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Gravitational Lenses:
The Current Sample, Recent Results,
and Continuing Searches
JACQUELINE N. HEWITT
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Gravitational tensing is one of the topics in astrophysics that was quite
extensively discussed over many decades in the theoretical literature before
it was actually observed. We are now at the tenth anniversary of the
discovery of the first gravitational lens in 1979, and it is interesting to note
how the held has developed over the past decade. After an initial slow rate
of discovery of gravitational lens systems (about one per year), the last few
years have seen an explosion in the number of reported cases. Toe variety
the types of systems has also increased markedly. Attention was drawn
to the first few cases because quasars at the same redshift, with similar
optical spectra, were observed with angular separations of only a few arc
seconds. Recent verified and proposed gravitational lenses include the giant
luminous arcs, their accompanying more common small blue "arclets," the
radio rings, a field of twin galaxies, statistical tensing, and microlensing.
In the last decade, most observational effort has been devoted to
searching for new candidate lens systems and carefully measuring their
properties, both to test whether they are indeed tensed and to provide
constrains for modeling. Theoretical efforts have been extensive, and have
included modeling of the Mown lens systems and more general theoreti-
cal calculations aimed at understanding gravitational potentials with some
simplifying properties. lPhe case of an elliptically symmetric potential is the
most complicated potential that can be said to be thoroughly understood.
Blandford and Kochanek (1987) and Kochanek and Blandford (1987) have
examined the solutions for such a potential in considerable detail, and
have simulated the statistical properties of an ensemble of elliptical lenses.
As pointed by Narayan and Grossman (1989), the different solutions for
the elliptical lens provide a useful framework for categorizing the known
gravitational lens systems. If a source falls on the optical axis of the lens,
192
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. HIGH-ENER~ ~TROP~ICS
193
four bright images surrounding the center of the lens are formed. If the
quadrupole moment of the lens is sufficiently small or the extent of the
source is sufficiently large, the four images merge to form a ring surround-
ing the center of the lens. For an extended source that is moved off the
awns of the lens, the ring breaks up into arcs; if the quadrupole moment
of the lens is large, one long arc dominates. A smaller source moved off
the awns breaks up into four small unages, and two of the images merge
(giving three images) and disappear (leaving one image) as the source
moves farther from the optical axis. Therefore, a convenient classification
of the lenses is into rings, arcs, multiples, and doubles, where the progres-
sion is from sources close (compared to their extent) to the optical axis
to far from the optical axis. Table 1 lists the known candidate systems. I
have attempted to include all candidate systems that have appeared in the
refereed literature, including some for which the evidence for tensing is
not very strong. The field is changing rapidly, and it is somewhat a matter
of judgment which systems are candidates, so my list may differ slightly
from other published lists. I have been generous in attributing tensing
characteristics, and some rather speculative systems are included in this
list. In addition to the individual lens systems described above, two other
signatures of gravitational tensing have recently been discovered, statistical
tensing (Webster e' aL 1988) and microlensing (Irwin et al. 1989~.
The energy and ingenuity of observers and theorists are beginning to
be brought together in this new astrophysics laboratory, and some of the
long discussed promise of gravitational tensing is being realized. We are
beginning to gather clues about the distn~ution and nature of dark matter,
both inside and outside galaxies, and there are real prospects for measuring
the values of cosmological parameters and learning about the structure of
quasars. Available space limits me to a discussion of only a few topics.
MICROLENSING: MEASURING THE MASS FtJNCTION OF A
GALAXY AND THE SIZE OF A QUASAR?
Microlensing has been discussed extens~vetr in the literature, and was
predicted to occur when a small lens (for example, a star) passes through
the line of sight from the observer to the source and causes an apparent
brightening of the source. The gravitational lens 2237+0305 is the system
most likely to show microlensing ejects: the quasar images surround the
central region of the tensing galaxies where the surface density of stars
is high; He low redshift of the galaxy causes the characteristic angular
tensing region of each microlens to be large; and the low redshift of the
lens causes the apparent relative velocities of the observer, microlens, and
source to be large (Kayser and Refsdal 1989~. Microlensing in principle
can do a lot of astrophysics by allowing us to measure the number density
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AMERICAN AND SOVIET PERSPECTIVES
TABLE 1 P=pmal and verified gravitational lens systems, grouped according to morphology.
For B1900~14, 2345+007, 1635+267, 1146+111, 0023+171, and 0249-186 it Is general!,,
accepted that the existing evidence is sufficient to conclusively demonstrate that they are
gravitational lenses.
Image Flux lope of Discovery
Separation1 Ratio: Lens Reference
RINGS
MG1131+0456 2.1" ~ 1 ? Hewitt et at 19~
MG1654+1346 2.1" ~ 1 Galaxy Langston et at 1989
ARCS
Abell 370 ~ 50"2 Cluster Soucail et at 1987
Cl 2244 OF 22"2 Cluster Lynds and Petrosian 1989
Abell 963 30" Cluster Lave~y and Henry 1988
Cl 0500-24 52~2 Cluster Giraud 19~
Abell 2218 Arclets - Cluster Pello-Descayre et aL 1988
MULTIPLES
111S+080 0.5'' ~ 1 Galaxy Weymann et al 1980
2016~112 3.4" ~ 1 2 galaxies Lawrence et at 1984
2237~0305 1.8'' 1 Galaxy Huchra et al 1985
B1900~14 ? ~ 1.5 ? Pa~mski 1986
3C324 3" 1.7 Galaxy Le Fivre et at 1987
H14131117 0.8'' 1.1 Galaxy? Magain et al 1988
DOUBLES
0957~561 6.1'' 1.3 Galaxy, cluster Walsh et al 1979
2345~007 7.3" ~ 4 ? Weedman et aL 1982
1635~267 3.8" 4.4 Galaxy?? Djorgovski and Spinrad 1984
1146+111 157" ~ 1 ? Turner et aL 1986
0023+171 4.8'' 3 Galas Hewitt e' aL 1987
UM673 2.2" 7.6 Galaxy Surdej et at 1987
0249-186 2.0 - 2.6" 1.0-1.1 Cosmic string??? Cowie and Hu 1987
UM425 6.5" 70 Galaxy? Meylan and Djorgovs~ 1989
1 when there are more than two images, the image separation and flux ratio of the brightest
pair are tabulated.
Malice the radius of curvature of the dominant arm
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HIGH-ENERGY ASTROPHYSICS
9.000
1 8.500
_
_ _ - D
_
18.000 -
_ ~ A
~_ ~ B
·c 17.500 -
~_
~_
1 7.000 -
-
, 6.500 ~
TC
195
i
I D
IC
Is
I A
LT D
TIC
-B
1
A
16.000 -1,, 1 1 1 1,, 1 1, 1,, i,,, 1,,,, 1,,,, 1,,,, 1,,,, 1,,,,,, i I i, I I , " " " 1 i; i , i 1 , ' 1 " "
0 200 400 600 800 1 OOC , 20C 1 400
Day ( 1 = 1 Janucry 198~)
FIGURE 1 Light cunres of the quasar images of 2237+0305, constructed Mom the data
of Schneider a at (1988; day 286), Wee (1988; day 998), and Irwin et al (1989; days 1325
and 1354~. Component A for day 286 has been onset 10 days to the right for clarity. The
error bats represent the estimated errors in the absolute flux scales.
Of compact objects inside galaxies, and to measure the size of the emitting
region of quasars. For the geometry of the 2237+0305 system, the expected
characteristic timescale for microlensing is
l
/ M 6000 kmisec
At= 8,7 M V years
where V is the apparent transverse velocity. An apparent transverse velocity
as large as 6000 km/see is expected for relative source, lens, and observer
velocities of several hundred km/see; therefore, we may expect to find
variations in the brightness of the images of 2237+0305 on times scales
of months to years. "High amplification events" occur when a compact
source crosses a caustic in the source plane. From the rise time of these
events, the sue of the source can be measured. The overall time scale of
the variations gives the mass of the tensing objects.
Figure 1 shows a plot of a light curve of 2237+0305 constructed from
the data of Irwin et aL (1989), Schneider et at (1988), and Wee (1988),
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196
AMERICAN AND SOVIET PERSPECTwES
including their estimated errors. A direct comparison of these data must be
viewed with caution since the measurements were earned out with different
instruments; furthermore, the measurements of the first two dates are of
the Thuan and Gunn r magnitudes, and those of the last two dates are of
the Mould R magnitudes. In any case, the evidence for microlensing in
2237~0305 is in the change in the magnitude of component A relative to the
other quasar components. For example, the last two measurements show a
change in the magnitude difference between components A and B. relative
to the second measurement, of 0.38 and 0.26, well above the estimated
error ~ the relative magnitudes (0.02 for the second measurement, and
0.05 for the last two measurements). Since the tune delay between the
images is expected to be of order a day, the variation is probably due to
microlensing rather than intrinsic variations in the quasar. The light curve
is not well enough sampled to determine the mass of the microlens, nor
whether we have witnessed a "high amplification event" in which the quasar
passes behind a lens caustic. However, reasonable assumptions give a range
in the estimated microlens mass of 0.0001M~, < M < 0.1M`3, but larger
masses are of course consistent with the data (Invin et at 1989~. Models
predict a large tensing optical depth, so continued, frequent monitoring of
the quasar images of 2237+0305 is important.
DO COSMIC STRINGS EXIST?
If cosmic strings exist, they may be observable through their tensing
effects. T ensed images caused by cosmic loops that have radii smaller than
the image separation are likely to be difficult to distinguish from tensed
images caused by centrally condensed mass distributions such as galaxies
and clusters. Lensed images caused by strings with radii of curvature much
larger than the image separation may be easier to distinguish because of
the following properties unique to straight string lenses: (1) the images
are not magnified; (2) the parity of the images is the same; (3) if there is
a sufficient surface density of background sources, many pairs of images
will stretch along the string; and (4) if the string is moving relativisticall~r,
there is a small systematic velocity shift between the images on either
side of the string (see Hogan 1987 and references therein). Cows and
Hu (1987) discovered an unusual field of "twin galaxies" in which there
are four pairs of gal~es with angular separations between 2.0" and 2.6",
magnitude differences of 0.15 or less, and velocity differences (for the three
pairs in which they have been measured) consistent with zero. More recent
optical work (Hu and Cowie, private communications shows that one pair
has significantly different colors, but has also discovered four more pairs
with similar magnitudes and colors. Comparison with control fields shows
that the number of pairs is much larger than would be expected by chance.
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HIGH-ENERGY ASTROPHYSICS
197
In collaboration with R. Perley and E lbrner, I have acquired a A20 cm
VISA image of the field. A contour plot of the radio emission (henceforth
referred to as 0249-184) is shown in Figure 2, superimposed on an optical
image (ldudly provided by E. Hu) for comparison One may use the radio
data to address the question of tensing by a cosmic string in two ways. First,
is the emission peculiar in some way that would be explained by tensing?
The answer to this question is no. The coincidence of the 0249-184 and the
optical galaxy implies the two are physically associated. The radio emission
has Fanaroff and Riley Type I (FRT, Fanaroff and Riley 1974) morphology
which is common among radio galaxies. The radio power implied by the
redshift of the optical galaxy falls within the range commonly seen in FRI
sources (Shaver et at 1982), though it is brighter than that usually seen in
optically selected elliptical galaxies JIummel e! al. 1983~. If a string fell in
front of the jet, one would expect to see a distortion of the type sketched
in Figure 3; none is seen. Second, do the properties of 0249-184 exclude
the possibility that there is a cosmic string in the field? Our judgment in
this case is that the answer is probably, but not definitely. At galaxy A2,
the radio emission is at the position of optical emission that is "known"
to be doubly imaged. The lack of corresponding doubling of the radio
emission is Cadence against the tensing interpretation. However, given the
uncertainly in the registration of the optical and radio images (about 0.6")
and their finite resolution, it is possible that the radio emission falls just
outside the doubly-imaged region. In summary, the case for tensing has
been weakened by the radio data and by the discovery of color differences
in one galaxy pair; however, the evidence may not rule it out, and the field
has peculiar properties that would be well explained by string tensing. In
any case, gravitational tensing brings a phenomenon predicted by theories
of the earn universe under observational scrutinity.
MASS-TO-LIGHT RATIO MEASUREMENTS IN GALAXIES
Gravitational tensing is one of the few phenomena in astrophysics in
which the system under study is not necessarily luminous, and is therefore
well suited to studying dark matter. Gravitational tensing has been used to
provide an independent measure of the mass-to-light ratio in two systems in
which the mass distribution is reasonably well constrained by surrounding
images and in which the redshifts of both the source and the lens are
known. The first system is 2237+0305, already discussed in the context
of microlensing above. The foreground galaxy has a small redshift (z =
.0394), and its surface brightness can be used directly in lens models. Four
images of the background quasar, surrounding the central region (radius
< 0.5 kpc) of the galaxy, constrain models of the mass distn~ution in that
region Schneider e' al (1988) calculated models based on the observed
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198
E
C
L
I
N
T26 00
I
o
N05
-18 25 4s
S0
S~7
10 _
15 ~1~;' 1 1 ~' ~
AMERICAN AND SOVIET PERSPECTIVES
1 0 1 1 1 - -- 1
O
;~
-
.,_~ V
,-~;r, . . .
02 49 24. B 23. S
23.0 22.S 22.B 21.S 21.0 20.S
RI GHT ASCENSI ON
FIGURE 2 Contour plot of a )20 cm radio map (solid contoured of 0249-184 superimposed
on an optical I band image (dotted contours) of the field. The radio contours are 20%0,
30~o' 40~o, 50~O, 60%, 70%, 80~o, and 9O~o of the peak brightness of 370 ~Jy/beam; the
resolution is apprmimateh~r 2". No attempt has been made to calibrate the optical image;
the contours are linear in the CCD data numbers.
light distn~ution, ~ a 12~' x 12)' region centered on the bulge of the galaxy,
and a constant mass-to-light ratio. The best model has a blue mass-to-
light ratio of 9.4h (Ho = lOOh lun/sec/Mpc) with 20% variations causing
significant differences between the data and the model. MG1654~1345 is
the second Einstein ring to be discovered, and consists of the ring image of
the radio lobe of a z = 1.74 quasar tensed by a z = 0.254 galaxy (Langston
et al 1989~. The strength of the lens in this case can be estimated i rom the
angular radius of the observed ring, and the enclosed mass calculated from
the measured redshifts, assuming q0 = 1/2, is 9.5 ~ 1.9 x 10~° h Me. From
the measured brightness of the galaxy, the blue mass-to-light ratio with the
central 5 l~c of the galaxy is 19 ~ 4h. The above values of the mass-to-light
ratio are completely independent of measurements made using dynamical
techniques.
In addition to using gravitational lens systems as astrophysics laborato-
ries, work continues on searches for new systems. I know of six deliberate
searches at radio and optical wavelengths for which results have been pub-
lished. Gravitational tensing is a relatively rare event; therefore, all these
searches require some sort of filter to select objects which we believe are
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HIGH-ENERGY ASTROP~ICS
199
· . . am.
Ernst ~ r
········ ~c_~,JI_e~,- ············-
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . · · · · · . · . · · ma- . .,_,% . lo, _ . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FIGURE 3 Schematic diagram of tensing of a linear structure, such as a radio jet, by a
cosmic string. Ibe angle between the string and the let is 9, and the part of the sly that
is imaged twice is represented by the shaded region. A point source in the shaded region
has two images with angular separation /~. The cosmic stung causes an apparent break
~ the jet with separation s and overlap 1.
more likelier to be tensed. More than half the searches use the morphology
of the object as the criterion in selecting lens candidates. The others use
the fact that gravitationally tensed images, because of their magnification,
will appear brighter than they otherwise would. This property indicates
that objects of high absolute luminosity (calculated from the redshift and
the apparent l~'nlinosity, not corrected for the magnification of any lens)
are good lens candidates. Once the lens candidates have been selected,
further tests must be camed out to test whether images are tensed. Possi-
ble tests include: (1) Do the images have the same spectra (and the same
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AMERICAN AND S0~7ET PERSPECTIVES
redshift)? (2) Do the images have the same polarization properties? (3)
If there is any structure in the images, is it consistent with gravitational
tensing? (4) Do We images have the same light curve, offset by the the
delay between the images? (5) If there are other distant objects behind
the lens, are they also imaged? (6) Are there more than two images of
the source? (7) Is there a lens visible? (8) Is the source redshift larger
than the lens redshift? It is a question of judgment at what point one
decides that a system is a gravitational lens, and opinion on this issue
vanes somewhat. In many cases, optical spectra showing emission lines at
the same wavelengths with approximately the same relative intensities have
been the primary evidence for gravitational tensing. Most of the searches
rely on optical spectroscopy as a means of verification. However, there is
at least one clear counterexample. In the double quasar 1145-a71, the mo
components have very similar optical spectra, but one is a radio source and
the other is not (Djorgovski et al. 1987~. The following is a brief summary
of the gravitational lens searches.
(1) VLA Sun ey This search makes use of a large program of VLA snap
shots (Hewitt et aL 1989; Lawrence et at 1986i) of radio sources from the
MIT-Green Bank (MG) single-dish survey (Bennett et at 1986). The ob-
senations are at 5 GHz, giving a resolution of approximately 0.4". Sources
are selected as lens candidates on the basis of their radio morphology. The
goal of the project is the detection of multiply-imaged quasars, since these
are likelier to be verifiable with optical and very long baseline ~B) radio
observations. Therefore, sources with more than one unresolved comply
Dent are given the highest prionty. Four gravitational lens systems have
resulted from the suney: 2016+112, MG1131~0456, MG1654+1346, and
MG0414+0534 (Hewitt et aL 1989). Leo are Einstein ring images of radio
lobes; the other Go are multiple images of compact stellar objects. A fifth
source, 0023~171, shows Go stellar objects with similar spectra, but the
radio morphology is not easily explained through gravitational tensing, and
its interpretation remains uncertain JIewitt et at 1987~. Four of these
objects have been detected on VLBI baselines.
(2) High Luminosity Quasars I Surdej et at (1988) selected 111 quasars
from the Veron et Veron (1985) catalog by the following criteria: ma <
18.5, Mv ~-29.0, and declination < 20°. These quasars were imaged with
the Z2m ESO/MPI telescope and a COD camera, often under conditions
of good seeing. I~enty-five candidates appear "interesting" in that they
display multiple structure or are near a faint galaxy, and the lens systems
UM673 and H1413+117 have been discovered. The evidence for tensing is
good in both cases; in addition to the spectroscopic evidence, the tensing
galaxy of UM673 has been detected, and H1413+117 shows four tensed
images.
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HIGH-ENERGY ASTROPHYSICS
201
(3) High Luminosity Quasars II Djorgovski and Meylan (1989) have
selected high luminosity quasars with large redshifts from the Hewitt and
Burbidge (1987) catalog and are carrying out CCD observations. So far
one probable gravitational lens has been discovered: UM425 with four
components, of which two show very similar spectra (Meylan and Djorgovski
1989~. Spectra of the other two components have not yet been measured.
(4) Pairs of Quasars I Webster and collaborators are using the Automated
Plate Measuring machine in Cambridge to scan direct and objective prism
plates (Webster e! at 1988~. Quasar candidates are selected on the basis
of their spectra, and the morphology of the quasar candidates is known
from the scanning of the direct plates. Note that quasar candidates are not
limited to just stellar objects; multiply-imaged quasars and quasar-gala~y
associations are included in the sample. This survey has resulted In the
detection of statistical tensing described above, and one multiply imaged
quasar (Hewett et aL, preprint).
(5) Pairs of Quasars II Weedman and Djorgovsld (1988) examined seven
grens plates for close pairs with similar spectra. Eight candidate tensed
pairs of images, with separations ranging from 4" to 9.S" were found
through visual inspection. COD images and spectra for eight of the pairs
were obtained, and it was found that none is tensed. From the area of the
sly surveyed and quasar counts, Weedman and Djorgovski estimate that
200 to 300 quasars were examined, and from the qualibr of their plates
estimate the limits on the frequency of tensing. They find their results
are consistent with the theoretical results of Turner et at (1984), but are
perhaps surprising if the known wide separation lens candidates really are
gravitational lenses.
(6) Pairs of Blue Objects Reboul et at (1987) have selected pairs of blue
objects from several catalogs. The 62 candidate lens systems consist of
46 pairs of blue objects separated by less then 9", and 16 pairs in which
one of the objects Is blue. Fifteen of the systems have been investigated
spectroscopially, but none is tensed.
In addition to the lens searches described above, there are a number
that are in preluninarg stages. There are at least three other searches
in grens and objective prism plates (see Webster and Hewett 1989 and
references therein). Gorenstein, Elby, Rogers, and myself are examining
archived Mark III VLBI data for tensed compact radio sources. The existing
data can be reprocessed to extend the search in interferometric delay and
rate so that regions in the sly of typically several arc seconds on a side are
examined. The advantage of this technique over the VLA suIvey technique
is that a major component of confusion, classical double radio sources, are
resolved out. Hogan (1987) has proposed a search for tensing by cosmic
strings in CCD data collected for other purposes. The expected signature
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AMERICAN AND SOVIET PERSPECTIVES
of multiple pairs of galaxies stretching along the string is well suited to
an automatic search. Burke, Turner, and Gott have observed a sample of
high luminosity quasars at the VLA looking for radio structure that might
be a product of gravitational tensing. 13 son, Fort, Mellier, Turner, and
collaborators are surveying clusters of galaxies for evidence of luminous
arcs.
In summary, the searches for gravitational lenses are proving to be
successful, and more lenses continue to be discovered serendipitous
Many searches are under way, and new instruments that will routines
increasely the resolution of astronomical imaging (such as the Hubble
Space Telescope and the Very Long Baseline Array), and automated data
analysis techniques may greatly increase their yield. A wide varieW of types
of lenses are being discovered, many particularly well suited to a specific
application, and we are beginning to see result of astrophysical interest.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work was supported by grant AS1~6-18257 from the National
Science Foundation.
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Representative terms from entire chapter:
gravitational lenses
