure to radiation, sequelae of
cataracts, 33, 69
leukemia, 33, 69
Finland, 21
Formosa, 21
Franciscans, in Nagasaki, 22
French, in Nagasaki, 23
Funnel chest, 102
Gamma rays, importance in dosage, 52
Genes—see also “accumulation factor”
additive effects of, 213
number in Drosophila, 212
number in man, 212, 217
Genetic damage, indicators of, 3, 5, 72
Genetics Conferences
first, 2, 217, 231
second, 19
Genetics Long Form, 9, 14, 61, 93, 221
Genetics 9-Months Follow-up, 15, 225
Genetics Short Form, 5, 9, 44, 53, 61, 218
Guinea pig, 213
radiation of, effect on birthweight, 203
on growth and development, 203
on neonatal death rate, 203
Goa, 21
Government, Japanese, 3
Hawaii, 28, 173
Head circumference of child, in relation to parental radiation, 164
Heart disease, congenital, 15, 102
Hernia, inguinal, 15, 102
Heterogeneity, within exposure cells, 85, 133, 137, 168, 175, 179
Honshu, 21
Indonesia, 21
Ishikawa type, of Japanese, 171
Japan Science Council, 34, 189
Japanese, origin of, 21
physical types of, 171
Jesuits, in Nagasaki, 21
Korea, 21, 173
“Korean colony,” in Hiroshima, 28
Kyushu, 21
LD50, man, 45
Length of child, in relation to parental radiation, 164
Leucopenia, following irradiation, 46, 50
Leukemia, 33, 69
Macao, 21, 24
Malaysia, 21
Malformation, congenital—see also under specific type
accuracy of diagnosis, 99
autopsy studies of, 184
definition of
major, 99
minor, 99
frequency, in relation to parental radiation, 195
at age 9 months, 115
at birth, 110
specific types, 117
frequency of, as affected by maternal age, 105
nutrition, 110
parity, 105
viral infections, 110
operating characteristic curve of, 198
opportunities for concealment, 63
study of Macht and Lawrence, 202
types encountered, in ABCC study, 100
comparison, in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, 102
in other studies on Japanese, 101
Manchuria, 21, 172
Marshall Islands, 49
Meiji era, 22
Mental defect, severe, 102, 104
Midwives, 4, 5, 9
Midwives Association, 5
Ministry of Welfare, Japanese, 2
Miscarriages, reporting of, 9
Mongolism, 110
Mouse
radiation of, effect on malformation frequency, 201
on neonatal death rate, 203
on sex ratio, 200
on stillbirth frequency, 202
sterility following irradiation, 200
Mutation rates, induced by radiation, 3
in Drosophila, 211
in man, 211, 217
in the mouse, 210
Mutation rates, spontaneous, 3, 205
in Drosophila, 208
in man, 209
in the mouse, 209
Mutations, types of
“detrimentals,”164
“invisibles,”131
lethal, 88, 118, 204, 205
ratio of types, 206, 207
sex-linked, 88, 203
“visibles,”104, 204, 205
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Nagasaki Medical School, 29, 102, 184, 188, 189
National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council (U.S.), 1, 3, 19, 20
National Institute of Health, Japanese, 2, 5, 20
National Research Council, Japanese, 2
Neonatal death—see “death, neonatal”
Neutrons, importance in dosage, 51, 52
“Nine-months program,” description of, 14
Non-orthogonality, 86, 157
Nutrition, maternal, effect on
birthweight, 132
death during first 9 months, 152
malformation frequency, 105
size of adult, 172
stillbirth frequency, 119
Okayama type, of Japanese, 171
Operating characteristic curves, 198
Parity
allowance for, in analysis, 76
differences, in irradiation subclasses, 55
Parity effects
on birthweight, 132, 148
on death during first 9 months, 152
on growth and development, 165
on malformation frequency, 105
on sex ratio, 89
on stillbirth frequency, 120
Plutonium-239, 28
Polynesia, 21
Portuguese, in Japan, 21, 24
Prefecture, definition of, 23
Pregnancy registration, Japanese, 5
completeness of, 7
repeat, 63, 77
Radiation, indicators of genetic effects of, 3, 5, 72
Radiation, residual, 33, 189
Radiation, symptoms of
diarrhea, 36
epilation, 29, 36, 47
oropharyngeal lesions, 29, 36, 47
petechiae, 29, 36, 47
Radiation categories
definition of
by ABCC, 44
by Hayashi, 189
dosage in, 45, 50
Radiation Census, 44
Radiation history, 5, 9, 38
validity of, 44
Radiation sickness, syndrome of, 34
Ration system, 4
Registration, of pregnancy—see “pregnancy registration”
Rejected observations, justification, 77
Rockefeller Foundation, 20
Roentgen, 45
Roentgen equivalent physical, 45, 46, 51, 203
Russia, 21
Russians, in Nagasaki, 23, 25
Ryukyu Islands, 21
Sampling, balanced, 75
Satsuma type, of Japanese, 171
Selection, natural, in man, 213
Sequelae, late, of exposure to bombs, 69
Sex differences, in anthropometrics, 170
in birthweight, 135
in indicator values, 192
in malformation frequency (absent), 110
in neonatal death rate, 157
in stillbirth frequency (absent), 124
Sex ratio
effect of concomitant variation on, 89
effect of irradiation of parents on, 89, 194
genetic control of, 88
operating characteristic curves of, 198
study of Macht and Lawrence, 201
Shielding, 36, 50
in relation to symptoms, 41, 42
Siberia, 21
Sinus, pilonidal, 15, 104
Spanish, 22
Sterility, in mouse following radiation, 200
Stillbirth
definition of, 118
frequency of, as affected by
birth injury, 119
congenital syphilis, 119
maternal age, 120
nutrition, 119
parental radiation, 124, 196
parity, 120
paternal age, 120
genetic component in, 118
operating characteristic curve of, 198
study of Macht and Lawrence, 203
Sweden, 21
Syphilis, maternal, 9
allowance for, in analysis, 76
different rates, in irradiation subclasses, 61
effect on death during first 9 months, 152
effect on stillbirth frequency, 119
relation to frequency of autopsy, 187
“Ten-per cent sample,”9
Tokugawa Shogunate, 22, 24
U.S. Army of Occupation, 3
U.S. Army-Navy Joint Commission, 2, 47, 49
U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, 1, 3, 19, 87
“Unregistered Series,”7
Uranium-235, 28
Uterus, dilatation and curettage of, 61
allowance for, in analysis, 76
Variance analysis, 82, 86, 133, 137, 150
Variances, test for equality of, 84
Viral diseases
effect on malformation frequency, 105
Weight of child, in relation to parental radiation, 164
X-chromosome, 88, 204
Y-chromosome, 88
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THE CHILDREN OF ATOMIC BOMB SURVIVORS: A Genetic Study
NAME INDEX
Alexander, M.L., 208, 211, 230
Anderson, R. C, 53, 234
Antonov, A.N., 59, 110, 131, 230
Armitage, P., 20
Balfour, M.I., 59, 230
Barnett, H.L., 234
Bartlett, M.S., 175, 179, 230
Beadle, G.W., 1, 2, 19
Beardsley, R., 21, 230
Bell, M, 231
Bellows, M.T., 233
Bernstein, M., 89, 230
Block, M., 1
Bond, V.P., 50, 230
Bonnier, G., 208, 230
Borges, W., 33, 69, 231
Bowers, J.Z., 36, 235
Box, G.E.P., 84, 179, 230
Boxer, C.R., 24, 230
Boyd, W. C, 28, 230
Bradshaw, E.S., 55, 234
Brandt, A.E., 20, 82
Brewer, R., 53, 234
Brinkley, F., 21, 230
Bronk, D.W., 1
Brown, A., 231
Brues, A., 1
Burke, B.S., 59, 230
Butterfly, Madame, 25
Carter, C., 55, 105, 230
Charles, D.R., 2, 19, 201, 202, 230
Ciocco, A., 55, 89, 230
Cochran, W.G., 82, 230
Coffey, V.P., 105, 230
Cogan, D.G., 33, 69, 230
Collins, V.P., 49, 230
Connell, F.H., 19
Cox, G., 86
Craig, C.C., 19, 20
Cronkite, E.P., 50, 230
Crow, J.F., 203, 231
Danforth, C.H., 2
Davidson, F., 20
Dean, R.F.A., 59, 231
Dobzhansky, T., 209, 231
Dunham, C.L., 50, 230
Dwyer, P.S., 20
Ebbs, J.H., 59, 231
Eisenhart, C., 82, 231
Evans, R.D., 210, 211, 212, 231
Falk, R., 206, 231
Falls, H.F., 213, 234
Fillmore, P.G., 69, 231
Fisher, R.A., 84, 231
Folley, J.H., 33, 69, 231
Forrestal, J.T., 1
Glass, H.B., 208
Gordon, J.E., 55, 233
Green, E., 20
Gruenwald, P., 105, 231
Hadorn, E., 202, 231
Haldane, J.B.S., 209, 211, 217, 231
Hammond, E.C., 234
Harris, H., 85, 231
Harris, T., 22
Hasebe, K., 171, 231
Hayashi, I., 184, 188, 189, 190, 191, 231
Hechter, H., 50
Hegnauer, H., 55, 231
Hempelmann, L.H., 36, 45, 49, 231
Henshaw, P.S., 1
Hertwig, P., 200, 202, 203, 231
Hill, B., 20
Hoffman, J.G., 36, 45, 49, 231
Holmes, R., 98
House, V.L., 213, 231
Hsiao, B., 20
Hulse, F.S., 171, 232
Ingalls, T.H., 102, 234
Ives, P.T., 208, 211, 232
Izumi, T., 23, 232
Jessop, W.J.E., 105, 230
Johnson, H., 20
Kaempfer, E., 22, 24, 171, 232
Kalmus, H., 200, 232
Karn, M.N., 55, 131, 232
Kastenbaum, M., 20, 69, 233, 234
Kelley, H.C., 20
Kendall, M.G., 86, 232
Keosian, J., 216, 232
Kerkis, J.J., 206, 232
Kimura, S., 33, 69, 230
Kirk, N.T., 1
Kirkwood, J.B., 102, 234
Kitamura, S., 234
Kiyono, K., 21, 232
Kobayashi, R., 20
Kodani, M., 18, 53, 234
Komai, T., 20
Koya, Y., 19, 232
Krooth, R., 20, 75, 105, 185, 214, 232
Kuji, V., 101
Kurasaki, H., 69, 232
Lamphiear, D.E., 20
Landtman, B., 55, 105, 232
Lange, R.D., 33, 69, 232, 233
Lawrence, P.S., 200, 202, 203, 232
Lefevre, G., 208, 232
Lerner, I.M., 206, 232
LeRoy, G.V., 47, 232, 234
Liebow, A.A., 234
Lisco, H., 36, 45, 49, 231
Loeffler, R.K., 49, 230
Lorenz, E., 69, 232
Lowe, C.R., 55, 89, 232
Lucas, H.C., 20, 74
Lüning, K.G., 208, 230
Lyon, G.M., 1
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Macht, S.H., 200, 202, 203, 232
MacMahon, B., 55, 233
Maki, H., 20
Martin, S.F., 33, 69, 230
Matsubayashi, I., 3
Matsumoto, S., 4, 233
Matsumura, A., 171, 233
Matsunaga, H., 69, 232
Matsuoka, S., 69, 232
McCarthy, D., 105, 230
McDonald, D.J., 234
McIntosh, R., 104, 233
McKeown, T., 55, 89, 232, 234
Meerdervoort, P., 22
Merritt, K.K., 233
Metrakos, J.D., 200, 232, 235
Millis, J., 131, 233
Mitani, S., 101
Moloney, W.C., 33, 69, 232, 233
Morton, J., 19
Morton, N., 131, 233, 234
Mourant, A.E., 28, 233
Moyle, W.J., 231
Muller, H.J., 2, 203, 206, 207, 208, 210, 211, 212, 213, 215, 216, 233
Munro, N.G., 21, 233
Murdoch, J., 21, 24, 233
Murphy, D.P., 202, 233
Myers, R.J., 55, 233
Nachtsheim, H., 209, 233
Nagai, I., 20
Neel, J.V., 1, 2, 19, 45, 53, 55, 96, 208, 209, 210, 213, 233, 234
Nickson, J.J., 49, 234
Nixon, W.C.W., 59, 234
Novitski, E., 55, 89, 234
Olkin, I., 20
Oughterson, A.W., 1, 33, 233
Parkes, A.S., 200, 234
Penrose, L.S., 20, 55, 131, 215, 232, 234
Perry, Commodore, 22, 25
Phelps, L.V., 7, 20
Plough, H., 19
Prindle, R.A., 102, 234
Rao, C.R., 20, 82, 86, 137, 168, 175, 234
Record, R.G., 55, 234
Reed, T.E., 209
Rhoads, C.P., 1
Rice, R.G., 55, 236
Richards, M.R., 233
Ritterhoff, R.K., 208
Rivers, T.M., 1
Robson, E., 131, 234
Rosenbaum, J.D., 234
Roy, S.N., 78, 234
Russell, W.L., 199, 200, 201, 202, 210, 211, 234
Salber, E.J., 55, 234
Sams, C.F., 2, 20
Samuels, M.H., 233
Sansom, G.B., 21, 24, 234
Sasano, A., 23, 234
Schneider, B.A., 234
Schneidewind, J., 20
Schull, W.J., 19, 54, 105, 208, 209, 210, 234
Schultz, J., 207, 234
Scott, W.A., 231
Seijas, B., 20
Seng, Y.P., 132, 233
Sevitt, S., 184, 188, 191, 235
Shapiro, H.L., 172, 235
Silverberg, M., 200, 232
Sinskey, R.M., 33, 69, 235
Slatis, H.M., 210, 211, 212, 235
Smith, C.A., 59, 110, 131, 235
Smith, C.A.B., 85, 231
Smith, H.F., 20
Snedecor, G.W., 86, 235
Snyder, L.H., 2, 19
Spassky, B., 209, 231
Spassky, N., 209, 231
Spencer, W.P., 203, 207, 235
Spuhler, J.N., 212, 235
Stern, C., 19, 20, 203, 207, 235
Stevenson, S.S., 55, 230, 236
Strandskov, H.H., 89, 202, 203, 235
Stuart, H.C., 230
Sturtevant, A.H., 211, 235
Sutherland, I., 55, 235
Suzuki, M., 234
Takeshima, K., 234
Taylor, G., 19
Tessmer, C.F., 19
Thunberg, K.P., 25, 235
Tietze, C., 88, 235
Timoféeff-Ressovsky, N.W., 203, 206, 235
Tisdall, F.F., 231
Tomonaga, M., 69, 232
Trasler, D.G., 200, 235
Tsuzuki, M., 20
Ullman, J., 20
Ullrich, F., 1
Valencia, J.I., 208
Valencia, R.M., 208
Vor der Bruegge, C.F., 36, 235
Wallace, B., 216, 235
Wallis, W.A., 73, 235
Warkany, J., 105, 110, 235
Warren, S.L., 1, 34, 235
Warren, Sh., 1, 34, 36
Weed, L.H., 1
Westergaard, M., 212, 235
Whipple, G.H., 1
Wilks, S.S., 86, 179, 235
Wilson, R.R., 34, 46, 236
Wishart, J., 137, 236
Wood, J., 234
Woodbury, L., 43, 98, 236
Woolley, W., 24, 236
Worcester, J., 55, 230, 236
Wright, S., 210, 211, 213, 236
Wright, S.W., 69, 232, 234, 236
Yamawaki, T., 33, 69, 231, 232
Yamazaki, J., 234
Yates, F., 86, 232
Yerushalmy, J., 55, 153, 232
Yesley, G., 20
Zelle, M., 19
Zirkle, R.E., 1
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Representative terms from entire chapter:
maternal age
