More and Better Food: An Egyptian Demonstration Project (1986)

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CHAPTER IV THE MORE AND BETTER FOOD INTERVENTION PROJECTS The More and Better Food Demonstration Project (MBF) began in May 1978 as a multidisciplinary, multi-institu- tional activity aimed at increasing land productivity (both quantitatively and qualitatively) and improving nutritional and health status, thus enhancing the socio- economic pattern of life in typical Egyptian villages. The project was designed to cover three areas, each of which would include intervention projects: farm-system-related projects, nutrition-related projects, and food-technology-related projects. The initiation stage of the MBF project included four major sequential steps: (1) the establishment of a steering committee, with full delegated authority; (2) selection of three villages according to well-defined sets of criteria: one village represents the old land of the Nile Valley (Kafr Al-Khadra, Menufia); the second, newly reclaimed land (Omar Makram, Tahrir, Beheira); and the third, a village close to Cairo to determine the impact of location near the central government on the migration of manpower (Beni Magdou1, Giza); (3) collection of baseline data including demographic, socia1, economic, environmenta1, and tech- nical aspects (the data would be used in the selection of intervention projects and as a reference throughout the life of the program); and (4) careful selection of priority projects to be implemented in each demonstration village. This section reports on some of the projects that were executed under the three major areas. (It is beyond the scope of this section to discuss technical details of the project.) The goal is to give the reader a clear idea of the interaction between the team and the farmers, the accomplishments of the project (including techno- economic evaluation), the lessons learned, and above all the impact of the project on the NRC and the village community. - 71 -

- 72 - PLANT-PRODUCTION-RELATED PROJECTS Selection of intervention projects that would have a substantial impact on village plant production relied on baseline data covering the cultivated areas, the cropping systems, crop productivity, irrigation and drainage sys- tems, fertilization and deficiency symptoms of nutrients, soil properties, agricultural pests and their effects, pesticides used, and policy for plant protection. Plant production projects implemented in the three villages included improved production of four major farm crops (maize, wheat, peanuts, and fava beans); improved production of four vegetable crops (tomatoes, onions, potatoes, and cucumbers); improved production of three fruit crops (grapes, citrus, and mangoes); soil fertility studies and intervention; insect control; and weed con- trol. The plan also included two projects directed at increasing family income: a honeybeekeeping project and a silkworm raising project. Three of these projects—tomatoes, maize, and pea- nuts—are examined more fully below. Other projects will be discussed in less detail but will also emphasize the major aim of each project—increased productivity and socioeconomic impact. Project on Improvement of Tomato Productivity Background Tomatoes are by far the largest vegetable crop in Egypt. On average, 350 thousand feddans, representing 40 percent of the area cultivated with vegetable crops, are used to grow tomatoes each year. The average pro- ductivity is a low 6 tons/per feddan, yet the overall production of tomatoes is still higher than the produc- tion for any other vegetable crop. In Omar Makram (Tahrir), tomatoes, the major vege- table crop, are grown on an area that ranges between 300 and 450 feddans every year. Kafr Al-Khadra, although it is in the Menufia Governorate where vegetable production has increased, has only a very limited area (10 feddans) that grows tomatoes, potatoes, and eggplants. Kafr Al-Khadra is a wheat and maize growing village. Beni Magdou1, which is close to Cairo where the market poten- tial for vegetables and fruits is high, considers toma- toes a main crop. The average production rate of toma- toes in Tahrir is 5.6 tons per feddan; in Menufia and Giza, 4 tons each.

- 73 - Modern technology and agricultural practices have made it possible to increase the productivity of land growing tomatoes by five or more times. The world record is as high as 120 tons of tomatoes/acre, and the ratio is likely to increase. Thus, a project to increase tomato productivity through new techniques seemed to be an ideal initial undertaking for MBF, one that would gain the confidence of the farmers and increase their real income. Objectives The objectives of the project were: o To increase the productivity of each unit area of tomatoes by more than three times through the application of new practices o To increase the income of the farmer and encour- age others to shift from traditional farming to modern techniques o To increase possibilities for industrialization of the crop and for export o To train some of the participating farmers in ways to produce healthy tomato seedlings for sale to neighboring villages, thereby creating a new business in the demonstration village o To use the tomato farms as demonstration sites, and to give participating farmers responsibility for promoting the feasibility of the project among other farmers o To create a healthy atmosphere of cooperation between the farmer and the Ministry of Agricul- ture's (MOA) advisor, and among those two seg- ments and National Research Centre (NRC) staff. Problems and Solutions At the time the MBF project started, the experience of the NRC staff with tomato cultivation was limited to thesis-oriented research on plant physiology, nutrition, growth and development, pests, and pest control. Actual experience on new practices or modern methods was vir- tually nonexistent. Fortunately, the chairman of the steering committee had served as Dean of Agriculture, Cairo University, then as Governor of El-Fayura and Minister of Agriculture. While in El-Fayum, he supported new practices and technologies to improve production of farm crops. Tomato plantation on wires was introduced

- 74 - there and has been progressing since. The steering com- mittee hired the top specialist from El-Fayum to set up the experiments in Omar Makram and Kafr Al-Khadra; NRC staff worked under him so they could take over the pro- ject. At present, the NRC has the top specialists in the country on several technologies of tomato farming. A second difficulty was how to convince the farmer himself to participate in the project. Would a farmer who owns one feddan or less to feed himself and his family give his piece of land to a project or an out- sider? What guarantees would he get? Where would he get the money to start a new practice that would cost more? Would he be attracted to a collective farm approach? These and other questions were discussed during the steering committee meeting and while campaigning in the villages to seek the farmers' support for the project. The solution involved a contractual agreement between MBF and the farmer on the following terms: o The farmer conducted all the work on his farm according to the directions given by the project team. o The project supplied all the facilities and pro- ducts not used in traditional tomato farming. o MBF guaranteed a net income equivalent to that received from the same crop under traditional farming. o At the end of the season, the farmer reimbursed the money spent on materials and supplies according to agreed-upon settlements. o All other income and reusable materials went to the farmer. Technical difficulties included selection of tomato varieties that give a large, high-quality crop, that resist diseases, and that fit in the growing season; protection against diseases and pests to which new varieties were susceptible, as well as seedling bed pro- tection against virus infection before transfer; proper preparation of land before cultivation to suit the new practices; determination of the optimum number of plants per unit area; timing types, quantities, and application procedures for fertilizers; and irrigation techniques to prevent overirrigation as well as drought. Accordingly, the program designed and implemented by the NRC staff included selection of high-yielding varieties, proper care of seedling beds in cultivation under tunnels, intensive farming, proper utilization of soil and leaf fertilizers, control of irrigation practices, and appli- cation of a highly efficient system for disease and pest control.

- 75 - The following steps were also found to be necessary to achieve the objectives: periodic meetings had to be held between the NRC team and individuals involved in the project (agriculture extension specialists, governorate personne1, village councils, and farmers) to explain details and ensure continued commitment; the Organization for Reconstruction and Development of Egyptian Villages (ORDEV) had to make all materials available to the pro- ject (seed, fertilizers, pesticides); a multidisciplinary team had to be organized to cover all aspects; the Ministry of Agriculture had to assign one member of its extension staff to supervise the planting of each of the 50 feddans; and the NRC, in collaboration with ORDEV, had to prepare a card index for each farmer to record requirements. Accomplishments The project implementation passed through three major stages that reflected the development of new practices to increase tomato productivity and an expansion in cul- tivation; the continuity of the activity given the high rate of acceptance by the farmer; the support of the highest executive national committee; and the development of an experienced team within the NRC in several tech- nologies of tomato cultivation (Figures 11 and 12). In 1979/1980, the NRC implemented a program of increased productivity of tomatoes by wire cultivation. The project was conducted in Omar Makram and Katr Al-Khadra. The extent of increased productivity is shown be low: TABLE 25 Increased Production of Tomatoes (1979/1980) Village Production (Ton/Feddan) Extra Income LE/Feddan(a) Average in Average Governorate MBF Omar Makram 4.0 27.8 2380 Kafr Al-Khadra 5.7 32.4 2670 (fl)100 Egyptian Pounds/Ton SOURCE: "Program on Development of Tomato Crop in Giza, Bl-Fayum and Beni-Suef Governorates," NRC, ORDEV, and Agricultural Research Centre (ARC), General Organization for Agriculture (GOA), Al-Hadara Al-Arabia Publishing, Cairo, 1983.

- 76 - FIGURE 11 Traditional tomato farming in Omar Makram. FIGURE 12 MBF tomato cultivation on wires Omar Makram.

- 77 - In 1981, based on the achievements of several projects of the MBF, the Governorate of Giza and the Academy of Scientific Research and Technology (ASRT) mutually financed a program entitled "Science and Tech- nology in Rural Development" (STRD) to serve as an expanded application of the MBF's achievements. In that year, tomato farming in the Governorate of Giza covered 1,000 feddans owned by 572 farmers from 14 villages. The average production increased from 6.74 tons/feddan to 22.88 tons/feddan (LE 1,614 extra income/feddan). In 1982, the National Supreme Committee for Policies and Economics, chaired by the Prime Minister, approved the STRD Program, which included the expansion of the tomato program in Middle Egypt Governorates to 7,831 feddans in the Governorates of Giza, Beni-Suef, and El-Fayum. There, 6,109 farmers in 56 villages from 5 counties participated in the program. Seedling beds were established on 145 feddans that supplied both the parti- cipants and an additional 1,000 feddans belonging to nonparticipating farmers in other parts of the country. Table 26 shows cultivation, production, and income rates in the three governorates. In 1984, the MBF project introduced the technique of growing tomato seedlings under plastic tunnels in Beni Magdoul (Giza Governorate). The seedling beds initially covered one feddan and then four. Crop yield increased from 7 tons to 25 tons (variety BC 97). Economic Evaluation Total production from the three governorates was 233,988 tons from a total area of 7,831 feddans (an average of 29.99 tons/feddan). The expected total pro- duction from the same area if the project had not been implemented was 60,062 tons; the increased productivity of areas covered by the program was 173,926 tons. The average increased productivity per feddan in the three governorates was 22.21 tons. The percentage of increase in overall productivity was 289.5. Increased profit as a result of the project in the three governorates was LE 17.39 million (one ton of tomatoes sold for = LE 100). Project on Improvement of Maize Productivity Background Maize (corn) ranks high among farm crops in Egypt, both in terms of the cultivated area it occupies and the total revenue it generates. About 1.8 million feddans

- 78 - TABLE 26 Tomato Projects In the Governorates of Giza, Beni-Suef, and El-Fayun Average Aver age (°) Produc- Produc- tivity tivity Cultivated Number in MBF in Non- Gover- Area of Partici- Partici- Extra Profit norate County Feddan Kirat Farmers pants pants (LE/feddan) Giza Aiat 1,556 13 1,204 25.17 6.81 1,836 39,175 10,600 Beni- Alwasta 1,000 — 821 26.35 7.21 1,914 Suef 26,350 7,210 El- Tamia Fayum El-Fayum 5,275 — 4,084 31.94 8.01 2,393 Sanoras 168,478 42,252 Top values represent average productivity in tons per feddan for MBF participants and nonparticlpants, respectively. Bottom values represent overall production (in tons) of the area participating in MBF, and an equivalent nonparticipating area, respectively. SOURCE: "Program on Development of Tomato Crop in Giza, El-Fayum and Beni-Suef Governorates," NRC, ORDEV, and ARC, GOA, Al-Hadara Al-Arabia Publishing, Cairo, 1983.

- 79 - (33 percent of all arable land) produced about 3 million tons of maize in 1983. Recent records show that the current domestic consumption of maize is about 5 million tons and is estimated to reach more than 6 million tons by 1990, necessitating an increase in total production of more than 50 percent. Therefore, assuming the area planted in maize remains constant, production per unit area must be doubled. This can be achieved only by application of new practices and modern techniques. In Kafr Al-Khadra, maize occupied 724 feddans in 1983, or about 81 percent of all cultivated land there. Average annual production of maize did not exceed 1l-12 ardab (1 ardab = 140 kg maize), a low figure given Kafr Al-Khadra's fertile soi1, abundance of water, and the suitability of its weather. FIGURE 13 Production of early tomatoes by application of plastic tunnel techniques for seedlings.

- 80 - In Omar Makram, maize is considered a basic commodity for breadmaking and for animal and poultry feeding. It occupies 577 feddans, or 36 percent of all arable land in the village; in addition, 300 feddans of maize are double-cropped with peanuts. Average production of maize in the village (single crop) ranged between 6.7 and 8.6 ardabs, an extremely low productivity rate. Current technologies applicable to small holdings potentially could triple the productivity of maize per unit area in the two villages. If such a goal were to be achieved, Egypt would not only become self-sufficient in maize for the foreseeable future, but could also turn over part of that land to other crops. Objectives The maize project set several objectives: o To more than double productivity per unit area through the use of new varieties and suitable practices, thus increasing the income of the small farmers o To encourage maize growers to adopt a package of improved agronomic practices through the use of demonstration fields o To work toward application of the improved prac- tices on a national level to reach self-suffi- ciency in this strategic crop o To introduce a summer forage crop for feeding livestock and to avoid defoliation and detassel- ing of the plants. Program Elements The program applied practices developed by NRC scientists in the extension field at Kafr Al-Khadra. The program comprises four major elements: use of high-yielding maize varieties, application of simple agronomic practices, increase in plant density, and introduction of multicutting summer forage crops to pre- vent defoliation and detasseling of maize plants and to produce green fodder for feeding livestock during the summer season. Problems and Solutions Maize growers are accustomed to growing Saladi (an impure variety), which is characterized by low produc- tivity and susceptibility to fungal diseases. Nonethe-

- 81 - less, Kafr Al-Khadra, even with a low productivity rate, was self-sufficient in this crop. As maize was not a commodity for sale in the village, it was used as a dual-purpose crop for supplying grain and green fodder. Farmers were reluctant to shift to new varieties. Under the traditional approach, primitive seeding practices led to uneven distribution of seeds, a decrease in germination percentages, and delays in plant emer- gence. Moreover, defoliation and detasseling of maize plants affected the grain yields. Plant density was too low (10,000-12,000/feddan) and too uneven to produce high yields. The low level of nitrogen fertilizer and an unfairly distributed irrigation system were other major constraints. The solution was in the form of a package of improved agronomic practices that would guarantee increased pro- ductivity and income to the farmer in a contractual agreement similar to that used in the tomato project. The Improved Agronomic Package Six major elements constituted the newly developed agronomic practice. All farmers were required to follow regulations put forward and supervised by the team. The following elements were included: o The use of high-yielding maize varieties: imported Pioneer-514 (hybrid) and local Giza 2 o Early sowing during late May early June o Furrow/ridge irrigation to provide better control of irrigation and to facilitate weed control o Increased use of nitrogen fertilizer from 60 to 90 kg/feddan and use of foliage fertilizer o Maintenance of maize density to more than 20,000 plants/feddan until harvest time o Use of a summer forage crop (Millex-24) grown on 2 kirats (kt) for every feddan owned by the farmer; thus, there was no defoliation or detasseling. A detailed program on the agricultural practices was written in simple language and distributed among parti- cipating farmers. The program covers both maize and the summer forage crop. A condensed training program was given to extension service agricultural engineers. Accomplishments The maize project started in 1980 and continued until 1983 under the MBF project. In 1981, the maize project

- 82 - was extended to the Giza Governorate as part of the mutually financed ASRT-Giza Governorate Program on "Science and Technology in Rural Development." The MOA, in collaboration with ASRT, started a national campaign for improved maize production. The goal is to reach self-sufficiency in this strategic crop. Table 27 provides statistical comparisons of the maize projects in Kafr Al-Khadra and Omar Makram. Figure 14 illustrates the crop. Pioneer-514 maize (an American hybrid) has a shorter and thicker stem than the traditionally grown Baladi variety, as well as a greater number of green leaves, a larger leaf area, and a larger leaf area index. These characteristics decrease the amount of lodging and break- age. Pioneer-514 was chosen for cultivation in Omar Makram. The plant was cultivated at a density of more than 20,000 plants/feddan, almost double the number of Baladi plants per feddan in farms outside the project. However, farmers were dissatisfied with the technological properties of the grain when it was mixed with wheat flour in bread baking. Thus, the variety was changed to Giza-2 (an Egyptian variety), with grain properties similar to the Baladi variety but with a yield equivalent to the Pioneer-514. The 1982 decrease in the area planted in maize was due to the unsatisfactory experience with Pioneer-514. However, the six feddans planted in Giza-2 attracted more farmers in 1983. In 1983, farmers were able to plant their fields with only a little guid- ance from the MBF team, a reflection of the extent to which they had acquired the necessary technology. TABLE 27 Maize Projects in Kafr Al-Khadra and Omar Makram Village Year Maize Area Variety (Feddans) Number of Average Yield Ardab/FeddansCa) Owners Kafr Al-Khadra 1980 1980 Giza-2 4 Baladi(b) 4 22.9 11.8 1982 Giza-2 46 72 25.5 1982 Baladi 11.8 Omar Makram 1980 Pioneer-514 64 70 22.2 1980 Baladi 7.5 1982 Giza-2 6 11 23.7 1982 Baladi 8.6 1983 Giza-2 54 54 18.6 ardab - 140 kg of maize. C'^Baladi is an impure variety traditionally grown in Egyptian villages. SOURCE: N.I. Ashour. "MBF: Program on Development of Maize Crop and Introducing a Summer Green Fodder," National Information and Documentation Centre, Cairo, March 1983.

- 83 - FIGURE 14 Giza-2 variety maize (top); Millex-24 maize (bottom)

- 84 - The MOA's national campaign for growing Giza-2 maize got underway in 1980. Table 28 shows the results of the program for the years 1980 through 1983. Today, Giza-2 is grown on more than 300,000 feddans in 12 governorates. Economic Evaluation TABLE 28 National Campaign for Giza-2 Maize (1980-1983) Year Governorates Average Total Area Productivity (Feddans) (Ardab/Feddan) 1980 Dakahlia 3,058 23.7 1981 Dakahlia, Gharbia, 7,380 Menufia 26.4 1982 Dakahlia, Gharbia, 9,427 Menufia, Sharkia 28.9 Ardab = 140 kg SOURCE: N.I. Ashour. "MBF: Program on Development of Maize Crop and Introducing a Summer Green Fodder," National Information and Documentation Centre, Cairo, March 1983. The economic impact of the maize project is illus- trated by the following results of 1982 season in Kafr Al-Khadra: o Area cultivated with Giza-2: 46 feddans, 5 kirats o Total crop: 1,179 ardabs o Expected yield from same area with fialadi variety: 545 ardabs o Increased production with Giza-2: 634 ardabs (116.3 percent) o Increased income with Giza-2: LE 8,879 (LE 14/ardab) government price LE 11,416 free market price o Production of green fodder Millex-24 on area of project (4 feddans, 15 kirats): 325 tons o Price of fodder crop: LE 3,250 (LE 10/ton) o Total area cultivated by both crops: feddans 50, 20 kirats

- 85 - o Total income: LE 12,129 o Total cost of application, including materials, supplies, and salaries: LE 1,709 o Net increase in income from entire area: LE 10,420 o Net extra income per feddan = LE 205 o Cost/benefit ratio 1 to 7.1. Lessons Learned Several conclusions were drawn during the course of project initiation: o In demonstration projects it is advisable, at least in initial stages, to have the experimental area cover as many plots as possible so all far- mers in the village have a chance to see the impac t. o The maize variety Pioneer-514, although it pro- duces a large crop, is not acceptable to the Egyptians because of its poor flour characteris- tics; the locally produced Giza-2 is the most suitable for national programs. o The cultivation of an animal fodder, such as Millex-24 or Sordan 77, on an area of l-2 kilo- tons/ feddan lessens defoliation of maize leaves and increases net income. 3 Successful expansion of maize production requires that enough Giza-2 seed and pesticides be avail- able at fixed stages in the planting cycle. To achieve this, there must be better development of management systems and more support for the agricultural cooperatives. Project on Improvement of Peanut Productivity Background In 1980-1982, the total area cultivated in peanuts in Egypt averaged 28.6 thousand feddans/year, producing about 332 thousand ardabs/year (1 ardab = 75 kg peanuts), or 11.6 ardabs/feddan. Egypt's exports of peanuts in 1982 amounted to 55,373 ardabs (4,153 tons) of hulled peanuts and 6,521 ardabs (489 tons) of kernels, for a value of LE 2.7 million. Peanuts are exported to more than 12 Arab and European countries. Tahrir province is a major peanut producer. One of its sectors, Al-Tahady, plants more than 6,000 feddans

- 86 - in peanuts every year. (This sector is made of reclaimed land that the government distributed to graduates of faculties of agriculture at a rate of 10 feddans/person.) The peanut project was implemented in Omar Makram, which is located in a peanut-growing area. (Kafr Al-Khadra and the rest of the Menufia Governorate do not grow peanuts.) The five-year-old project is an excellent example of the use of science and technology to increase production. The project not only succeeded in identify- ing the causes of deterioration of the peanut crop in the Al-Tahady sector (from an average of 9 ardabs/feddan in 1979 to an average of 2.8 ardabs/feddan in 1982), but it also launched an integrated treatment that, in 1983, resulted in an average production of 18.6 ardabs/feddan in a demonstration area of 150 feddans. This year (1985), the program will cover the entire 6,000 feddans in the sector. This effort will be financed by the Egyptian MOA and supervised by NRC staff. The MOA has also established a national committee to develop Egypt's peanut crop; the NRC will play a leading role in that effort. Objectives The program had the following objectives: o To demonstrate, through an integrated program, how scientific and technical expertise can diag- nose the problems facing peanut producers, allo- cate needed resources, and implement a timely production plan o To demonstrate how the program increases peanut production, to make farmers aware of the benefits they gain by joining the project, and to lead to a nationwide program for developing the peanut crop o To increase the country's export of the com- modity, thus bringing in more foreign currency. Problems and Solutions The project began in Omar Makram in 1981. The healthy appearance of the peanut crop there as well as the high crop yield (an average of 31.2 ardabs/feddan [2.3 tons/feddan] compared with a reported average of 10 ardabs/feddan [0.75 ton/feddan] in former years) prompted the Al-Kherigeen (Graduates) Union (landowners in Al-Tahady) to ask the MBF steering committee to help them overcome the disaster that affected their peanut crop.

- 87 - Thus the project was expanded to cover both Omar Makram and Al-Tahady (both in Tahrir Province, Beheira Governorate). Each had a set of problems that required an individualized action plan. In Omar Makram, the problems were as follows: o The reuse of old cultivars for more than 10 years resulted in a continuous decrease in the peanut yield in Omar Makram; farmers were using self- produced seeds from previous seasons. o Farmers used an unbalanced fertilization system that lacked both major and minor nutrients. o Farmers did not know how to combat disease and insects; thus, they were unable to identify early stages of infection, where control measures are most effective. The MBF offered Omar Makram farmers a package of pro- duction practices. The package included: the use of the high-producing variety, Giza-4; instructions regarding ground preparation by double-ploughing and the addition of super phosphate; pretreatment of seedlings with Vita- fax pesticide and with nitrogen-fixing rhizobium (pre- pared by NRC scientists); addition of Endrin pesticide after sowing; irrigation techniques consisting of water- ing every 4 to 6 days, then discontinuing the water near ripening to avoid wrinkling; fertilization techniques whereby nitrogen and potassium were applied to the soil and micronutrients were applied as foliar spray; no intercropping of peanuts with other plants; and start of harvesting 120 days after sowing. The Al-Tahady sector's 18,000 feddans are divided among six cooperative unions. The sector is cultivated by the 520 families of the Al-Kherigeen (Graduates) Union. Peanut crops cover more than 6,000 feddans. In 1979, peanut fields in four cooperatives—Al-Kefah, Al-Setnoud, Al-Eibour, and Al-Marakah—began to be affec- ted by a disease that sharply decreased crop yields year after year. The problem started at the 70th day of growth, when new leaves turned yellow. The yellowing affected the entire crop between the 90th and 100th day of plant growth. The plants then began to wilt, and the yellow color turned dark brown. Damage was so extensive that many farmers did not even try to salvage what pea- nuts they could. Records kept by the Al-Kefah Coopera- tive showed the average peanut yield in Al-Tahady in 1979 to be 9.0 ardabs/feddan; in 1980, 5.0; in 1981, 3.2; and in 1982, 2.8 ardabs/feddan. Between 1979 and 1982, the economy lost LE 1.116 million, based on 6,000 feddans under cultivation and LE 30 per ardab of peanuts.

- 88 - Four attempts were made to understand the problem and resolve it: o In July, 1980, the Plant Nutrition Institute of MOA identified the problem as a lack of iron. o In September, 1981, MOA identified the cause as infection with nematodes and recommended treat- ment, but did not assist farmers in implementing the treatment. o In September, 1981, the agriculture faculty of Menufia University confirmed the MOA identifica- tion and offered to assist in resolving the pro- blems. o In December, 1981, the farmers' union contacted the MfiF steering committee. In 1982, a team of NRC specialists in the areas of nematode, fungi, and pest control; soil sciences; and fertilization techniques started to work on 10 feddans. Its primary goal was to determine conclusively the cause of the disease. At the end of the growing season, a com- plete picture of the course of the disease was reported to the MBF steering committee, along with specific recom- mendations for an integrated program of disease control and fertilization. The team found that nematodes of the root-nodulizing type injured the roots of the plant; this was followed by fungal infections (Fusarium and Aspergillus flavus) that spread to block the xylem vessels and caused the plant to wilt. After diagnosing the causes, the team developed a treatment package based primarily on protection of the crop against fungi and nematodes beginning with planting and continuing until complete maturity. Vitafax serum was used for seed and soi1, and Diathen 45 was used for plants. Fertilizers and micronutrients were also applied. Figure 15 illustrates peanut project at Al-Kherigeen. Achievements The peanut project began in 1981 and has been expand- ing since then into a program for the improvement of pea- nut productivity for the entire country. The program has gone through several stages, which are briefly described in the following paragraphs. In 1981, the program began in Omar Makram (Tahrir Province) on an area of 64 feddans owned by 54 farmers. As a result of successful design and execution of the project plan, average productivity of the project's pea- nut crop was 31.2 ardabs/feddan, compared to a village

- 89 - average of 10 ardabs/feddan for nonparticipants. This was an increase of 21.2 ardabs of peanuts per feddan and an increased income to the participating farmer of LE 530 per feddan. The MBF project supplied the fungicide and the pesticide for the first year only, at a cost of LE 33.91/feddan. FIGURE 15 Peanut project in Omar Makram.

- 90 - In 1982, the number of participating farmers in Omar Makram increased to 121, and the area increased to 255 feddans. The farmers carried all expenses, with MBF supplying them with the nitrogen-fixing rhizobium (pre- pared in the NRC) and the micronutrients. The average productivity of the land in the MBF project was 32.5 ardabs/feddan. Average productivity of nonparticipants in Omar Makram was between 10 and 12 ardabs/feddan. In 1983, the number of participants in Omar Makram reached 204 and the area, 450 feddans. The MBF project provided the farmers with nitrogen-fixing Bacterin, pre- pared by NRC from five strains and fortified with micro- nutrients. That year, the project added training for extension service agriculture engineers in Omar Makram to allow continuity and self-reliance in the future. At the same time, work in the field proceeded with little or no supervision from NRC. Average 1983 production was 27 ardabs/feddan, the amount that can be expected from Omar Makram farmers without NRC assistance in the future. All second- or third-year participants obtained yields above average, with values as high as 36 ardabs/feddan reported. In most cases, new participants achieved below-average yields. At Al-Tahady sector, work started in 1982. The 1981 crop had averaged 2.8 ardabs/feddan. Here, the initial aim was to identify the cause of the crop failure. That effort was successfu1, and by 1983, the average produc- tivity of the 150 feddans under cultivation was 18.6 ardabs/feddan. In 1984, the area was increased to 600 feddans, which produced an average of 20 ardabs/feddan. In 1984, the peanut project was extended to cover 750 feddans in Omar Makram and 1,250 feddans in the Al-Tahady sector. The average yield in Omar Makram was 26 ardabs/feddan and in Al-Tahady, 19 ardabs/feddan. In 1985, the NRC staff was engaged in a national effort with the MOA. The joint program covered the entire 6,000 feddans under peanut cultivation at Al-Tahady. The NRC program on improvement of peanut pro- ductivity was implemented. The MOA has allocated LE 100,000 for the activity. The MOA also established a Committee for Development of Peanut Production; the NRC was a participant in the committee, and was also involved in a program that covered 3,000 feddans (900 in Sharkia, 900 in Giza, and 1,200 in Ismailia Governorates). The MOA allocated LE 140,000 for the activity. Economic Feasibility The productivity of the peanut crop in Omar Makram in the 1983 season was used to evaluate the economic

- 91 - feasibility of the project. A comparison of participants in the project with nonparticipants follows: Participants — Total cultivated area in 1983 = 450 feddans — Average peanut productivity = 27 ardabs/feddan — Price of one ardab as sold to government cooperative = LE 30 — Average income per feddan = LE 810 — Total experiences per feddan = LE 160 — Average net income per feddan = LE 650 — Net income of the entire area = LE 292,500. Nonparticipants — Average productivity of nonparticipants = 12 ardabs/feddan — Average income of nonparticipants = LE 360/feddan — Total expenses outside the project = LE 100/feddan — Average net income = LE 260/feddan — Net income for an area equivalent to that used by participants (450 feddans) = LE 117,000. The extra income generated by the project was LE 390 per feddan, or LE 175,500 for the entire 450 feddans. The ratio of income between participant and nonpartici- pant was 2.5 to 1. ANIMAL-PRODUCTION-RELATED PROJECTS The past decade has witnessed increasing imports of meat, milk, and their products to Egypt. Per capita utilization records for the period 1974-1980 show increases in animal and poultry products of 38 percent for red meat, 67 percent for poultry, 76 percent for fish, and 41 percent for dairy products. Production during this period showed no significant increase. Economic studies reveal that the Egyptian Government will have to pay $20 billion over the next five years to cover basic food imports, many of which are meat pro- ducts. Programs that raise the productivity and improve

- 92 - the reproductivity of domestic livestock and poultry are desperately needed to stem the growth of imports of these foodstuffs. The MBF project, within its modest facility, has implemented projects that could serve as model research and development systems in the development of animal wealth. The projects include: increasing the produc- tivity and reproductivity of livestock under Egyptian village conditions; controlling parasites and diseases of animals; improving poultry productivity; and intensive rabbit production. Project on Improvement of Poultry Productivity Background Increasingly, Egypt must import more and more of its food. In addition to the nation's high birth rate and limited resources, its rural sector, which has always been Egypt's food producer, is rapidly becoming a big consumer as well. Egypt's total production of meat is about 621 thousand metric tons; in addition, it produces 2.2 mil- lion tons of milk. Egypt's imports of meat products exceed 200 thousand tons at a cost equivalent to 120 million Egyptian pounds in foreign currency. For many years, poultry-keeping suffered from poor management, feed shortages, and improper husbandry. Aware of these problems, the government encouraged breeders to start large projects for poultry raising and egg production, and provided loans on repayment terms. In five years, Egypt became largely self-sufficient and stopped the import of chickens and eggs. However, these successful intervention projects created socioeconomic changes in rural areas. Traditionally, Egyptian farmers raised 10-15 birds for incidental profit and for family consumption. Gradually, the farmers became big consumers of the broilers and eggs produced for urban area consump- tion. This change threatens to counteract the measures taken by the government, since 55 percent of Egypt's population lives in rural areas. The MBF project undertook a program to encourage the long-practiced activity of poultry-keeping by the farmer. Because raising chickens is customarily done by the farmer's wife as a sideline, such a project also encour- aged the active participation of women in the village economy.

- 93 - Objectives The objectives of the MBF's poultry-keeping project included the following: o Development of small-scale poultry production units (family size) o Proper distribution of available feed units year round o Increased family income and provision of a good source of protein to farmer's family o Assessment of the nutritional impact of the pro- ject o Increased participation by women in village pro- ductivity. Project Development The project on improvement of poultry productivity was designed to change poultry-keeping from a sideline operation to a family-sized production project. This necessitated introducing highly productive breeds; assessing available resources for chicken feed formula- tions and developing year-round distribution programs; developing small-scale production units for broilers and eggs; and training villagers in modern managerial tech- niques of poultry-keeping. Kafr Al-Khadra (Menufia Governorate) and Omar Makram (Tahrir Province) were the sites selected for the pro- ject. The project began in Kafr Al-Khadra with numerous workshops on project goals. Continuous contacts at the early stages between the project's female scientists and village women was a critical factor in the project's success. In 1980, project staff interviewed 80 prospective families, selecting 8 to join the project. Participants had to be willing to take some financial risk in pur- chasing the chicks and rations, and they had to have a closed room for the project. Equipment, consisting of a small heater, lamp, and feeding apparatus, was purchased by the project (at LE 70 per family). All costs were to be subtracted from sales proceeds. During the first rotation, 800 chicks were distri- buted, 100 to a family. In the second rotation, the number of chicks increased to 2,000 and participating families to 10. As villagers realized that all partici- pants were profiting, they began to gain confidence and pushed'to join the project. By 1984, there were 70 families in the project, with 25,000 chicks for each of the four yearly rotations. Total production in Kafr Al-Khadra amounted to 88,000 chicks (1.5 kg, age 45-50 days).

- 94 - FIGURE 16 Poultry project in Omar Makram. The project in Omar Makram started at approximately the same time as in Kafr Al-Khadra. In 1980, ten families were provided 100 chicks each per rotation for five rotations. Unlike the Kafr Al-Khadra project, the MBF research team and the Ministry of Land Reclamation reached agreement with the Agricultural Cooperatives to provide loans of LE 1,400 to construct the confined areas needed by those lacking suitable quarters for poultry. In 1984, participating families numbered 58, with 100 chicks per rotation. The project expanded to the neigh- boring village of Omar Shaheen. One of the original participants now has 1,000 chicks. The project is now totally institutionalized in the village and MBF no longer carries on any direct activities. Economic Evaluation Economic evaluation of profitability of the poultry project is estimated as a function of equipment and investment cost, expected durability of equipment, pay-back period, interest rate, and operating costs. Evaluation of a typical unit with 100 chicks per rotation and a total of five rotations per year, based on actual values, showed the following results:

- 95 - Initial Investment LK Site (10 square meters) 50 Equipment for production 73 Auxiliary equipment 7 Fixed capital 100 TOTAL 230 Annual Operating Cost/Return Analysis a. Cost LE Chicken price (500) 160 Feed price (five rotations) 270 Fuel price 5 Maintenance 5 Transportation 5 Veterinary (LE 0.02 x 500) 10 Salaries — TOTAL 450 b. Return o 500 chicks x 2 percent mortality x 1.5 kg weight x LE 1.1. = LE 808.5. o l-1/2 cubic meters poultry manure x 5 rota- tions x LE 6 = LE 36.0. TOTAL LE 8,445 c. Profit (b - a) = LE 394.5 d. Return/cost LE 1.9 e. Pay-back period = Total initial investment divided by annual profit = 0.58 year. OTHER PROJECTS OF SIGNIFICANT IMPACT The MBF intervention projects were directed toward increasing the production of farm crops through appro- priate technologies and new practices, and subsequently improving the socia1, economic, and nutritional status of the village population. The projects were selected on the basis of analytical evaluation of the baseline data, requests made by the farmers, and experience of NRC

- 96 - staff in all aspects of implementation. This section summarizes some of the other projects implemented in Kafr Al-Khadra (Menufia), Omar Makram (Beheira), and Beni Magdoul (Giza). Improvement of Wheat Production Wheat is by far the most important staple in the Egyptian diet. For the past 30 years, Egypt has faced an ever-expanding gap between production and consumption of wheat so that, by 1980, 75 percent of the wheat con- sumed in Egypt was imported. The wheat project was implemented in Omar Makram, where wheat annually covers 600 feddans, representing 40 percent of the cultivatable area (Figure 17). Farmers use impure breeds from their old cultivars, known as fialadi (native variety). The average yield of wheat in Omar Makram is 5 ardabs (1 ardab wheat - 150 kg) and a little over one ton of straw, compared with 8-9 ardabs of wheat and 3 tons of straw in the valley. The objective in Omar Makram was to introduce a new, high-producing variety, Sakha 61, recommended by the MOA for sandy soi1, and to provide the farmers with a package of practices that would increase the yield and income. Another objective was to assess farmers' acceptance. In 1982-1983, 24 farmers participated in the project with a total of 28 feddans. In 1983-1984, 93 farmers joined the project with a total area of 110 feddans. In the first year, farmers were given potassium fertilizer, insecti- cides against aphids, and leaf fertilizers (LE 10.3/fed- dan), in addition to the cost-free supervision offered by the team. In the second year, the team provided only supervision and training on proper practices. The first year of program implementation provided indicators that helped the team design the second-year plan. All farmers reported a high increase in grain yields using the Sakha 61 variety. However, three major complaints were reported: the need to maintain a high straw yield, particularly by farmers who raise cattle; losses due to easy separation of grains from ears during transportation; and the rain properties—the Sakha 61 variety has a higher percentage of chaff than does the Baladi variety. In addition to the Baladi variety grown in the conventional way, the second year of wheat culti- vation in Omar Makram included a group of 93 farmers using the Sakha 61 variety and implementing the complete package of services (sowing date and density, irrigation schedules, fertilization, protection, harvesting, and other management aspects). Another group of 20 farmers cultivated the conventional Baladi variety but used the newly developed package of services.

- 97 - FIGURE 17 Wheat project in Omar Makram shows growth uniformity of Sakha 61. Development of Onion Production Onions are a major export crop, coming after cotton and rice; they are the first export crop among veget- ables; the value of total onion exports amounts to LE 10 million/year. Almost 90 percent of the onion crop from Upper Egypt (Seidi) is exported to Europe. The late Behary (North Egypt) crop appears in the local market during June and July. Per capita consumption amounts to 10.94 kg/year (198l-1982). The last few years have witnessed a considerable decrease in the quantity and quality of onion crop due to widespread infection with white mold. This infection has drastically reduced Egypt's total onion exports. In 1982, the total area cultivated with summer and winter onions in Beheira Governorate (where Omar Makram is located) was 21,768 feddans, with an average production of 3.763 tons/feddan. Onions are also cultivated in Kafr Al-Khadra (Menufia) and Beni Magdoul (Giza), but to a much lesser extent. The project objective was to introduce new techniques and practices in onion cultivation to improve the quan- tity and the quality of the crop. The project was con- ducted in Omar Makram, Kafr Al-Khadra, and Beni Magdoul.

- 98 - TABLE 29 Economics of Wheat Production in Omar Markram (1983-1984) Variety Practices Ton/Feddan LE/Feddan Net Income Grain Straw Grain Straw (LE)<a> Sakha-61 New 1.64 3.25 197 390 585 Baladi Conventional 0.75 1.00 90 120 120 Baladi New 1.30 3.00 156 360 514 (a) price of pesticide Malathion is deducted. SOURCE: Project Team Final Report. The project, begun early in the life of MBF in Omar Makram and Kafr Al-Khadra, showed an average increase in production from 4.2 tons/feddan in 1979 to 17 tons/feddan in 1984, for an additional income of LE 890 per feddan (see Figures 18 and 19). The project offers a package of practices and treat- ments, using Giza-20 variety. Onion seeds (3 kg) were grown in beds of 3 kirats, and the resulting seedlings were transferred to an area of 1 feddan. In 1983, 52 farmers in Beni Magdoul joined the pro- ject with 25 feddans. The seedling beds were cultivated mid-October, and the transfer took place in December. Ten farmers.obtained a yield ranging from 22 to 25 tons/feddan. The overall productivity average was 15 tons/feddan compared with 6.26 tons/feddan for the entire Giza Governorate. Assuming a market price of LE 150/ton, and increased production of 8.74 tons/feddan, the additional income is about LE 1,300/feddan. The pro- duction increase encouraged other farmers to join the project. In 1984-1985, the area of onion cultivation was increased by 250 feddans in Nekla (Giza). Improvement of Cucumber Production Cucumbers hold second place (after tomatoes) in fresh vegetable consumption. Cucumbers are cultivated by all governorates in a total area of about 40,000 feddans, mainly as a summer crop. The increasing demand for export makes cucumbers a choice crop for high economic

- 99 - FIGURE 18 Conventional production of onions in Omar Makram (top); Giza-20 onion farm in Omar Makram (bottom).

- 100 - FIGURE 19 A farmer from Omar Makram. Production amounted to 20 tons of Giza-20 onions per feddan. return. New varieties and modern technological practices offer new yield records and have contributed to produc- tion of off-season crops. The project on improvement of cucumber production started in 1982, at the request of the farmers of Omar Makram (Figure 20). The objective was to increase cucum- ber productivity, improve quality, and maintain fruit uniformity through controlled agricultural practices and the introduction of a French variety called Beta Alpha- filmorane. A total area of 8 feddans and 8 kirats, owned by 14 farmers, was cultivated during the first week of February with cucumber seedlings. Recommended methods of pest and insect contro1, leaf fertilization, and irrigation were followed, and the crop was harvested during the months of April and May. Average productivity amounted to 15 tons/feddan, compared to an average of 3 tons/feddan for conventional cultivation.

- 101 - FIGURE 20 Cucumber project in Omar Makram (55 feddans). The farmer produced 27 tons of cucumber (Beta-Alpha) per feddan. In 1983, the project covered an area of 30 feddans owned by 65 farmers. Twelve farmers reported records of 21-27 tons/feddan. The overall production average was 15 tons/feddan, compared to averages of 3-5 tons/feddan in the entire Beheira Governorate. In 1984-1985, 105 farmers joined the project with a total area of 55 feddans. Reported average production was 14 tons/feddan. Improvement of Potato Production In Egypt, potatoes are cultivated in a total area of about 130,000 feddans. Average productivity is about six tons per feddan, which is very low compared to world records of more than 60 tons per hectare (148.8 tons per feddan). The project started in Kafr Al-Khadra (1983) with 57 farmers who cultivated 20 feddans with a Nili

- 102 - FIGURE 21 Potato project in Omar Makram, summer, 1985 (100 feddans). Average production was 18 tons/feddan. spoon (the growing season along the Nile between summer and winter spoons—September for the potato crop). In 1984, an area of 40 feddans owned by 182 farmers was cultivated in potatoes (20 feddans in Nili spoon and 20 feddans in summer spoon). Imported potato variety Alpha was used in the summer spoon, while the Nili spoon used stored summer potatoes. The project objective was to introduce new practices, based on field experiences of NRC staff, to improve potato crop production in Omar Makram and Kafr Al-Khadra. The project provided opportunities for on-the-job train- ing of local agriculture extension staff and demonstrated the potential of the new technologies. Table 30 shows the results of project implementation in the two villages. Improvement of Mango and Grape Productions Mango (Mangifera indica) is cultivated in a total area of about 26,000 feddans. During the past few years, mango orchards have faced progressive degradation that has seriously affected the quantity and quality of the crop. The NRC staff spent a full year investigating the

- 103 - TABLE 30 Results of Two Potato Projects Kafr Al-Khadra Nil! Crop Summer Crop Omar Makram Summer Crop Area (feddan) 20 20 30 Participants 75 125 68 Highest crop (ton) 13 18 22 Average crop (ton) 10 14 18 Governorate average (ton) 4.32 6.50 6.24 Production increase (ton/feddan) 5.68 7.95 11.76 Production increase (ton/total area) 113.6 159.0 352.80 Extra income (LE/feddan) 852.0 1192.5 1764.0 Extra Income (LE/total area) 17 ,040 27,030 59,976 Percent increase in income 131 122 188 causes of the crop losses and designing a demonstration program to improve mango production. The program started in November 1983 in Beni Magdoul (Giza) with 22 feddans. NRC staff found that crop losses were a result of pests (acarous nematodes, insects, and fungi) and soil defi- ciencies in micronutrients (zinc, manganese, and iron). A comprehensive agronomic program, including pest control and leaf fertilizers, was implemented. The figures in Table 31 indicate the economic feasibility of the new program. TABLE 31 Economic Feasibility of Mango Program New Outside the Program Program Highest production (tons) 3.88 0.60 Lowest production (tons) 1.44 0.30 Average (tons) 2.66 0.45 Cost (LE/feddan) of fertilizers, pesticides 650 244 Net benefit(a) LE 1611 138.5 LE (a)Wholesale price (LE/ton): 850

- 104 - The 22 feddans cultivated with mangoes in the 1983-1984 season served as a demonstration site to con- vince nonparticipating mango growers to implement the new program and seek the services of the NRC team. Several contracts for services were made between mango growers and the NRC in the 1984-1985 season. A similar program for improvement of grape production was implemented at the same time and by the same team in Kafr Al-Khadra. Grapes occupy the second position, after citrus fruits, as to total production. In Kafr Al-Khadra, the area cultivated with grapes dropped by 33 percent in two years' time because of crop losses. The research team identified the causes of the deterior- ation, and in 1983-1984 conducted a demonstration program on an area of 11 feddans and 6 kirats owned by 29 farmers. The program resulted in an average increased productivity of 6.3 tons/feddans over the average crop of nonparticipating farms, amounting to an additional income of about 1,500 LE/feddan. These results made grape growers eager for the NRC services. In the 1984-1985 season, the research team expanded their acti- vities in three governorates, Giza (Beni Magdoul and Kafr Al-Gabal), El-Minia (Samalout), and El-Gharbia (El-Santa), over a total area of 200 feddans. Contracts for services to followup on program applications cost LE 50 per feddan. Improvement of Dairy Production Egypt's total milk production amounts to about 2.2 million tons/annum (buffalo and cow milk). Only 10 percent of that milk is processed by modern factories and under sanitary conditions. More than 90 percent of the total milk is produced, processed, and consumed under primitive and unsanitary conditions. Problems contri- buting to low production or poor quality also include limited transportation, inefficient cooling, and labor shortages. Daily animal production is extremely low compared with international standards. One-fourth of the total milk production is consumed during calving. Dairy production is practiced by nearly two-thirds of the agricultural community of Omar Makram. Buffalo milk is dominant in dairy production at Kafr Al-Khadra and represents half the milk used at Omar Makram. Major dairy products in both villages are white karish cheese, ghee, and butter; full-cream cheese is produced in very limited quantities. The dairy project in Omar Makram and Kafr Al-Khadra has focused on the establishment of demonstration facili- ties in both villages. The objectives are to:

- 105 - o Improve the quality of processed dairy products and to prevent contamination during all steps from milking through processing o Introduce an economical fermentation method by using a suitable starter to produce homofermen- tation o Establish a "milk producer society" trained in proper management and processing of locally pro- duced milk, thus creating better market potential for its dairy products. In Omar Shaheen, near Omar Makram, a building owned by the women's association of Tahrir Province has been provided for a model plant that can serve three to five villages. At the model plant, people learn to manage the production themselves and to avoid unsanitary conditions, especially health hazards during the hot season. A sim- ilar unit has been established in Kafr Al-Khadra on a public facility offered by the village council. Both units have a capacity of four tons a day. It was decided early on that village women would be responsible for implementing the project. In Omar Makram, an influential local woman was hired as local organizer. Her job was to assist in the dairy produc- tion, to work with the women in milk separation, and to instruct women in newer and cleaner methods of produc- tion. To improve the cleanliness of the home-produced milk products, the MBF project encouraged the use of a new, quicker acting starter, and the adoption of cheesecloths to replace the mats on which cheese traditionally has been drained. Lectures on dairy hygiene and on-the-job training took place. A mechanical separator was intro- duced to replace manual separators, and women used the facility, free of charge, to separate their milk. Butter churners were also introduced. Women were encouraged to sell some of the skim milk to the dairy, which would then process it into cheese and other products for sale in the community or to institutions such as schools. The project involved the local cooperatives in all activities, because they will eventually take over the project from the NRC. The project is establishing a mini-dairy pilot plant in Beni Magdou1, with a capacity of 2.5 tons/day. The facility was designed and fabricated by Misr Office for Engineering and Importation. Development of Beekeeping and Sericulture Practices Beekeeping is a very old practice, and begins with the construction of suitable hives to collect and protect

- 106 - bees. The value of beekeeping lies in the nutritional and therapeutic use of its products, in its potential as a source of income, and in the use of bees to ensure the fertility of some fruit species through cross-pollination. Honey has a high nutritive value; it contains fructose and glucose (which are easily digestible sugars), amino acids, and vitamins B^, &2 B6> nicotinic acid, and folic acid. The royal jelly produced by the queen bee is a high energy source with vitamins, minerals, fats, easily assimilated sugars, and proteins. Beeswax is an important pharmaceutical ingredient. In Egypt, the nectar-bearing plants are clover, citrus fruits, and cotton plants. At Kafr Al-Khadra and Omar Makram, farmers had little or no experience with beekeeping, although some mud hives were used at Omar Makram and very old hives at Kafr Al-Khadra had been placed near stagnant water. Farmers were unaware of the dangers of wasps and hornets to bees and were not con- cerned with building their hives in safe areas (such as areas far from grape plantings). The planners for this project saw beekeeping as a good opportunity to demonstrate new and appropriate tech- niques to the villagers. The project was developed to educate and train village beekeepers to: o Increase the yield of products by using modern apiaries and farms o Protect the bees o Place hives near clean water and pollen supplies o Provide shelters against wind damage for the apiary o Choose an appropriate site. Work began in Kafr Al-Khadra in 1980, with 5 farmers and 40 bee colonies. The farmers used langstroth hives and learned how to protect bees from wasps and from diseases. The honey that was extracted from the demon- stration colonies was distributed throughout the village (Figure 22). Empty combs were fumigated with the moth repellent Paradix and stored for the winter; during this time, the bees were fed sugar syrup. NRC researchers discovered the presence of acarine, which was later con- trolled using disease prevention measures. Villagers were taught to control the oriental hornet. By February 1981, additional swarms had been sold to other interested farmers, and the village bee colonies increased to 50. In September 1981, the empty combs were collected and the winter cycle began. At Omar Makram, NRC researchers followed the same procedure of introducing new beekeeping practices and donating 50 bee colonies to interested villagers. The

- 107 - FIGURE 22 Beekeeping. number of colonies decreased to 34 because some weak colonies had to be added to the stronger ones. Nectar was collected from citrus orchards and 310 kg of honey was extracted and sold to the villagers. A water pump was placed near the apiary as a source of clean water. Efforts to encourage beekeeping are continuing in both villages: project plans call for training opportunities for villagers, provision of loans, and development of adequate extension services. The other project, on development of sericulture practice (the rearing of cocoons and silkworms in order to manufacture silk), was primarily directed at Kafr Al-Khadra, though the project was also extended to Omar Makram. The Menufia Governorate, especially the area to which Kafr Al-Khadra belongs, recently had been a center for sericulture activity and once had a small factory for manufacturing the silk ribbons used in traditional dresses and costumes. However, for some reason, that activity was discontinued. The project, therefore, was an effort to revive the practice. Because the silkworm depends on mulberry leaves, sericulture also concentrates on growing mulberry trees. The objective of the sericulture project was to improve

- 108 - FIGURE 23 Silkworm project in Kafr Al-Khadra. the quality and quantity of mulberry trees and the vari- ety of the silkworm larvae through practical and appro- priate technology. Mulberry seedlings were planted in both villages and, at Kafr Al-Khadra, seedlings were offered to some families. Six experienced families were given larvae. All participants were instructed in the proper way to rear the larvae and to cultivate mulberry trees to achieve optimum results. At Omar Makram, vil- lagers and NRC researchers prepared a site for rearing silkworms, using a donated hall furnished with rearing stands and trays. By November 1981, the sericulture experiment showed tangible returns. Each family was able to raise 12-21 grams of eggs to obtain a production of LE 8/100 cocoons over a period of 35 days. HEALTH AND NUTRITION STATUS AND IMPACT OF THE MBF PROJECT The high rates of infant and preschool mortality are two of Egypt's most severe public health problems. The

- 109 - interactions of poor prenatal nutrition, inadequate sanitation, and poor weaning practices are considered to be the root causes. Weaning problems can be attributed to three factors. First is the mother's low food intake, which results in inadequate milk production. Second is the mother's lack of knowledge about appropriate food preparation for wean- ing children (even when the food supply itself is ample). Finally, poor sanitary practices in the home result in high rates of exposure to disease and infection. Although only 10-12 percent of Egyptian infants have below-normal birth weights, serious problems arise even for normal birth weight children at about 4-6 months. The supply of breast milk becomes inadequate, and mothers are unable to supplement the infant's diet with nutri- tionally appropriate foods. The decline in nutrition coupled with exposure to an unsanitary environment result in the child's becoming increasingly sickly, which, in turn, produces malnutrition, growth stunting, nutritional anemia, and, in the extreme, death. Iron deficiency anemia is also a serious problem, manifested in about 40 percent of infants and lasting through the school years. Although it is not clear whether anemia is more often caused by insufficient dietary iron or by parasitic infection, it is clear that children's diets should contain additional sources of iron. Although the MBF project was designed as an agricul- tural undertaking, it was assumed at the outset that the project, by increasing the amount and quality of food and of available income, would improve the nutritional status in the participating households. In this section, then, we examine the nutritional status of two villages that participated in the MBF project and describe some inter- ventions that resulted. Data indicating malnutrition are based on anthropo- metric measures (height and weight) and clinical and bio- chemical measurements; morbidity and mortality rates are also used. Village Characteristics When Kafr Al-Khadra and Omar Makram were selected for the project in 1978, a health and nutrition component was introduced into the baseline data instruments; this was done to ensure that information would be available for studying the project's impact on the socioeconomic and health status of the target population.

- 110 - Kafr Al-Khadra was the more agricultural of the two communities, as well as the more traditional. Seventy- five percent of the households surveyed there were pri- marily engaged in agriculture, compared with 38 percent in Omar Makram. Families in Kafr Al-Khadra relied heav- ily on subsistence production to meet a portion of their household food needs, whereas fewer than 10 percent of the households in Omar Makram produced their own staples (wheat, maize, dairy products, or poultry). About half the Kafr Al-Khadra households produced all of their own wheat, maize, and dairy products, and almost one-quarter produced some or all of the poultry they consumed (see Table 32). Comparison of household characteristics in the two villages revealed that Kafr Al-Khadra families had rela- tively greater per capita income and land holdings, and somewhat smaller household size (Table 33). Households in both communities reported spending more than 70 per- cent of their household income on food. Adequacy of Diet The adequacy of a diet is determined by converting the foods consumed to figures that, in our study, repre- sent the energy, protein, and iron intake. In the case of the two villages studied, these conversions were based on the Food Composition Tables of the Middle East, and then compared to the recommended intakes (adjusting for age and sex composition of the household) in the World Health Organization's Food and Agriculture Organization's standards. Thus, the percentage of overall household requirement that is met is a function of a report given by each household on what, had been consumed throughout a 24-hour period. This measure of "relative adequacy" of the diet was taken at the beginning of the project, and is reported in Table 34. The variables (for example, energy, protein, animal protein, and iron) were selected .because they are the most important factors in the deficiency diseases and conditions found throughout Egypt. Energy and protein levels reflect primarily the quantity of food available; animal protein and iron are indicators of the quality of the diet. Table 34 presents the means and standard deviations for selected nutrition variables at the beginning of the project. Households in both communities reported food intake adequate for presumed requirements in energy and total protein. The proportion of protein from animal sources, however, was much higher in Kafr Al-Khadra than

- Ill - TABLE 32 Household Food Consumption from Own Production (Percent of Households) Omar Makram Kafr Al-Khadra Percent of Own Production Product None Some All None Some All Wheat 92 1 7 39 19 42 Corn 92 1 7 46 2 52 Dairy Products 95 1 4 51 49 Poultry 93 7 77 6 17 TABLE 33 Baseline Sociodemographic and Economic Variables for the Two Village Samples (Average + Standard Deviation) Omar Makram Kafr Al-Khadra (N = 100) (N = 104) Number of persons in 6.8 + 2.3 6.0 + 3.0 household Per capita land 0.2 + 0.3 3.1 + 3.1 ownership (feddan) Per capita animal 0.1 + 0.3 0.2 + 0.3 ownership (animals) Income (LE/year/capita) 161 + 97 206 + 114 Percent of household 77 +11 72 + 10 income spent for food Percent of children 49 +20 39 + 25 in household Number of persons per 3.0+1.1 4.3+2.3 room in house Note: The communities differ from each other at p Z_ .05, based on one-way analysis of variance.

- 112 - TABLE 34 Relative Adequacy of Household Food Intake (Percent of Requirements) Mean + Standard Deviation Omar Makram Kafr Al-Khadra Energy 144 + 52 133 + 32 Total Protein 179 + 70 191 + 62 Animal Protein 65 + 45 144 + 83 Iron 20 + 38 44 + 34 in Omar Makram. Iron intakes were quite low in both villages, but more than twice as high, on average, in Kafr Al-Khadra as in Omar Makram. It should be borne in mind that the dietary methodology used here does not allow interpretation of results in terms of nutritional adequacy for any individual. Assuming that any biases operate for all households equally, however, these data should allow the comparison of households with relatively better and poorer food consumption, both quantitatively and qualitatively. Analysis of characteristics of households with rela- tively better and poorer diets revealed different circum- stances for two villages. In Kafr Al-Khadra, reliance on the household's own production for part of the food supply was positively associated with dietary quality (Table 35). Households that produced some of their own poultry for consumption had better diets (in terms of all TABLE 35 Production-Consumption Variables and Differences(3^ for Households with High and Low Dietary Adequacy, Kafr Al-Khadra Production and Associated with consumption of: adequacy of : Poultry Energy, total protein, animal protein, iron Wheat Total protein Maize Total protein, iron Dairy Products Total protein

- 113 - four dietary variables) than did households that produced none of their own poultry. Reliance on self-production of other staples was also important. Per capita income was a significant predictor of protein, animal protein, and iron adequacy (dietary quality), but not of energy (food quantity). Larger land holdings and smaller house- hold size were significant predictors of energy adequacy. In Omar Makram, smaller household size, higher per capita income, and a higher percentage of income expended for food were the only significant predictors of dietary adequacy. Child Health The data on infant mortality rates (from official death records from the health units) were reviewed. In Kafr Al-Khadra, the average infant death rate over the 13 years before 1980 was calculated to be 113/1,000. No specific trend during that time was noticed. The minimum rate of 75/1,000 was recorded in 1978 and the maximum (160/1,000) in 1972. In 1979 the death rate was 130/1,000 (Figure 24). The infant mortality pattern in Omar Makram was much different than in Kafr Al-Khadra. An accelerating death rate peaked in 1977 at 119/1,000, with a decline there- after during 1978 and 1979 to 54/1,000 and 84/1,000, respectively. In 1975, five years earlier, the rate had been 102/1,000. This pattern does not necessarily repre- sent a consistent trend, unless we agree that a decline has occurred after 1977. A theoretical projection of the situation for the next two years might show a death rate of around 65/1,000 (Figure 24). The infant mortality rates are not a sensitive index of nutritional status, because of the small size of the populations considered here and the resultant wide fluc- tuations in rates. However, they do indicate that the infant health situation in these villages was typical of rural Egypt. Birth rates over the life of the project were in the range of 170-210 per year in Kafr Al-Khadra and 164-210 per year in Omar Makram. Although birth rates in the two villages were similar, the death rate in Kafr Al-Khadra exceeded that of Omar Makram. Recording birth weights in the two villages served as an index of nutritional status during gestation and as an internal monitoring system to document variation in nutritional status over time. Table 36 shows the distribution of birth weights in Kafr Al-Khadra during the first six months of the pro- ject. Twenty-five infants were born; their weights were within the normal range and showed a normal distribution. Infants were not weighed at birth in Omar Makram.

- 114 - Kafr AI.Khadra 170 Average - 113/1,000 160 - . g 150 - LU < 140 _ K < >- 130 ~ 1 < 120 - H \ 4 o no — I £ 100 - • £ 90 - • 80 - ' i 70 — 1968 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 YEARS Omar Makra'm 120' Avarage- 94/1, 000 g no - < |i! 100 - * 90 - li 80 - ec 70 0 - ^ 60 - z ^ 50 - 40 — * figures not available »~ II 1 1 1 1 1 1968 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 YEARS FIGURE 24 Infant mortality rate.

- 115 - TABLE 36 Distribution of Birth Weights Kafr Al-Khadra, 1980 (N = 25) Percentile of International Reference (Iowa Growth Standards) 25th 25th - 50th 50th - 75th 75th N = 2 N-10 N = 8 N = 5 In utilizing information from recorded heights and weights of children in the two villages, malnutrition was assessed by the two main conventional methods, viz: the Gomez and the Waterlow classifications. The first, which uses the weight-for-age relationship, was used for Omar Makram. Third degree (severe) malnutrition was not detected in any of Omar Makram's children: the vast majority of children were norma1, although first degree (mild) malnutrition was found in 25 percent of the children examined. Most of that group were between 6 and 9 months of age. Second degree malnutrition was found only in 4 percent of the population, all of whom were between 36 and 48 months (see Figure 25). It is impor- tant to note that at ages 3-6 months no malnutrition was detected. In Kafr Al-Khadra, the Waterlow classifications of height-for-age and weight-for-height was used to define nutritional status. Very few of the children were in the critical category of combined wasting and stunting. Malnutrition was most severe at the age of 30 months, although a secondary peak was noticed at 6 months. Retardation of linear growth (height or length) was greatest at the age of 9 months, with a secondary peak at 30 months (Figure 26). Nutritional Intervention Based on the findings with regard tp nutritional status, the project activities concentrated on health and nutritional problems of children between 1 and 12 years. We focused on finding solutions to these problems and improving the general food quality. It was shown that 50 percent of school children ages 6 to 12 had anemia. A treatment program was established with the coordination of a pharmaceutical company to give 60 rag/day of iron sulfate tablets to the targeted students. The program was directed to 300 students daily for 3 weeks. About 80 percent responded to the treatment with an increase in blood hemoglobin levels. The level of hemoglobin remained higher (than before treatment was begun) for

- 116 - 100 90 80 70 60 B 50 K Ul a. 40 30 20 10 Normal up to 90% of expected weight 1 Malnutrition 90.75% of expected weight 2 Malnutrition 75.60% of expected weight 3 Malnutrition 60% of expected weight FIGURE 25 Percent of malnutrition in Omar Makram.

- 117 - LU u K 100 90 80 70 60 50 20 10 0 MALNUTRITION J I 12 I _L I 24 AGE IN MONTHS 36 48 M U1 M O u ce 100 90 80 70 60 60 40 30 20 10 0 RETARDATION 12 24 AGE IN MONTHS 36 48 FIGURE 26 Measures of nutritional problems in Kafr Al-Khadra.

- 118 - 9 months and then declined. Based on this finding, a balanced meal (high in protein, fortified with iron and zinc, and enriched with vitamin A) was developed. This meal consisted of a 130 g cake made from wheat flour and 5 percent powdered whole milk. It contained 15 mg iron, 10 mg zinc, 18.7 percent protein, 17 percent fat, and 61 percent carbohydrates, as well as a high content of calcium and phosphorus. The meal was given daily to 500 students for 4 months. This led to a 50-70 percent decline in the anemia incidence and increased the average hemoglobin levels to 12.3 gm/100 ml. In addition, growth rates increased and stunting declined in 25 percent of schools during that short period. Studies were conducted to implement a nutritional program to meet the nutritional needs of preschool chil- dren using the following approaches: o Improvement in the properties of Superamine (a prepared weaning food) and prolonging its shelf life. o Processing of a biscuit containing 12 percent protein and enriched with iron and zinc. It was distributed in packages of 100 g and was given to children age l-3 years (the cost of one pack- age was 5 piasters or 3.5«f). o Preparation of a weaning food that was appropri- ate for infants of 6-12 months. It contained higher proteins and was fortified with vitamins and minerals. Nutritional Impact The results of the nutritional status survey of both Kafr Al-Khadra and Omar Makram are consistent with national findings for similar areas. Factors such as infant mortality rates, birth rates, population growth, and birth weights are also close to national data. Some nutritional similarities between Kafr Al-Khadra (con- sidered a typical Egyptian village in the Valley) and Omar Makram (a village in a reclaimed area) are surpris- ing, since the geographic and demographic characteristics of the villages are quite different. It would appear that when the reclaimed area (Omar Makram) was being planned 25 years ago, the nutritional impacts of agricul- tural projects were not carefully considered. We urge, therefore, that a nutrition component be introduced in the planning for all areas that are to be reclaimed in the future.

- 119 - The analysis of the nutritional impact of an agricul- tural project required a data collection design that would capture the nutritional benefits of increased pro- ductivity of food of both plant and animal origin. The design in the More and Better Food Project concentrated on the economic and social factors that interact to pro- duce improvements in the quality of life. The major assumption was that increased production of food and its use by the household members would improve their nutri- tional status. It was also thought that increased production would increase real income, thereby giving residents greater purchasing power in the food markets. This would also result in improved nutritional status. The MBF study looked at one aspect of nutrition—iron deficiency anemia. The hemoglobin level in blood of stu- dents (6-12 years) was used as an indicator of the pre- valence of anemia. During the five years of the study, the various interventions implemented at the school level produced great improvements in the iron levels in these children, which had a positive effect on their growth rates during the period of intervention. A further important observation was that the students sustained and maintained their high levels of hemoglobin during periods when specific interventions were discon- tinued. This raised the possibility that the subprojects were having a positive effect on the iron levels, par- ticularly the poultry project, which was the most pop- ular. Table 37 shows the numbers of household partici- pants who involved themselves in the various projects between the years 1979 and 1982. TABLE 37 Number of Participants in the Subproject in Kafr Al-Khadra 1979 1980 1981 1982 Poultry 8 20 40 40 Tomatoes 1 1 0 0 Maize 0 1 4 0 The spread of the poultry subproject increased the animal protein production in the village which, in turn, must have increased the availability of the iron from animal protein utilized by the student; this greater access to animal protein is thought to have resulted in students' sustaining blood iron at higher levels than they did originally. A nationwide effort to improve the school lunch pro- grams was based on the Kafr Al-Khadra experiment. The

- 120 - cake used in Kafr Al-Khadra was the basis for the national program, and has been used since October 1985. It is expected to show its impact on the nutritional status of students throughout Egypt within a year or two. Thus, the MBF Project has had an impact far beyond its original geographic boundaries.

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