Below are the first 10 and last 10 pages of uncorrected machine-read text (when available) of this chapter, followed by the top 30 algorithmically extracted key phrases from the chapter as a whole.
Intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text on the opening pages of each chapter.
Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages.
Do not use for reproduction, copying, pasting, or reading; exclusively for search engines.
OCR for page 8
1
NASA’s Past and Current Trajectory
According to prior National Research Council (NRC) studies, establishing and maintaining strong
NASA programs in space and aeronautics will enhance national economic vitality, public well-being,
scientific knowledge, and national security (NRC, 2006, 2009). As a result, these studies assert, the
vitality of NASA programs is a national imperative that will grow in importance in the future.
To date, space exploration by humans has scarcely intruded into the infinite expanse beyond the
limits of planet Earth. Scientific instruments, on the surface or in orbit around Earth or other bodies in the
solar system—and other probes that have passed by one or more bodies as they tour the solar system—
have enabled U.S. scientists to carefully examine vast regions of space with ever greater perception,
answering old questions and raising new ones about the past, present, and future of the universe. Earth
orbit also provides an excellent vantage point for spacecraft to examine Earth and its biosphere, collecting
scientific data or providing valuable services, such as direct broadcasting, satellite communications,
weather observations, and other types of surveillance for military, commercial, and civil purposes. In
addition, long-term aeronautical research and development has provided enormous benefits in the
development of safe and efficient commercial as well as military air vehicles.
NASA was created in the midst of the Cold War as a multi-purpose agency to pursue goals in
robotic and human spaceflight and to build on aeronautics technology development begun over several
decades by the National Advisory Council on Aeronautics (NACA). NASA quickly acquired or built
substantial infrastructure and space capabilities at various locations throughout the United States because
these capabilities, primarily test facilities, did not already exist in industry. The largest of NASA’s many
missions over the past half-century has been the pursuit of human spaceflight, and approximately half of
the agency’s current budget is devoted to this pursuit. NASA’s Earth and space science and aeronautics
missions have received smaller amounts of funding—currently science is approximately 29 percent,
aeronautics is approximately 3 percent, and technology is also approximately 3 percent. Historically,
science was a significantly smaller percentage of the budget than it is today, although starting in the 1990s
the percentage of NASA’s budget devoted to Earth and space science grew, and in the 2000s the
aeronautics budget shrank.
Human spaceflight goals have generally been established by presidential policy, subject to
congressional authorization and appropriations. The goal of human spaceflight has itself changed over the
years. During the 1960s the ultimate purpose was geopolitical—to compete against the Soviet Union and
demonstrate U.S. technological prowess on an international stage. During the 1970s the purpose was to
reduce the cost of launching spacecraft to orbit and to develop routine operations for humans in space. By
the 1980s, the goal had become to develop a space station with Western allies. By the 1990s this goal had
evolved to include engagement with post-Cold War Russia. Since the early 1970s, human spaceflight has
been confined to low Earth orbit.
Earth and space science goals are ostensibly established in the decadal survey process led by the
NRC, a process that has been highly successful at developing priorities in Earth and space sciences and
leading to their eventual implementation. This process has been under strain in recent years. Some
projects, such as the James Webb Space Telescope, have run over budget, and the administration has
rejected the proposed planetary science program and also postponed work on a key element of the
astronomy community’s decadal survey. Although it is beyond the scope of this report to recommend
8
OCR for page 9
NASA’S PAST AND CURRENT TRAJECTORY 9
ways of improving the decadal survey process, the committee notes that at the time this report was being
finalized, the NRC was undertaking a workshop to identify lessons learned from past decadal surveys,
including ways in which they might be improved.
NASA’s aeronautics program budget is currently approximately 3 percent of the overall agency’s
budget, hardly reflective of a strategic imperative. Over the decades, the goals for aeronautics have ranged
from efficient subsonic fixed-wing aircraft to high-speed civil transport systems to hypersonic
airbreathing engines for multiple-stage-to-orbit space access.
NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ACT OF 1958 AND ITS EVOLUTION
The focus of NASA on aeronautics and space dates back to its founding, when the National
Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 transformed the NACA into NASA. The act specified that NASA
shall plan, direct, and conduct aeronautical and space activities to increase scientific knowledge; support
the development of advanced aircraft; develop and operate advanced spacecraft; consult with the
Department of Defense (DOD) and other federal agencies regarding matters of mutual interest; strongly
encourage commercial activities in space; and ensure that the United States remains a leader in
aeronautics and space. For example, the first launch of a NASA spacecraft is shown in Figure 1.1. The act
has been modified by Congress many times over the years, often upon presidential recommendation. This
section describes some of the key changes.
FIGURE 1.1 Thor-Able I, with the Pioneer I spacecraft atop, prior to launch at Cape Canaveral. Pioneer I launched
on October 11, 1958, the first spacecraft launched by the 11-day-old National Aeronautics and Space
Administration. Although the spacecraft failed to reach the Moon, it did transmit 43 hours of data. SOURCE:
NASA.
OCR for page 10
10 NASA’S STRATEGIC DIRECTION AND THE NEED FOR A NATIONAL CONSENSUS
In 1973 the provisions for the National Aeronautics and Space Council, which was set up in 1958
to coordinate among the nation’s space and aeronautics agencies while contributing to the national space
policy, was deleted from the National Aeronautics and Space Act along with its functions after President
Nixon abolished the council in an executive reorganization plan. This body was later resurrected as the
National Space Council in the 1989 NASA Authorization Act. The council was used by President George
H.W. Bush, but Presidents Bill Clinton, George W. Bush, and Barack Obama neither funded nor staffed
the National Space Council.
In 1984 Earth science was formally added as one of NASA’s objectives. In addition, the act was
modified to mandate that NASA “seek and encourage, to the maximum extent possible, the fullest
commercial use of space.”
In 1990, NASA support of the commercial use of space was strengthened by the addition of
requirements that NASA “encourage and provide for Federal Government use of commercially provided
space services and hardware, consistent with the requirements of the Federal Government.”
EVOLUTION OF NASA’S VISION AND MISSION STATEMENTS
Throughout its history, NASA has continually modified the statements of its vision and mission.
It is not clear whether these changes reflected substantive changes in the evolution of NASA’s strategic
thinking over time or simply reflected other, less substantial issues. In any event, a comparison of the
different statements over time reveals some interesting changes. Consider the following statements of the
agency’s “vision”:
• 1986: NASA’s vision is to be at the forefront of advancements in aeronautics, space science,
and exploration.
• 1992: NASA is committed to the future. As explorers, pioneers and innovators, we boldly
expand frontiers in air and space to inspire and serve American and to benefit humanity.
• 1994-2000: NASA is an investment in America’s future. As explorers, pioneers, and
innovators, we boldly expand frontiers in air and space to inspire and serve America and to benefit the
quality of life on Earth.
• 2003: To improve life here, To extend life to there, To find life beyond.
• 2006: To advance U.S. scientific, security, and economic interests through a robust space
exploration program.
• 2011: To reach for new heights and reveal the unknown, so that what we do and learn will
benefit all humankind.
A comparison of these statements shows that “air” or “aeronautics” has not been explicitly
mentioned in the vision since 2000. Science has not been explicitly mentioned since 1986, when the
vision mentioned aeronautics, space science, and exploration. The shortest of the visions, from 2003,
succinctly encapsulates what NASA does, but, like the current one, does not explicitly mention
aeronautics, science, or space, and is not easily identified as a NASA-unique vision.
NASA mission statements have likewise evolved over time:
• 1994-2000: The NASA mission is to:
⎯ Explore, use, and enable the development of space for human enterprise.
⎯ Advance scientific knowledge and understanding of the Earth, the solar system, and the
universe and use the environment of space for research.
⎯ Research, develop, verify, and transfer advanced aeronautics, space, and related
technologies.
OCR for page 11
NASA’S PAST AND CURRENT TRAJECTORY 11
• 2003: To understand and protect our home planet, to explore the universe and search for life,
to inspire the next generation of explorers . . . as only NASA can.
• 2006: To pioneer the future in space exploration, scientific discovery, and aeronautics
research.
• 2011: Drive advances in science, technology, and exploration to enhance knowledge,
education, innovation, economic vitality, and stewardship of Earth.
These mission statements are longer and provide more detail than the vision statements, and they
consistently mention NASA-related themes such as exploration and science. In addition, all of them
explicitly mention aeronautics except for two—the 2003 statement and the current (2011) formulations.
POLICY BACKGROUND
Despite NASA’s broad portfolio that spans human spaceflight, space and Earth science, and
aeronautics research, in the public mind the agency is most closely associated with human spaceflight. In
2004, after many years of uncertainty about the futures of the space shuttle and the International Space
Station, President George W. Bush announced a “Vision for Space Exploration” (NASA, 2004) that
called for astronauts to return to the Moon by 2020 and someday to go to Mars. Similar goals had been
expressed by President George H.W. Bush in 1989, but they did not receive bipartisan support, and the
President’s proposed budgets for achieving these goals were rejected. By 1992 the goals were essentially
abandoned.
The 2004 Vision announcement followed by almost exactly a year the space shuttle Columbia
tragedy that cost the lives of seven astronauts. The Columbia Accident Investigation Board noted in its
report that if astronauts lives were to be at risk through space exploration, the rationale and goals needed
to be better defined (CAIB, 2003).
President George W. Bush did not propose adding significant funding to NASA’s budget to
accomplish the new goals, however. Instead, his plan was to terminate the space shuttle program in 2010
after completing construction of the ISS and to end U.S. involvement in the ISS in the 2015-2016
timeframe. The space shuttle and ISS funds would be redirected to achieving the Moon/Mars goals.
In 2005, a Republican-controlled Congress passed the 2005 NASA Authorization Act, which
supported President Bush’s Moon/Mars program while also stressing the need for adequate utilization of
the ISS and holding open the possibility of continuing the space shuttle program beyond 2010. Three
years later, a Democratic-controlled Congress passed the 2008 NASA Authorization Act, which was
similar to the 2005 act. At that point in time, Congress and the White House and Democrats and
Republicans were all in general agreement about the future of the human spaceflight program. NASA
pursued the presidential and congressional policies by initiating the Constellation program to build
capabilities to send people back to the Moon and to Mars, including new launch vehicles and spacecraft.
In January 2009, President Barack Obama convened a special committee, chaired by Norman
Augustine, to look at the human spaceflight program and offer options. In its report, Seeking a Human
Space-flight Program Worthy of a Great Nation (Executive Office of the President, 2009), the committee
concluded that there were “technical and budgetary issues” in major components of the Constellation
program (e.g., Ares I, Orion) that were creating considerable schedule delays (p. 11). Independent
analyses showed that “the length of the gap in U.S. ability to launch astronauts into space [would] be at
least seven years” (p. 12). The Augustine committee concluded further that in order for NASA to pursue a
mission of sending humans beyond low Earth orbit (LEO), NASA required additional funding of $3
billion more per year.
In February 2010, as part of the fiscal year (FY) 2011 budget request, the White House proposed
terminating the Constellation program and replacing it with a NASA effort to develop technologies for
human exploration beyond LEO. No decision on what kind of vehicles to build would be made until at
least 2015, and no specific destination or timeframe for human expeditions beyond LEO was included.
OCR for page 12
12 NASA’S STRATEGIC DIRECTION AND THE NEED FOR A NATIONAL CONSENSUS
Meanwhile, the President decided that instead of NASA developing a replacement capability for the space
shuttle to ferry astronauts to and from the ISS, NASA would build on its Commercial Orbital
Transportation Services (COTS) partnership agreements with U.S. industry, initiated in 2006. This
approach would enable them to contract for the development of “commercial crew” space transportation
systems, where NASA would help pay companies to develop their own space transportation systems, and
the companies would invest significant amounts of their own money toward development with the
expectation of the emergence of a private human spaceflight market.
Congress also wanted a destination and a timetable for sending astronauts beyond LEO. In April
2010, the President announced his goals of sending astronauts to an asteroid by 2025 and to orbit Mars in
the 2030s. These goals were officially expressed in the 2010 National Space Policy issued by the White
House 2 months later (Executive Office of the President, 2010).
The totality of the decisions—to proceed with President Bush’s plan to terminate the space
shuttle, but to also end the Constellation program that was developing a replacement U.S. crew
transportation capability—resulted in programmatic disruptions. These decisions also resulted in an
indefinite extension of the number of years the United States would need to depend on Russia to take
NASA astronauts to and from the ISS. In addition, the decisions to rely on the commercial sector to build
a new U.S. crew space transportation system, when some were skeptical that the companies were
technically ready to take on such a responsibility, and to replace the Moon with an unspecified asteroid as
the next destination for human spaceflight—made without prior consultation and contravening two
existing laws—were met with congressional skepticism.
A number of influential members of Congress insisted that the government—NASA—build a
new crew transportation system regardless of any commercial crew aspirations. Congress wanted a new
large rocket reminiscent of the Saturn V used for the Apollo program to enable trips beyond LEO,
whatever the destination, and to accelerate as much as possible restoring U.S. ability to launch people into
space rather than relying on Russia.
In October 2010, Congress and the White House reached a compromise in the 2010 NASA
Authorization Act. In essence, the agreement was for NASA to do both what the White House and
Congress wanted. NASA would proceed with the White House plan for commercial crew transport as
well as Congress’s plan for a NASA-developed Space Launch System (SLS), based heavily upon legacy
systems such as those developed for the space shuttle program, and an Orion spacecraft that would take
humans beyond LEO and serve as a backup in case the commercial systems did not materialize.
The budget outlook for NASA, meanwhile, worsened. The President had planned to add $6
billion to NASA’s budget over 5 years when he announced his new plan in the FY2011 budget request. A
year later, with Republicans regaining control of the House and deficit-reduction becoming the dominant
political theme, NASA was hoping for level funding at best. Today, the same NASA that was deemed by
the Augustine committee to be unable to afford the Constellation program now must fund Constellation’s
replacement—SLS/Orion—and also fund commercial crew transport. NASA still must find funds for a
habitation and support module to enable long-duration trips beyond LEO.
Some in Congress remain wary of the administration’s plans, stating that budget requests since
the 2010 NASA Authorization Act have favored spending on commercial crew rather than SLS/Orion.
NASA also took longer than expected to choose an SLS design, prompting congressional criticism that
the agency was delaying making a decision. All the while, support for the idea of sending astronauts to an
asteroid failed to gain widespread support, and NASA has not undertaken any visible steps required to
make such a mission possible. These issues, in part, led Congress to commission the current study to
examine NASA’s strategic direction.
The one piece of common ground is that sending humans to Mars remains the long-term goal for
everyone involved in this debate. As shown in Box 1.1, that has been the driving force in presidential
policies and speeches for decades. The debate is about the steps between the ISS and Mars and when we
will get there, dictated largely by budget constraints.
OCR for page 13
NASA’S PAST AND CURRENT TRAJECTORY 13
BOX 1.1 The Presidents Speak on Human Exploration of Mars
President George H.W. Bush, Address at the National Air and Space Museum, July 20, 1989
In 1961 it took a crisis—the space race—to speed things up. Today we don’t have a crisis; we have an
opportunity. To seize this opportunity, I’m not proposing a 10-year plan like Apollo; I’m proposing a long-
range, continuing commitment. First, for the coming decade, for the 1990′s: Space Station Freedom, our
critical next step in all our space endeavors. And next, for the new century: Back to the Moon; back to the
future. And this time, back to stay. And then a journey into tomorrow, a journey to another planet: a
manned mission to Mars (Bush, 1989).
President George W. Bush, Remarks on U.S. Space Policy at NASA Headquarters, January 14, 2004
With the experience and knowledge gained on the moon, we will then be ready to take the next steps of
space exploration: human missions to Mars and to worlds beyond. Robotic missions will serve as
trailblazers—the advanced guard to the unknown. Probes, landers and other vehicles of this kind continue
to prove their worth, sending spectacular images and vast amounts of data back to Earth. Yet the human
thirst for knowledge ultimately cannot be satisfied by even the most vivid pictures, or the most detailed
measurements. We need to see and examine and touch for ourselves. And only human beings are capable of
adapting to the inevitable uncertainties posed by space travel (Bush, 2004).
President Barack Obama, Speech Outlining his Administration’s Space Policy at Cape Canaveral,
Florida, April 15, 2010
By 2025 we expect new spacecraft designed for long journeys to allow us to begin the first ever
crewed missions beyond the Moon into deep space. So we’ll start by sending astronauts to an asteroid for
the first time in history. By the mid-2030s I believe we can send humans to orbit Mars and return them
safely to Earth. And a landing on Mars will follow and I expect to be around to see it (NASA, 2010).
2011 NASA STRATEGIC PLAN
Office of Management and Budget (OMB) Circular A-11 (section 230) requires federal agencies
to prepare strategic plans that define long-term objectives and to explain why those objectives were
selected, how they will be achieved, and how progress will be measured. Strategic plans are expected to
include appraisals of agency capabilities and provide a context for making decisions about agency
priorities and budgets.
The most recent NASA strategic plan was issued in 2011 (NASA, 2011). Overall, the 2011
strategic plan is generally consistent with the 2010 National Space Policy, although there are some
differences in emphasis. The 2011 strategic plan describes six strategic goals, each of which is associated
with two to five desired outcomes. (See Box 1.2, which also lists the challenges identified for each
strategic goal.1) The six strategic goals are aligned with eight of NASA’s nine major budget line items for
FY2012. In other words, the strategic plan does not identify any strategic goals that are not already
funded in NASA’s current budget. Importantly, however, the strategic plan does not address the rationale
1
More information on all of the goals, objectives, and challenges is included in the strategic plan (NASA,
2011).
OCR for page 14
14 NASA’S STRATEGIC DIRECTION AND THE NEED FOR A NATIONAL CONSENSUS
BOX 1.2 NASA’s 2011 Strategic Goals, Outcomes, and Challenges
Strategic Goal 1: Extend and sustain human activities across the solar system.
Outcomes
1.1 Sustain the operation and full use of the International Space Station (ISS) and expand efforts to
utilize the ISS as a National Laboratory for scientific, technological, diplomatic, and educational
purposes and for supporting future objectives in human space exploration.
1.2 Develop competitive opportunities for the commercial community to provide best value products
and services to low Earth orbit and beyond.
1.3 Develop an integrated architecture and capabilities for safe crewed and cargo missions beyond
low Earth orbit.
Challenges
• Advanced Technology Development
• Availability of Commercial Cargo and Crew Services
• Affordability and Sustainability
Strategic Goal 2: Expand scientific understanding of the Earth and the universe in which we live.
Outcomes
2.1 Advance Earth system science to meet the challenges of climate and environmental change.
2.2 Understand the Sun and its interactions with Earth and the solar system.
2.3 Ascertain the content, origin, and evolution of the solar system and the potential for life
elsewhere.
2.4 Discover how the universe works, explore how it began and evolved, and search for Earth-like
planets.
Challenges
• Access to Space
• Program Management
• Availability of Plutonium 238
Strategic Goal 3: Create the innovative new space technologies for our exploration, science, and
economic future.
Outcomes
3.1 Sponsor early-stage innovation in space technologies in order to improve the future capabilities
of NASA, other government agencies, and the aerospace industry.
3.2 Infuse game-changing and crosscutting technologies throughout the Nation’s space enterprise to
transform the Nation’s space mission capabilities.
3.3 Develop and demonstrate the critical technologies that will make NASA’s exploration, science,
and discovery missions more affordable and more capable.
3.4 Facilitate the transfer of NASA technology and engage in partnerships with other government
agencies, industry, and international entities to generate U.S. commercial activity and other
public benefits.
Challenge
• Implementation of a New Approach.
OCR for page 15
NASA’S PAST AND CURRENT TRAJECTORY 15
Strategic Goal 4: Advance aeronautics research for societal benefit.
Outcomes
4.1 Develop innovative solutions and advanced technologies through a balanced research
portfolio to improve current and future air transportation.
4.2 Conduct systems-level research on innovative and promising aeronautics concepts and
technologies to demonstrate integrated capabilities and benefits in a relevant flight and/or
ground environment.
Challenges
• Inherent Risk
• Partnership Influences
• Resources
Strategic Goal 5: Enable program and institutional capabilities to conduct NASA’s aeronautics
and space activities.
Outcomes
5.1 Identify, cultivate, and sustain a diverse workforce and inclusive work environment that is
needed to conduct NASA missions.
5.2 Ensure vital assets are ready, available, and appropriately sized to conduct NASA’s missions.
5.3 Ensure the availability to the Nation of NASA-owned, strategically important test capabilities.
5.4 Implement and provide space communications and launch capabilities responsive to existing
and future science and space exploration missions.
5.5 Establish partnerships, including innovative arrangements, with commercial, international,
and other government entities to maximize mission success.
Challenges
• Meeting Changing Facilities Requirements
• Achieving and Sustaining State-of-the-Art Technologies for Institutional Capabilities
• Managing a Distributed Infrastructure Base
Strategic Goal 6: Share NASA with the public, educators, and students to provide opportunities
to participate in our Mission, foster innovation, and contribute to a strong national economy.
Outcomes
6.1 Improve retention of students in STEM disciplines by providing opportunities and activities
along the full length of the education pipeline.
6.2 Promote STEM literacy through strategic partnerships with formal and informal
organizations.
6.3 Engage the public in NASA’s missions by providing new pathways for participation.
6.4 Inform, engage, and inspire the public by sharing NASA’s missions, challenges, and results.
Challenges
• Attracting Students to Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics
• Reaching New Audiences
SOURCE: NASA (2011).
OCR for page 16
16 NASA’S STRATEGIC DIRECTION AND THE NEED FOR A NATIONAL CONSENSUS
FIGURE 1.2 The space shuttle Endeavour, atop the Shuttle Carrier Aircraft lands at Los Angeles
International Airport on September 21, 2012, in Los Angeles, California. SOURCE: NASA/Matt Hedges.
for resource allocation among the six strategic goals. In addition, while the NASA budget does not
provide a breakdown of budget estimates associated with of the six strategic goals, it appears that the first
two goals—human spaceflight and space science—account the for a large majority of the NASA budget,
while two other goals—aeronautics and technology development—receive, in total, only 6.4 percent of
the budget. The 3.2 percent for aeronautics is a surprisingly small investment considering its importance
to the U.S. economy and world leadership position. It is apparent, however, that some of the outcomes
and challenges presented in the 2011 strategic plan will not be achieved by NASA as its programs are
currently structured and funded because NASA does not have the resources needed or because of
shortcomings in the state of the art of related science and/or technology.
The 2006 NASA strategic plan had similarly broad goals to those in the 2011 plan, but with
somewhat greater specificity, e.g., its first strategic goal is to “fly the shuttle as safely as possible until its
retirement, not later than 2010” (NASA, 2006, p. 4). (See Figure 1.2.) Consistent with the initiation of the
COTS program in 2006, there is a strategic goal to “encourage the pursuit of appropriate partnerships
with the emerging commercial space sector” (p. 4). The 2003 NASA strategic plan that was created
earlier in the Bush Administration is much more similar to the current NASA plan in that there are broad,
sweeping goals with relatively little specificity. Neither the 2003 plan nor the 2006 plan explicitly lists
any prioritization in their strategic goals.
NASA ORGANIZATION AND STAFF LEVELS
NASA’s organization includes nine field centers: Ames Research Center, Dryden Flight Research
Center, Glenn Research Center, Goddard Space Flight Center, Johnson Space Center, Kennedy Space
Center, Langley Research Center, Marshall Space Flight Center, and Stennis Space Center. The Jet
Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) is not a NASA field center, but is instead a federally funded research and
OCR for page 17
NASA’S PAST AND CURRENT TRAJECTORY 17
development center (FFRDC), although it is commonly referred to as a NASA field center. NASA also
operates several other facilities such as the Wallops Flight Facility, which is managed by Goddard Space
Flight Center and used as a launch site for small satellites, sounding rockets and some air vehicles. NASA
also operates the Michoud Assembly Facility, which is managed by Marshall Space Flight Center and has
the ability to manufacture and test large scale rocket engines and their components.
The location of the centers is shown in Figure 1.3. NASA, like many government agencies,
augments its civil servant workforce with contractors, both for direct support and to provide the
equipment and capabilities that the agency procures, such as launch vehicles and spacecraft.
All of the NASA centers have long and varied histories; the oldest, Langley Research Center, will
celebrate its centennial in 2017. The capabilities of some centers overlap, to some degree, with other
centers, but differences in staff expertise, facility capabilities, history, mission, culture, and current issues
and challenges make it difficult to address some management issues with a one-size-fits-all approach.2
On-site contractors play a major role at all the NASA centers. As shown in Table 1.1, the size of
the contractor workforce exceeds the size of the civil servant workforce at each of the centers. The
numbers of civil servants and contractors are roughly comparable at half of the centers (Ames Research
Center, Dryden Flight Research Center, Glenn Research Center, Langley Research Center, and Marshall
Space Flight Center). The number of on-site contractors far exceeds the number of civil servants at the
other centers (Goddard Space Flight Center, Johnson Space Center, Kennedy Space Center, and Stennis
Space Center). Overall, about one-third of the staff working at NASA centers are civil servants and about
two-thirds are on-site contractors.
FIGURE 1.3 NASA Headquarters, the NASA centers, and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory.
2
Conclusions and recommendations related to the issues faced by the centers are provided in the Chapter 2
section, “Examining NASA’s Institutional Structure.”
OCR for page 18
18 NASA’S STRATEGIC DIRECTION AND THE NEED FOR A NATIONAL CONSENSUS
TABLE 1.1 NASA Civil Service and Contractor Personnel by Field Center (including the Jet Propulsion
Laboratory), Fiscal Year 2012a
Number of Civil
Servants (Full- Number of Total Number Percentage of Percentage of
NASA Center Time Permanent)b Contractorsc of Employees Civil Servants Contractors
Ames Research Center 1,243 1,322 2,565 48% 52%
Dryden Flight Research 576 650 1,226 47% 53%
Center
Glenn Research Center 1,710 1,690 3,400 50% 50%
Goddard Space Flight 3,428 6,100 9,528 36% 64%
Center
Jet Propulsion Laboratory ~ 300c 4,848 ~5,150 ~6% ~94%
Johnson Space Center 3,383 ~12,000 ~15,400 75% 25%
Kennedy Space Center 2,178 6,099 8,277 ~25% ~75%
Langley Research Center 1,938 1,700 3,638 53% 47%
Marshall Space Flight 2,563 3,537 6,100 42% 58%
Center
Stennis Space Center 294 ~2,000d ~2,300 ~13% ~87%
Total 17,613 ~40,000 ~57,500 ~31% ~69%
NOTE: Does not include Headquarters personnel.
a
During its visits to the NASA field centers, the committee inquired about the aging of the NASA workforce and
was informed that this is no longer considered a concern by the field center leadership. Over the past several years,
NASA has engaged in a selective hiring program that has brought in new and younger employees, generally
reversing an aging workforce trend that had been highlighted as a problem by previous NASA leadership.
b
NASA (2012).
c
Information provided to committee members by center staff during site visits by small groups of committee
members to each NASA center.
d
NASA’s Stennis Space Center manages a site that includes a total of approximately 5,200 personnel, including
many civil service and contractors from other government agencies and industry who are funded by organizations
other than NASA for their own purposes. About 2,000 of them are working under contract to NASA.
Virtually all of JPL’s workforce is composed of contractors who are employed by the California
Institute of Technology, which operates JPL, although about 300 NASA civil servants are assigned there.
Stennis Space Center, which is focused on ground-based rocket testing, encompasses 140,000 acres, has a
relatively small civil service staff, and most of the rest of the staff are contractors.
Since FY2000, the total size the civil servant workforce (which includes full-time, part-time
permanent, term appointment, student, and other non-permanent staff) has been relatively stable, with an
average of 18,272 staff, with a maximum of 18,633 and a minimum of 17,219 (NASA, 2012).
At NASA headquarters, primary program activities are carried out by the Human Exploration and
Operations Mission Directorate (HEOMD), the Science Mission Directorate, the Aeronautics Research
OCR for page 20
20 NASA’S STRATEGIC DIRECTION AND THE NEED FOR A NATIONAL CONSENSUS
35
30
Constant FY2011 dollars (billions)
Estimates
25
20
15
10
5
0
1962
1967
1972
1977
1982
1987
1992
1997
2002
2007
2012
2017
FIGURE 1.4 NASA outlays in constant fiscal year (FY) 2011 dollars (billions), FY1962 to FY2017. NASA’s first
budget was FY1959, but comparable Office of Management and Budget (OMB) data for FY1959-FY1961 are not
available. SOURCE: Based on data from OMB (2012) and adjusted for inflation by the NRC using the GDP
Chained Price Deflator in OMB (2012, Table 4.1, Outlays by Agency: 1962-2017 and Table 10.1, Gross Domestic
Product and Deflators Used in the Historical Tables: 1940-2017, Column 3, GDP (Chained) Price).
20%
18%
Estimates
16%
Percentage of Non-defense
Discretionary Outlays
14%
12%
10%
8%
6%
4%
2%
0%
1962
1967
1972
1977
1982
1987
1992
1997
2002
2007
2012
2017
FIGURE 1.5 NASA outlays as a percentage of non-defense discretionary outlays, fiscal year (FY) 1962 to FY2017.
SOURCE: Based on data from OMB (2012, Table 8.1, Outlays by Budget Enforcement Act Category: 1962-2017).
OCR for page 21
NASA’S PAST AND CURRENT TRAJECTORY 21
FIGURE 1.6 The Space Launch System, is being designed to carry the Orion Multi-Purpose
Crew Vehicle. SOURCE: NASA.
FIGURE 1.7 Water impact test of an 18,000-pound (8,165 kilogram) test
version of the Orion spacecraft at NASA’s Langley Research Center on
August 23, 2012. SOURCE: NASA.
OCR for page 22
22 NASA’S STRATEGIC DIRECTION AND THE NEED FOR A NATIONAL CONSENSUS
Space operations remains a separate line item, at least for now. It pays for the cost of operating
and maintaining the ISS as well as communications, launch services, and a few other items in the Space
Flight and Support line. It includes closing out the Space Shuttle Program. NASA has recently merged the
two organizations at NASA Headquarters that managed these programs to form the Human Exploration
and Operations Mission Directorate. Most NASA centers receive funding from HEOMD to some degree;
the leaders include Johnson Space Center, Kennedy Space Center, Marshall Space Flight Center, Glenn
Research Center, and Langley Research Center. Human exploration and space operations together
account for almost half of NASA’s FY2012 budget.5 NASA also performs life and microgravity science
research funded by HEOMD. This research, among other things, is intended to determine how the human
body adapts to long-duration spaceflight and how to mitigate the negative effects of microgravity and
other issues.
Earth and Space Science
Earth and space science is primarily concerned with scientific inquiries associated with Earth, the
Sun and its sphere of influence (heliophysics), bodies in the solar system other than Earth or the Sun
(planetary science), and the expanse of the universe outside the solar system. Although these are
collectively managed by NASA’s Science Mission Directorate, they each face somewhat different
challenges, have different constituencies and politics, and fulfill different needs. Each of these topics is
addressed briefly below. Additional information is available in the following most recent decadal surveys
published on these topics by the NRC:
• Earth Science and Applications from Space: National Imperatives for the Next Decade and
Beyond (NRC, 2007);
• Solar and Space Physics: A Science for a Technological Society [prepublication version]
(NRC, 2012b);
• Vision and Voyages for Planetary Science in the Decade 2013-2022 (NRC, 2011); and
• New Worlds, New Horizons in Astronomy and Astrophysics (NRC, 2010).
These decadal surveys (as well as a decadal survey in life and microgravity science produced in
2011) are a primary source of strategic guidance for NASA science programs. In some cases, there is
generally a good correlation between the strategic plans and the priorities that NASA establishes for the
space sciences. Counterexamples include (1) NASA’s recent decision to postpone indefinitely work
toward a Mars sample return mission, even though a Mars sample return mission is the highest priority in
the most recent decadal survey for planetary science (NRC, 2011) and (2) substantial and unexpected
reductions in the budget for astrophysics that make it impossible for NASA to develop the highest-
priority missions in the most recent decadal survey for astronomy and astrophysics until late in this
decade (NRC, 2010).
Earth Science
Earth is a complex, ever-changing system that directly affects national and global prospects for
sustainable prosperity and well being. NASA is currently completing the development of a set of
foundational missions, decadal survey missions, and climate continuity missions. Integrated
investigations of Earth’s interior, land surface, biosphere, atmosphere, and oceans are essential to
5
At the time that this study was concluding, the NRC was starting a new study on the goals of the human
spaceflight program.
OCR for page 23
NASA’S PAST AND CURRENT TRAJECTORY 23
understanding and predicting changes to Earth and the impact those changes will have on humanity in
terms of climate variability and change, land-use changes, biodiversity, oceanography, water resources
and the global hydrologic cycle, atmospheric chemistry, and weather. Understanding these changes will,
in some cases, inform national and international policy decisions intended to accommodate and/or
mitigate specific changes. With regard to accurately understanding Earth’s systems, NASA has the lead in
making and interpreting most Earth science observations from space and has partnered with the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), which has the lead for weather observations and
prediction (NRC, 2007).
Heliophysics
Some issues of particular importance to heliophysics (that is, solar and space physics) are relevant
to life on Earth. These issues include the ability to predict variations in the space environment caused by
the Sun and understanding the response of Earth’s magnetosphere, ionosphere, and atmosphere to
variations in solar-terrestrial conditions. Heliophysics also examines how the Sun interacts with other
bodies within the solar system. The recent decadal survey report on solar and space physics outlined four
scientific goals going forward and recommended continued support for the program elements of a
heliosphysics systems observatory and the implementation of programs in advanced stages of
development. This includes the Radiation Belt Storm Probes that were recently launched to understand
the Sun’s influence on Earth by studying Earth’s radiation belts. Advances in heliophysics require
scientists to study the Sun, Earth, and the heliosphere6 as a coupled system, and NASA has the knowledge
and spacecraft to do just that (NRC, 2012b).
Planetary Science
Areas of particular interest include understanding the origin and evolution of terrestrial planets
and detailing the processes that drive climate on Earth-like planets. But the science goals of planetary
missions vary widely depending on the destination(s) of a particular mission and the instruments that it
carries. Climate processes are of interest in the study of Mars, as is the quest to determine (1) if life has
ever existed on Mars and (2) how conditions on the surface of the planet and in the interior have evolved
over time. The recently landed NASA/JPL Mars Curiosity Rover, shown in Figure 1.8, is an example of
robotic exploration to answer such questions. Distinct sets of science goals also exist for the other planets,
for planetary moons, and for other objects in the solar system (NRC, 2011). Planetary science was subject
to significant budget cuts in the President’s FY2013 budget, forcing NASA to drop out of a partnership
with the European Space Agency (ESA)-led ExoMars missions. The Mars Program Planning Group,
which was chartered to provide options for a Mars mission that integrate science, human exploration, and
technology, recently recommended several avenues for a sample return mission from Mars. This
recommendation closely aligns with that of the NRC decadal survey for planetary science. However,
Mars sample return has not yet been adopted by the administration as a priority goal for NASA.
Although Mars has received a great deal of attention in the past year, the reality is that NASA’s
planetary science program has a tremendous number of spacecraft currently in operation. The Cassini
mission is still healthy and returning a wealth of data on Saturn. NASA currently operates the Lunar
Reconnaissance Orbiter as well as the dual spacecraft Ebb and Flow around the Moon. The
6
The heliosphere is the region of space subject to the effects of the solar wind, which consists of charged
particles (mostly electrons and protons) emitted by the Sun.
OCR for page 24
24 NASA’S STRATEGIC DIRECTION AND THE NEED FOR A NATIONAL CONSENSUS
FIGURE 1.8 This view of the three left wheels of NASA’s Mars rover Curiosity combines two images that were
taken by the rover’s Mars Hand Lens Imager during the 34th martian day, or sol, of Curiosity’s work on Mars
(September 9, 2012). In the distance is the lower slope of Mount Sharp. SOURCE: NASA/JPL.
MESSENGER spacecraft is the first ever to orbit Mercury. New Horizons is heading toward a 2015
rendezvous with Pluto, and Juno will orbit Jupiter that same year. Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter and Mars
Odyssey, as well as the Opportunity rover, all continue operating at Mars. At the time this report was
being prepared, the Dawn spacecraft had left the asteroid Vesta en route to the large asteroid Ceres.
Collectively, these missions have provided substantial amounts of information on our solar system, and
they are rewriting our current understanding of the formation and evolution of the solar system,
contributing to the search for the existence of past or even current life on other planets, and assisting in
the understanding of exoplanets.
Astronomy and Astrophysics
NASA astrophysics missions allow modern scientific explorers to search over unimaginable
distances: the closest star (other than the Sun) is more than 20 trillion miles away, and the distance to the
closest galaxy (other than our home galaxy) is thousands of times farther away. Astronomical instruments
look across space and back in time: the Hubble Space Telescope, which can make observations free of the
distorting effects of Earth’s atmosphere, has observed the most distant object seen, more than 13 billion
light-years away, just as it appeared 13 billion years ago. The Hubble Space Telescope, the James Webb
Space Telescope (shown in Figure 1.9 and scheduled for launch in 2018), and other current and future
missions will allow scientists to continue to explore in greater depth the most basic questions of human
destiny. However, current budget priorities of the administration have led to delays—probably to the end
of the decade—before a new program could be developed to pursue the most recent decadal survey
priority in dark energy science, exoplanet science, and an understanding of the cosmos.
OCR for page 25
NASA’S PAST AND CURRENT TRAJECTORY 25
FIGURE 1.9 Technicians and scientists check out one of the James Webb Space
Telescope’s first two flight mirrors on September 19, 2012, in the clean room at
NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland. SOURCE: NASA.
Aeronautics
Aeronautics research is the foundation on which NASA was built, having been created out of the
aeronautics research facilities of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics.7 Four of the ten
NASA centers were founded as part of these NACA facilities, and although a number of legacy facilities
such as large subsonic wind tunnels have been “mothballed” or even dismantled over the years, many of
the NASA aeronautics facilities are utilized regularly by other government agencies such as DOD, the
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), and NOAA. The federal government’s longstanding interest in
aeronautics research is justified by the direct and indirect impacts that aeronautics has on the U.S.
economy through the development of safe and efficient civil and military air vehicles. NASA aeronautics
research has included focused investigations in many different disciplines (e.g., aerodynamics,
propulsion, materials and structures, avionics, and flight dynamics and controls) directed at many
different applications (e.g., efficient subsonic fixed-wing aircraft, high-speed civil transport systems,
rotary wing aircraft, and even hypersonic airbreathing engines for multiple-stage-to-orbit space access).
During the past 6 years, the key priorities and goals for NASA aeronautics research have included
increased aviation system capacity, improved aircraft safety and reliability, increased vehicle efficiency
and performance, reduced energy consumption and environmental impact, utilization of synergies with
national defense and homeland security, and support for the space program. An example of NASA
research aircraft for developing new fuel efficiency technologies is shown in Figure 1.10.
7
NASA’s Langley Research Center, Ames Research Center, Glenn Research Center, and Dryden Flight
Research Center trace their roots to NACA’s Langley Memorial Aeronautical Laboratory (Hampton, Virginia),
Ames Aeronautical Laboratory (Moffett Field, California), Aircraft Engine Research Laboratory (Cleveland, Ohio),
and Muroc Flight Test Unit (Edwards Air Force Base, California), respectively.
OCR for page 26
26 NASA’S STRATEGIC DIRECTION AND THE NEED FOR A NATIONAL CONSENSUS
FIGURE 1.10 The NASA X-48C, which is a remotely piloted model of a hybrid wing body aircraft, takes flight
for the first time. This aircraft is used for developing new fuel efficiency technologies. SOURCE: NASA/Tony
Landis.
Space Technology
Because of the unique nature of most NASA missions, NASA has had a number of very specific
technological requirements in areas ranging from expendable and reusable launch vehicles to deep space
propulsion systems, and much more. As a consequence, NASA has invested heavily in the development
of advanced space technology over the years. Technological advances in these areas have yielded benefits
far beyond space exploration itself in down-to-Earth applications (NASA, 2008).
In the early decades of NASA’s existence, the accelerated development of concepts such as
rockets and sensing technologies were given sufficient resources to meet ambitious timetables, e.g., the
Saturn V development for the Apollo program or the Space Shuttle Main Engine development for the
space shuttle. Since then, concepts for NASA space transportation in particular tended to be
technologically ambitious (e.g., the X-33) and/or significantly constrained by the budget (e.g.,
Constellation). Guidance on specific mission-related development of space technologies, apart from
launch systems, now routinely appears in the decadal surveys produced by the NRC for Earth and space
science (see NRC, 2007, 2010, 2011, and 2012b).
Until recently in the past decade, an explicit line item for space technology, apart from launch
technology, was absent from the NASA budget. In the FY2012 budget, the Space Technology Program
was established, in part with funds freed up by cancellation of Constellation. The Space Technology
Program, which is managed by NASA’s Office of the Chief Technologist, is intended to complement
technology development conducted by NASA’s mission directorates. The Space Technology Program
will focus on crosscutting technologies that serve the needs of multiple NASA mission directorates,
government agencies, and industries; an example is shown in Figure 1.11. The Space Technology
Program will also support technologies that would enable unprecedented new missions or capabilities but
are too risky to warrant substantial investment by the mission directorates. Guidance on mission-related
development of space technologies now routinely appears in the decadal surveys produced by the NRC
for Earth and space science (see NRC, 2007, 2010, 2011, and 2012b). Most recently the NRC completed a
major roadmapping study that established technology development goals for the Space Technology
Program, and NASA has now begun implementing those goals into its plans (NRC, 2012a). Congress
directed that one-third of the Space Technology Program’s current budget be dedicated to research
focused on human exploration goals (U.S. House of Representatives, 2011).
OCR for page 27
NASA’S PAST AND CURRENT TRAJECTORY 27
FIGURE 1.11 Robonaut 2 during checkout on the International
Space Station. SOURCE: NASA.
Cross-Agency Support
Since 2008, Cross Agency Support has been used to fund a range of NASA operations in these
areas, including the construction of facilities and infrastructure, to provide capabilities that cannot be tied
directly to the specific needs of a particular directorate or program. Cross Agency Support also funds
center management and operations, which is a vital part of NASA operations.
NASA-SUPPORTED COMMERCIAL SPACE ACTIVITIES
Since the late 1950s, the U.S. government has been involved extensively in setting requirements,
designing, testing, developing, and launching human and robotic spacecraft. NASA’s Commercial Orbital
Transportation Services program, initiated in 2006, is designed to foster development of privately
operated space transportation systems for access to the ISS. This program, which is currently in Phase 2,
is a public-private partnership, in that both NASA and the participating contractors contribute to the cost
of developing new systems. Currently, both SpaceX and Orbital Sciences Corporation are under contract
to develop new launch vehicles and spacecraft, and on May 25, 2012, and again on October 9, 2012, a
Dragon capsule (without a crew) successfully berthed with the ISS. (See Figure 1.12.) In addition, some
OCR for page 28
28 NASA’S STRATEGIC DIRECTION AND THE NEED FOR A NATIONAL CONSENSUS
FIGURE 1.12 The SpaceX Dragon commercial cargo craft approaches the International Space Station on May
25, 2012, for grapple and berthing. SOURCE: NASA.
private companies, such as Virgin Galactic, are developing relatively low-cost, suborbital space
transportation systems on their own, with the expectation that space tourism by individuals will become a
viable business model. To date, more than 500 individuals have made deposits of $20,000 to $200,000
with Virgin Galactic toward a future flight on a Virgin Galactic spacecraft (still under development). Now
that NASA has adopted an initiative to develop commercial capabilities with private companies who are
entering the business of developing testing and operating space systems. The government no longer has
an exclusive role in the design, development, testing, evaluation, and operations of human spacecraft
systems.
NASA’s new approach to procuring transportation services is an extension of U.S. government
policy that discourages direct government competition with industry in manufacturing systems or
providing services that are available in the private marketplace. Of course, this approach is possible only
because of previous investments by NASA and DOD over many decades in the development of launch
vehicles, systems, processes, technologies, and components. Just as many ongoing improvements in
commercial spacecraft are enabled by NASA’s ongoing development of advanced technologies for future
civil space missions, the growth of a U.S. commercial space transportation sector would be greatly
facilitated by continued investments by NASA in space transportation technology. The National
Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 directs NASA to preserve the role of the United States as a leader in
aeronautical and space science and technology. Also, as a major consumer of space transportation
services, it is in NASA’s interest to promote advances in space transportation technologies, systems, and
capabilities. NASA research is particularly important for precompetitive technologies that are at such a
low level of maturity and/or have such a high level of risk that industry cannot justify developing these
technologies using private capital.
OCR for page 29
NASA’S PAST AND CURRENT TRAJECTORY 29
SUMMARY
During the first 6 years of its existence, NASA’s budget increased by an average of 70 percent
each year. With the race to the Moon in full swing, NASA’s budget topped out at $37 billion (in FY2011
dollars) in 1965. After falling by 60 percent after the end of the Apollo program, the budget topped out
again at $23 billion in FY1991 to support a high level of activity on both the space shuttle and ISS
programs. More recently, NASA’s budget has been relatively stable. During the 15-year period from 1997
through 2011, the budget each year has varied by no more than 5 percent from the average value of $18.4
billion (in FY2011 dollars).
Despite the relative stability of NASA’s budget and workforce over the last 15 years, NASA is
going through a profound transition:
• From a period of robust space exploration and operations with well-defined and supported
objectives to one where there is a clear long-term destination for human exploration (Mars) but a lack of a
well-defined national initiative or consensus on the path to get there.
• From a period when the United States had space transportation capabilities second-to-none to
a period where the United States must rely on others to launch our astronauts.
• U.S. leadership in space science is being threatened by insufficient budgets to carry out the
missions identified in the strategic plans (decadal surveys) of the science communities, while the cost of
missions is rising, science budgets are decreasing, and partnerships with the ESA are collapsing—even as
other space agencies (most notably ESA) are mounting increasingly ambitious programs.
• From a period where the primary focus of four NASA field centers was on aeronautics
research and technology development and where NASA contributed major advances in these areas,
benefitting the U.S. economy, quality of life, and national security, to a period where the continued
viability of those centers requires financial support from NASA programs or other organizations outside
of NASA’s aeronautics program.
• The strategic importance of space is rising and the capabilities of other spacefaring nations
are increasing, while U.S. leadership is faltering.
The factors that are driving these transitions and possible corrective action are addressed in Chapter 2.
REFERENCES
Bush, G.H.W., 1989. “Remarks on the 20th Anniversary of the Apollo 11 Moon Landing.” George Bush
Presidential Library and Museum, July 20. Available at http://bushlibrary.tamu.edu/research/
public_papers.php?id=712.
Bush, G.W. 2004. Remarks by the President on U.S. Space Policy. President Bush Announces New
Vision for Space Exploration Program. January 14. Available at http://history.nasa.gov/
Bush%20SEP.htm.
CAIB (Columbia Accident Investigation Board). 2003. Columbia Accident Investigation Board Report:
Volume 1. Available at http://caib.nasa.gov/. August.
Executive Office of the President. 2009. Review of U.S. Human Spaceflight Plans Committee, Seeking a
Human Space-flight Program Worthy of a Great Nation. Washington, D.C.: NASA.
Executive Office of the President. 2010. National Space Policy of the United States of America, June 28.
Available at http://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/ national_space_policy_6-28-10.pdf.
NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration). 2004. The Vision for Space Exploration. NP-
2004-01-334-HQ. Washington, D.C.: NASA.
NASA. 2006. 2006 NASA Strategic Plan. Washington, D.C.: NASA.
NASA. 2008. NASA Exploration and Innovation Lead to New Discoveries. NW-2008-09-188-HQ.
Available at http://spinoff.nasa.gov/Spinoff2008/pdf/timeline_08.pdf.
OCR for page 30
30 NASA’S STRATEGIC DIRECTION AND THE NEED FOR A NATIONAL CONSENSUS
NASA. 2010. President Outlines Exploration Goals, Promise. Feature by Steven Siceloff, NASA’s John
F. Kennedy Space Center. April 15. Available at
http://www.nasa.gov/about/obamaspeechfeature.html.
NASA. 2011. 2011 NASA Strategic Plan. Available at http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/516579main_
NASA2011StrategicPlan.pdf.
NASA. 2012. Workforce Information Cubes for NASA: Historical trend in headcount of all employees by
year. Available at http://wicn.nssc.nasa.gov/wicn_cubes.html.
NRC (National Research Council). 2006. Decadal Survey of Civil Aeronautics: Foundation for the
Future. Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press.
NRC. 2007. Earth Science and Applications from Space: National Imperatives for the Next Decade and
Beyond. Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press.
NRC. 2009. America’s Future In Space: Aligning the Civil Space Program with National Needs.
Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press.
NRC. 2010. New Worlds, New Horizons in Astronomy and Astrophysics. Washington, D.C.: The
National Academies Press.
NRC. 2011. Vision and Voyages for Planetary Science in the Decade 2013-2022. Washington, D.C.: The
National Academies Press.
NRC. 2012a. NASA Space Technology Roadmaps and Priorities: Restoring NASA’s Technological Edge
and Paving the Way for a New Era in Space. Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press.
NRC. 2012b. Solar and Space Physics: A Science for a Technological Society. Washington, D.C.: The
National Academies Press.
OMB (Office of Management and Budget). 2012. FY 2013 Budget of the U.S. Government: Historical
Tables. Available at http://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/omb/budget/fy2013/assets/hist.pdf.
U.S. House of Representatives, 2011. Agriculture, Rural Development, Food and Drug Administration,
and Related Agencies Programs for the Fiscal Year Ending September 30, 2012, and for Other
Purposes Conference Report to Accompany H.R. 2112. Available at http://www.gpo.gov/
fdsys/pkg/CRPT-112hrpt284/pdf/CRPT-112hrpt284.pdf.
