Status of Research in Underwater Physiology, Prepared for the Office of Naval Research, Washington, D. C. by the Physiology Group, Panel on Underwater Swimmers, Committee on Undersea Warfare (1956)

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This document was prepared by the Physiology Group of the Panel on Underwater Swimmers of the Committee on Undersea Warfare to review the current status of research in underwater physiology. Publication has been authorized under the terms of contract N7onr 29103, between the Office of Naval Research and the National Academy of Sciences. All inquiries concerning this document should be addressed to the Publications Office, National- Academy of Sciences- National Research Council, 2101 Constitution Avenue, N. W., Washington, D. C. , or to the Chief of Naval Research, De- partment of the Navy, Washington, D. C. Reproduction in whole or in part is permitted f<>. the United States Government. v use 01

37--, Ti'-i P•- '• .• «•'.-..-- • STATUS OF RESEARCH IN UNDERWATER PHYSIOLOGY March 1956 Prepared for the Office of Naval Research Washington, D. C. by the Physiology Group Panel on Underwater Swimmers Committee on Undersea Warfare. Publication 468 National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council Washington, D. C. 1956

Library of Congress Card Catalog No. 56-60084

ABSTRACT This report has been prepared by the Physiology Group of the Panel on Underwater Swimmers as a general re- view of the current status of underwater physiology. In this discussion of existing information, emphasis is placed upon the interrelationship of various factors and upon a number of important questions which appear at present to be unanswered. Large new areas of underwater physiology have been opened by recent studies and should be susceptible to further investigation. The possibility now exists of a breakthrough in one or more of these areas. There is reason to expect that it will not always be necessary to base predictions of potential diving depth and duration upon the "physiological barriers" which now restrict underwater ac- tivity.

COMMITTEE ON UNDERSEA WARFARE Eric A. Walker, Chairman Harvey Brooks I. A. Getting G. P. Harnwell W. V. Houston G. W. Wood, Executive Secretary F. V. Hunt C. O'D. Iselin C. J. Lambertsen D. B. Lindsley C. F. Wiebusch Physiology Group of the Panel on Underwater Swimmers Christian J. Lambertsen, Chairman Loyal G. Goff Edward H. Lanphier Kenneth E. Penrod Panel on Underwater Swimmers C. J. Lambertsen, Chairman C. F. Aquadro, LTJG (MC) USNR E. S. Baer, LTJG USNR W. N. Bascom R. H. Bass, CAPT USN J. T. Blair H. Bradner R. L. Brown P. H. Bucklew, LCDR USN E. L. Burgess, LCDR USN J. T. Dailey M. des Granges, CDR USN R. H. Draeger, CAPT (MC) USN H. Draper G. J. Duffner, CDR (MC) USN J. V. Dwyer, LCDR USN H. E. Edgerton G. C. Ellerton, Jr., CDR USN F. D. Fane, CDR USN R. J. Fay, LT USN R. D. Fusselman, CAPT USN C. A. Gongwer J. W. Greeley, CDR USN A. T. Gregory G. M. Hagerman, CDR USN W. A. Hahn J. R. R. Harter G. F. B. A. Hawkins, LT USNR E. C. Hoff C. A. Hooper, LCDR USN J. L. Kinsey, CDR (MC) USN E. H. Lanphier, LT (MC) USNR R. B. Livingston R. I. Mason W. E. Mayberry, LTJG (MC) USNR H. W. Menard, Jr. I. G. Nelson, LCDR USN J. T. Oleksy, LCDR USN K. E. Penrod C. P. Phoebus, CAPT (MC) USN R. H. Porter, CAPT USMC F. H. Quimby M. Radnofsky C. A. Sander, CDR USN D. G. Saunders, LCDR USNR K. E. Schaefer J. M. Seawright J. S. Sleeper, LTJG USN W. K. Smith, LTJG USNR R. L. Solomon H. Specht S. N. Stein O. E. Van der Aue, CAPT (MC) USNR T. L. Willmon, CAPT (MC) USN Wislicenus 11

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT i 1.0.0 THE PROBLEMS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOM- MENDATIONS 1 1. 1.0 Introduction 1 1.2.0 Conclusions and Recommendations 2 2.0.0 RESPIRATORY GASES 5 2.1.0 Oxygen 5 2.1.1 Effects of Inert Gases on Oxygen Toxicity 6 Z.I. 2 Intermittent High and Low Oxygen Tension 6 2.1.3 Biochemical and Bioelectric Phenomena 7 2.1.4 Pulmonary Effects of Oxygen 7 2.2.0 Carbon Dioxide 8 2.2.1 Carbon Dioxide and Oxygen Toxicity 8 2.2.2 Carbon Dioxide Autointoxication 9 2. 3.0 Nitrogen 9 2. 3.1 Individual Differences in Susceptibility to Nitrogen Narcosis 9 2.3.2 Central Nervous System Effects 10 2.4.0 Helium 10 2.4.1 Decompression 11 2.4.2 Breathing Resistance 11 2. 5.0 Toxic Inhalants 11 2.5. 1 Carbon Monoxide 11 2.5.2 Oil Vapor 12 2.5.3 Miscellaneous Inhalants 12 3.0.0 DECOMPRESSION 13 3.1.0 General 13 3.2.0 Standard Air Diving 13 iii

3.2.1 Regular Decompression 13 3.2.2 Surface Decompression 14 3.2.3 Oxygen Decompression 14 3. 3. 0 Repetitive and Multilevel Air Diving ("Irregular Dives") 15 3.4.0 Mixed Gas Diving 16 3.4.1 Nitrogen-Oxygen Diving 16 3.4.2 Helium-Oxygen Diving 16 3.4.3 Multiple Inert-Gas Mixtures 17 3.4.4 Possible Refinements of the "Mixed Gas" Principle 17 3.5.0 Derivation of Decompression Tables 18 3.6.0 Air Embolism and Related Problems 18 4.0.0 RESPIRATION 20 4.1.0 Breathing Resistance 20 4.2.0 Dead Space 20 4. 3.0 Rapid Changes in Depth 21 4.4.0 Gas Mixtures 21 4. 5. 0 Carbon Dioxide Removal 21 5.0.0 TEMPERATURE 23 5.1.0 Low Temperature 23 5.1.1 Circulation 23 5.1.2 Dietary Influences 23 5. 1.3 The Extremities 24 5.2.0 High Temperature 24 IV