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Science at the Frontier (1992)

Chapter: Index

« Previous: Appendix Second Annual Frontiers of Science Symposium Program
Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences. 1992. Science at the Frontier. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1859.
×

Index

A

N-Acetyl aspartate acid, 145

Acid rain, 181, 182, 188-189

Acromion, 137

Adams, Paul, 201, 204, 205, 209, 216

Adenine, 96, 97

Adenoviruses, transcription in, 105-106

Ahlfors, Lars, 61

Air pollution, 178

chemistry of, 184-187

compliance with air quality standards, 178

computer modeling of, 178-179, 190-191, 192-193

control, 178, 180-181, 196-197

detection limits, 187-188

diurnal cycling, 190

formaldehyde, 186, 187, 190

hydrocarbons, 180, 181-182

hydroxyl radicals, 185-186, 187

from leaded gas, 181

long-distance transport, 190

measurement of, 187-188

nighttime, 188-191

nitrogen oxides, 180, 182, 185, 188-190, 194, 195, 197

ozone, 184-187, 195, 196, 197

reactive organic gases, 181-182, 194-195, 197

smog, 180, 181, 182, 187, 190, 193

"tall stacks solution," 181

Allender, David, 243

Aluminosilicates, 38

Amino acids, 96-97, 107

Amphibians, DNA, 99

Anderson, Philip W., 244

Aneurysms, 140

Angiogenesis, 115-116

Angiography, 122, 139-140, 142, 147

Approximations, 64

Argonne National Laboratory, 35

Arizona State University, 3

Arnold, Vladimir, 48

Arteriovenous malformations, 140

Arthrography, 122

Arthroscopy, 136, 137

Asteroids, 49

Astronomy, 66, 79

Astrophysics, 66

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences. 1992. Science at the Frontier. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1859.
×

Big Bang theory, 67-70, 74-79, 82, 90, 93

blue curtain, 85-87, 88

computer applications, 71-72, 77, 86-88, 90, 92, 149

dark matter, 67-72, 80, 84-91

gravitational lensing, 84-91

gravity's role, 68-71, 79, 87-91

imaging technology, 67, 85-90

measurements (basic) in space, 72-73, 76-77

omega, 68-69, 80

quasar studies, 73, 78, 80-84

redshift data, 70, 71, 77-82, 91, 92, 93

star formation, 91-93

universe texture, 69-74

AT&T Bell Laboratories, 67, 75, 153, 244, 245

Atmospheric science

chemistry of atmosphere, 182, 183-191

chlorofluorocarbons, 179, 184

computational experimentation, 191

computer simulations, 178-179, 191-194

definition of problems, 180-181

historical perspective, 187

measurement of pollutants, 187-188

nighttime chemistry, 188-191

ozone layer, 179, 183-184

ozone pollution, 184-187

pollution control laws, 194-197

public interests of, 197-198

regulatory issues, 179, 181-183

role of, 179

see also Air pollution

Atomic theory of matter, 26

B

Bacteria, photosynthesis in, 32

Balaban, Robert, 120, 132

Balance scale, 26

Bancel, Peter, 247

Bardeen, John, 155, 156, 235, 243

Baryons, 76

Bechtold, Jill, 73, 81, 82, 83, 84, 91

Bednorz, J. Georg, 233

Berger, Robert, 248

Berk, Arnold, 99, 105, 111

Bertschinger, Edmund, 70, 90-91

Big Bang theory, 3-4, 70, 77

evidence for, 74-75, 77, 79

formation of heavier elements, 82

galaxy formation, 90

microwave background radiation and, 75

missing-mass problem, 67-68

and Omega, 69

redshift and, 78, 93

relativity and, 76

series of events, 75-76

Binary systems, 153-154

Biology

central dogma of, 101-103

data compressibility in, 58-60

dynamical systems in, 57-60, 94, 100, 113, 216

neural networks, 201

Bipolarons, 244

Birkhoff, Garrett, 150

Birkhoff, George, 48, 49

Black holes, 81-82, 85

Bloch, Felix, 123, 124

Bloembergen, Nicholaas, 129

Blood-brain barrier, 143

Blood flow and vessels, imaging of, 139-140

Bloxham, Jeremy, 3, 20, 22

Blueshifted light, 79

Body waves, 10

Bohr, Niels, 123

Bones, magnetic resonance imaging of, 134-137

Boole, George, 153

Boolean logic, 154

Born, Max, 123

Boson, 244

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences. 1992. Science at the Frontier. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1859.
×

Boston University, 47

Bower, James E., 175, 201

Boyle's gas law, 211

Bradley, William G., Jr., 119, 122-125, 127-129, 132, 136, 138-141

Brahe, Tycho, 68

Brain

algorithms for vision enhancement, 223-228

chemistry, 207-208

computer modeled on, 175-176, 213-214

cortex, 206, 210

electrical source and circuitry, 206-208

evolution of, 206, 216, 221, 224

feedback information, 226-227

information processing, 153, 203, 224

magnetic resonance imaging, 119, 138-139, 143, 145

memory, 216

mind and, 215-216

models of, 209-211

motion detectors, 218-228

neural networks, 203-209

perception, 216, 223-224, 228-230

signal transmission, 206-207

structure, 201

see also Nervous system

Brattain, Walter, 155, 156

Bray, James, 243

Butterfly effect, 55, 57

Bydder, Graeme, 120, 145, 146

C

California

Altamont Pass, 40

ozone levels, 185

South Coast Air Quality Management District, 170, 194

Statewide Air Pollution Research Center, 187

California Institute of Technology, 2, 26, 32, 35, 41, 68, 70, 120 , 175, 192, 201

Cambridge University (Great Britain), 70

Cancer

and gene regulation, 114-117, 144

magnetic resonance imaging of tumors, 128, 138

Carbon dioxide

emission reduction, 27-28

sunlight and, 30

Carnegie Institution of Washington, 3, 11, 68

Carnegie Mellon University, 178, 180

Cartilage tears, 136, 137

Catastrophe theory, 163

Cells

differentiation, 113-114, 116

electrical behavior, 201

He-La, 111

signal processing by, 101, 103

transduction pathways, 116

Cellular automata, 171-173

Center for Complex Systems, 170

Central nervous system, 143, 204

Cerebrospinal fluid, 138, 140

Cerro Tololo Observatory, 85

Chaotic behavior, 46, 47, 150

biological implications, 57-60

cellular automata applied to, 171-172

computer applications, 49, 60-65, 163, 171

determinism and, 55-57

Feigenbaum-Cvitanovic cascade, 53-54

instabilities and real-world systems, 54-57

Julia sets as, 48, 58

onset of, 53-54

public visibility of, 62-63

sensitivity to initial conditions, 49-54

shadowing lemma theorem, 56

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences. 1992. Science at the Frontier. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1859.
×

Charge-coupled devices (CCD), 86, 88, 90

Chemistry

of air pollution, 183-187

atmospheric, 182, 183, 188-191

birth of, 26

of brain electricity, 207-208

of oxidant production, 182

of ozone production, 185-187

Chlorofluorocarbons, 179, 183-184

Choline, 145

Chromosomes, 95

Chu, Paul, 238

Churchland, Patricia, 211, 213, 214, 216, 217, 225

Codons, 97, 98

Cohen, Marvin, 240

Colds, 105

Complex numbers, 50-52

Compressional waves, 10

Computational science

algorithms, 162-164, 174

cellular automata, 171-173

experimental, 168-170, 191

importance of, 149-152

nervous system studies, 202-203

neural networks, 199-230

theory, 213, 219

see also Mathematics;

Neuroscience, computational

Computerized tomography, 10, 120, 121, 123, 125, 130, 138, 142, 147

Computers/computer applications

algorithms, 162-164, 170, 174, 187, 214, 219, 221

architecture, 154, 158, 160, 175-176, 211-212

artificial intelligence, 160, 201, 212-215

in atmospheric science, 190-194

as a blueprint for brain function, 213-214

brain as a model for, 175-176

central processing unit, 213-214

chess programs, 154

circuitry, 154, 155-156, 158

components, 175, 213-214

dark-matter simulation, 71-72, 87-88, 90

defined, 202

density field simulation in early universe, 92

digital electronics, 153-155, 214

digital optical processor, 157-158

in dynamical systems, 49, 50, 57-65

faint object classification and analysis system (FOCAS), 86-88

historical background, 151-152, 155-156

importance to science, 151, 173-174, 215

innovations in hardware, 156-162

lasers in, 160, 161

learning networks with interneurons, 228

logic gates, 154, 158, 160, 161, 225

machinery, 153-156

Mandelbrot sets, 57-59

Mathematica software, 170-171

mathematics, 47, 50, 62, 162-164, 168-170

measurements in space, 77

in medical diagnostic imaging, 121, 124, 126;

see also Computerized tomography;

Magnetic resonance imaging

Multiple-Instruction Multiple-Data operating mode, 175

networks, 151, 156

neural systems modeling on, 214-215, 223-228

optical lens construction, 160-161

optics technology applied to, 155, 156-162

parallel processing, 157, 160, 175-176, 216-218

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences. 1992. Science at the Frontier. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1859.
×

programming languages, 170-171

quasicrystal simulations, 248, 251-252

scientific visualizations, 153-154

seismic tomography, 10-11

serial, 154-155, 159, 175, 214, 225

signal processing, 165

Single-Instruction Multiple-Data operating mode, 175

software for scientists, 162, 163, 170-171

sound processing, 165, 167

speech recognition, 165

speed/power of, 151, 162, 175-176, 225

Turing test, 202, 212, 214

universal machine, 172

universe formation simulation, 71-72

video presentations, 191, 193-194

von Neumann machine, 213-214

wavelet transforms, 163, 164-168

see also Supercomputers

Conservation of energy, 26, 35, 36

Continental drift, 2, 7, 9, 21

Cooley, J.W., 163

Cooper, Leon N., 235

Copernicus, 74

Cornell University, 45, 62

Cosmology, history of, 74

Cray, Seymour, 175

Creatine, 145

Crick, Francis, 95, 96, 101, 102, 117, 213, 217

Crues III, John, 120, 134-137

Crystals

equilibrium and growth shapes of, 168

growth, 251

properties, 246-247

symmetry, 234

see also Quasicrystals

Cybernetics, 211

Cysteine, 107

Cytosine, 96, 97

D

Dalton, John, 26

Dark matter

clusters, 91

computer simulations, 71-72, 87-88, 90-91

defined, 67

evidence of, 70

in galaxies, 88-89

gravitational effect of, 68-69, 84-91

and omega, 80

shape and composition, 88

types of, 72

universe of, 90

Darwin, Charles, 7, 117

Darwin Rise, 16-17

Data compressibility, 58

Daubechies, Ingrid, 164

Davis, Marc, 71

de Gennes, P.-G., 243

Deoxyhemoglobin, 139

Dervan, Peter, 119-120, 124

Determinism, 46-47, 55-57

Devaney, Robert, 47, 62, 64

Developmental embryology, transcription in, 111, 113-114

Diagnostic contrast media, 142-144

Diamond-anvil cell experiments, 2, 3, 9, 11-12, 19-20

Dimethyl sulfide, 189-190

Dinitrogen pentoxide, 187

DiVincenzo, David P., 251

Djorgovski, S. George, 70, 72, 83, 86, 91, 92, 93

DNA

affinity columns, 107

binding proteins, 106-107, 109-110, 112

central dogma of biology, 101-103

codons, 97, 98

functions, 96, 97

location, 95

mapping, 100

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences. 1992. Science at the Frontier. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1859.
×

neuronal networks and, 206

noncoding, 99-101, 105

probes, 105

promoter region, 106

radioactive labeling, 107, 108, 109

replication, 103, 106

role of, 99-103

structure, 95-97

synthesis, 106-107

units of information in, 59

Doppler effect, 78

Douady, Adrien, 54-55, 63

Douglas, Jesse, 168

Drosophila, 113, 114

Dynamical systems

angle doubling, 56

biological, 57-60, 94, 100, 113, 216

butterfly effect, 55, 57

complexity of, 45-49

computer applications, 49, 150, 153, 174, 226

education aids, 62

historical insights, 47-49

hyperbolic, 56

Julia sets, 48, 50, 58

KAM theorem, 48-49

Mandelbrot set, 57-60

mathematics of, 46-54, 150, 171, 193

sensitivity to initial conditions, 49-54

simplest, 49-50

three-body problem, 47-48

uncertainties, 56

see also Chaotic behavior

E

Earth

age, 7

asthenosphere, 6, 14, 16

atomic process, 4

continental drift, 2, 7, 9, 21

core-mantle boundary, 3, 5-6, 19-21

core thermodynamics and agnetohydrodynamics, 1-23

cross-section, 4, 5

crust, 6, 21

Darwin Rise, 16-17

D-double prime region, 6

formation of, 3-4

fossil record, 21-22

geological models, 1-23

geomagnetic field, 19-20

gravity, 13

hot spots, 15-17

inner core, 4-5

internal temperature and pressure, 4-5, 6, 9, 12

lithosphere, 6, 8, 14, 16-17

lower mantle, 5, 12, 19-20

magnetic field, 3, 5, 18-21

mantle, 3, 6, 11, 12, 13-14, 21-22

Marianas Trench, 9

Mid-Atlantic Ridge, 7-8

most common mineral, 11

North Pole, 20-21

outer core, 5, 10, 18, 19

plate tectonics, 2, 7-8, 13-18, 21-22

sea level changes, 21-22

South Pacific Superswell, 16-17

upper mantle, 5, 10, 12

Earthquakes, 9-10

Eddington, Arthur, 84

Einstein, Albert, 28, 123, 158

space-time fabric, 76

theory of general relativity, 69, 76, 79, 81, 84, 85

Einstein ring, 84

Electroencephalogram, 138

Electromagnetic radiation, 72, 150

Electron holes, 32, 38, 39, 41, 42

Electron microscope, 104, 111

Electron transfer

back, 33, 34, 35, 39, 42

in chlorophyll, 32

multistep mechanism, 37, 38-39

rate, 35

Electrons, 76, 121, 236

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences. 1992. Science at the Frontier. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1859.
×

Energy

artificial photosynthesis and, 26-27

quantum of, 29

reorganization, 36

solar, 40

theory of quantization of, 29

Estermann, I., 123

Eukaryotes, transcription and translation in, 102, 104

Euler, Leonhard, 150

Evolution, 60, 100-101, 116, 117, 206, 216, 221, 225

F

Fast Fourier transform, 125, 163, 165

Fatou, Pierre, 48, 50, 61

Feigenbaum, Mitchell, 63

Feigenbaum-Cvitanovic cascade of period doublings, 53-54

Fermions, 244

Ferritin, 139, 142

Ferrocene, 42

Fiber-optics telecommunications network, 156

Fields Medal, 61, 168

Fischer, Karen M., 16

Fisher, Daniel, 233

Fisher, Matthew, 245-246

Fluid motion, magnetic resonance imaging of, 139-142

Food and Drug Administration, 142

Formaldehyde, 186, 187, 190

Formic acid, 187

Fossil fuels, 26

Fourier, J.B.J., 163

Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, 187

Fractal geometry, 57, 58, 61, 63, 64, 163

Free induction decay, 127-128

Free will, 55-56

French Polynesia, 16

Fresnel zone plate, 161

Frontiers of Computational Science Award, 192

Fuzzy sets, 163

G

Gadolinium-diethylenetriamine-pentaacetic acid, 142

Galaxies

age of, 73-74, 78

Andromeda, 71, 73, 78

blue curtain, 85-87, 88

clusters, 68, 70, 71, 72, 77, 78, 79, 82, 88, 90

collapse of protogalaxies, 72, 82, 84

collisions and mergers, 72

Coma cluster, 68

cosmological color conundrum, 80

cosmological count conundrum, 80

dark matter in, 88-89

discovery of, 71

distances of, 70

distribution of, 72, 74

formation and evolution of, 82, 88, 90

as gravitational lenses, 84-85

halos, 82, 91

Local Group, 71

Local Supercluster, 71

magnitude of images, 85-86

Milky Way, 71, 73, 79

primeval, 72, 93

spectrographic signatures, 77-78, 79, 81, 83

spherical shells of, 71

superclusters, 70, 71, 73, 82, 90

velocities, 68

Galileo, 86-87

Gallium arsenide, 161

Gammel, Peter, 245, 246

Gauge theory, 65

Gel electrophoresis, 107, 108

Geller, Margaret, 67, 68, 70

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences. 1992. Science at the Frontier. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1859.
×

Gene regulation

cancer and, 114-117

DNA role, 99-103

see also Transcription factors and mechanisms

Genes function, 116

human, 95

protein coding domain, 115

regulatory information domain, 115

replacement studies, 109

structure, 95, 100

TATA boxes, 111, 112

therapy, 116

Genetic

code, 97

engineering, 33, 94, 106, 117

information, 60, 100, 102

studies of transcription, 107-110

Genome

adenovirus, 105

human, 105

Genotypes, 100-101

Geochemists, 2

Geodesists/geodesy, 2, 13

Geoid, 13, 16-17

Geology

fossil record, 21-22

historical background, 6-7

methods and tools, 9-13

modeling Earth's internal dynamics, 1-23

planetary (non-Earth), 22-23

and plate tectonics, 2

see also Earth

Geometry, 48, 84, 168

Ginzburg, Vitaly, 243

Glasses, 246

Gleick, James, 49, 61

Glimm, James, 150

Glutamine, 110

Gondwanaland, 7

Gravitational lensing

accuracy, 89-90

blue ''curtain'' discovery, 85-87

images, 88, 89

role of, 87-91

Gravity/gravitational effects

anchors for galaxies, 71

Big Bang and, 75-76, 79

and dark matter, 68-69, 70, 84-91

data surveys, 9, 13

galaxy formation, 90

resonance and, 48

and space-time fabric of universe, 76

Guanine, 96, 97

Gunn, James, 85

Gurnis, Michael, 3, 21-22

Guth, Alan, 69, 90

H

Haldane, Duncan, 242, 244, 245

Hammersmith Hospital (London), 120

Hanahan, Douglas, 95, 97, 99, 114, 115

Hardy, G.H., 65

Hartley transform, 163

Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, 67, 71

Harvard University, 3, 20, 85, 99, 120, 233, 248, 251

Heart, magnetic resonance imaging, 133

Hebb, Donald, 212

Heisenberg-Schrödinger pictures of the universe, 57

He-La cells, 111

Helium, 76, 77, 82

Helix-turn-helix, 107

Hematoma, magnetic resonance imaging of, 130-131

Hemley, Russell, 3, 11, 12-13, 19-20

Hemorrhage, 139

Hemosiderin, 142

Hillis, W. Daniel, 175

Hinton, Geoffrey, 228

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences. 1992. Science at the Frontier. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1859.
×

Hippocrates, 122

Histidine, 107

Histones, 104

Homeodomain, 107

Hooker telescope, 79

Hopfield, John, 217

Hot spots, 3, 15-17

Hounsfield, Godfrey, 121

Howard Hughes Medical Institute, 94, 200, 201

Hoyle, Fred, 67

Huang, Alan, 153, 155, 156-161

Hubbard, John, 45, 46, 47, 50, 54-57, 61-62, 63

Hubble constant, 79-80

Hubble, Edwin, 71, 79

Hubble Space Telescope, 165

Huchra, John, 71

Hydrocarbon emissions, 180, 181-182

Hydrocephalus, 138

Hydroelectric power, 40

Hydrogen

component of universe, 76

as an energy source, 28

Lyman alpha absorption line, 82-83

metallic phase, 12-13

as MRI target, 124

star formation, 91

Sun composition, 77

Hydrogen peroxide, 186

Hydroperoxyl radicals, 186

Hydroxyl radicals, 185-186, 187, 188, 190

Hyperion, 49

I

IBM, 233, 245, 247, 251

Imaging

animations, 152

brightness magnitude of galaxies and, 85-86

charge-coupled devices (CCD), 86, 88, 90

color, 152-153

deep-space, 67, 87

diffusion-weighted, 145-146

Doppler ultrasound, 121, 122

faint object classification and analysis system (FOCAS), 86-88

ultradeep, 86-87

wavelet transforms applied to, 165

see also Magnetic resonance imaging

Inositol aspartate, 145

Institute for Atmospheric Studies (Paris), 55

Integrated circuits, 155-156, 158

Internet system, 152

Isoprene, 189

Iterative processes, 49-52, 54, 63

J

Jarvis, John, 86

Jeanloz, Raymond, 3, 13, 19-20

Joints, biomechanical, 135-137, 147

Josephson, Brian, 237

Julia, Gaston, 48, 50, 61

Julia sets

as chaotic behavior, 48

disconnected, 58

and Feigenbaum-Cvitanovic cascade of period doublings, 53

purpose, 58

sensitivity to change in initial conditions, 54

in z-plane, 50, 51, 52

Jupiter, 13, 22, 48-49

K

KAM theorem, 48-49

Kamerlingh Onnes, H., 234, 237

Kant, Immanuel, 64

Kelvin, William, 7

Kepler, Johannes, 68

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences. 1992. Science at the Frontier. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1859.
×

Kieffer, Sue, 3

Kitt Peak, 85

Kline, Morris, 64

Knittle, Elise, 3, 19-20

Koch, Christof, 199-204, 206, 210, 213-219, 221-224, 229

Kolmogorov, Andrei, 48

Koo, David, 69, 80

Krantz, Steven, 47, 61, 62-64, 171

L

Lagrange, Joseph, 150

Lander, Eric, 94, 99-100, 117

Larmor

equation, 124-125

frequency, 126, 127, 128, 129

Lasers, 11, 160, 161

Lauterbur, Paul, 124

Lay, Thorne, 3, 20

Lead, air pollution from, 181

Lehmann, Ruth, 99, 113, 117

Leptons, 76

Levine, Dov, 248, 249

Lewis, Nathan, 26, 41, 42

Lick Observatory, 70

Light, quantum mechanics, 84

Lily, DNA, 99

Linear systems, 45-46

Lisberger, Stephen, 225-226

Little, William, 243

Liver, magnetic resonance imaging, 120, 144

Lloyd, Alan C., 180, 192, 194, 197

Long Beach Memorial Medical Center, 119

Lookback time, 73, 75, 82

Lorenz, Edward, 49

Love waves, 10

Lyell, Charles, 6

M

Macromolecules, 132

Magellan mission, 22

Magnesium silicate perovskite, 11

Magnetic field

core dynamics and, 18-21

data surveys, 5, 9

historical data, 3, 20

Meissner effect, 235

satellite measurements, 20

of superconductors, 235, 237, 245

Magnetic moment, 124, 126-127

Magnetic resonance imaging

advantages of, 120, 125

angiography, 139-142, 147

applications in medicine, 122, 124, 134-146

of biomechanical joints, 135-136

of blood flow and vessels, 139-140

of bones, 134-136

of brain, 119, 143

of cartilage tears, 136-137

of cerebrospinal fluid, 138

clinical efficacy, 147

contrast agents, 120, 122, 136, 139, 142-144, 147

costs, 122

diagnostic lens, 129-132

echo time delay, 129, 133

enhancement of signal intensity, 141-142

fast-scanning techniques, 146, 167

of fluid motion, 139-142

fluoroscopy, 136, 147

gating techniques, 141, 146

growth of, 119

guided/assisted interventional diagnosis and therapy, 147

of heart, 133

of a hematoma, 131

of hemorrhages, 139

of kidney, 143

of liver, 120, 144

multiplanar display capabilities, 130-131

of musculoskeletal system, 120

in neurology, 138-139, 143

physics of, 120, 121, 123-134

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences. 1992. Science at the Frontier. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1859.
×

portable receivers (surface coil), 136

precision, 125, 138

problems and limitations, 120, 122, 141

process of information generation, 121, 124-126

prospects, 146-147

relaxation behavior and, 126-134, 142, 143

of rotator cuff tears, 137

spin-echo technique, 128-129, 132, 140-141

of tumors, 128, 138, 144

see also Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy

Magnetization, 127, 133

Magnons, 143

Mallouk, Thomas, 26, 36, 37, 38, 39

Mandelbrot, Benoit, 57, 61, 63, 64

Mandelbrot set, 57-60

Manganese-DPTP, 144

Mantle

convection, 3, 12, 13-14, 17-18, 21-22

hot spot plumes from, 15-17

Marcus, Rudy, 35, 36

Marianas Trench, 9

Marine science, 189-190

Marr, David, 200, 212, 213

Mars, 22

Massachusetts General Hospital, 120

Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 3, 25, 69, 70, 94, 154, 200 , 212

Materials science, 168

Mathematicians, 150, 164, 168, 169

Mathematics

algorithms, 162-164, 170, 174

calculus, 47, 150, 170-171

cellular automata, 171-173

complex numbers, 50-52

Daub sets, 164

deterministic differential equations, 56-57

differential equations, 47, 62, 150, 172, 173

doubling times, 55-56

of dynamical systems, 46-54

experimental, 168-170, 174

Fields Medal, 61, 168

Fourier transform, 125, 150, 163, 164, 165

iteration of polynomials, 49-52, 54

Maxwell's equations in electrodynamics, 215

Navier-Stokes equations, 193

shadowing lemma theorem, 56

three-body problem, 47-48

wavelet transforms, 163, 164-168

Max Planck Institut, 114

McCulloch, Warren, 212

McLendon, George, 26, 33, 35, 36, 39

McMullen, Curt, 47, 49, 50, 53, 58, 61

McNutt, Marcia, 3, 7, 13, 16-17

McRae, Gregory J., 178-181, 183-185, 188, 190-193, 194-195, 197-198

Medical diagnosis

technology development in, 120-123

see also Magnetic resonance imaging

Meissner effect, 235

Mercury (planet), 22

Meteorites, 4

Meteorology, models, 191, 193

Methemoglobin, 139

Microwave background radiation, 75

Mid-Atlantic Ridge, 7-8

Miller, John, 35

Minsky, Marvin, 212

Mittag-Leffler, Magnus, 61

Mobilism, 7

Models/modeling

Big Bang, 71-72

cell electrical behavior, 201

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences. 1992. Science at the Frontier. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1859.
×

cellular automata in, 171-172

complexity accounted for, 215-216

dark-matter simulation, 71-72, 87-88, 90

geological, 1-23

Los Angeles weather and pollutant

data, 179-180, 194-197

minimal surfaces, 168

neural networks, 199-200, 209-211, 214-216

probabilistic, 57

purpose, 210

quasicrystals, 248

seismic tomography, 10-11

simplification in, 210

snowflake formation, 172, 173

stereoscopic depth perception, 212

transcription, 104, 112

vision, 218-228

Molecular beam epitaxy, 160-162

Monoterpenes, 189

Moon, 22

Moser, Jürgen, 48

Mosley, Michael, 145

Mott-Hubbard insulator, 243-244

Mott, Nevill, 243-244

Mount Wilson Observatory, 79

Mueller, Karl Alex, 233

Multiple Mirror Telescope, 83

Multiple sclerosis, 138, 145-146

Mutation analysis, 108-109, 111, 113

N

National Center for Supercomputing Applications, 152, 175, 192, 193

National Institutes of Health, 119, 120, 132

National Science Foundation, 152

Nebulae, cloudlike, 79

Neer, Charles, 137

Neptune, 22, 48-49

Nervous system

analytical and organizational levels, 213

computation applied to studies of, 202-203

connectionism, 203-204

evolution of, 206

information processing, 200

ion channels, 205, 209, 211

mapping of, 145

neuromodulators, 209

synapses, 204-205

see also Brain

Neural networks

applications, 217-218, 230

brain, 203-209

defined, 199

Hopfield network, 217

and learning and memory, 212

learning networks with interneurons, 228

mind and, 214

models, 199-200, 209-211, 228-230

NETtalk system, 228

perceptrons, 212

vision models, 218-228

Neurology, magnetic resonance imaging in, 138-139

Neurons, 200-201, 203-209, 214, 225

Neuroscience, computational

computationalism, 212

computer models, 204, 209-211

connectionism, 203-204, 211-212, 219, 228

dependence on computers, 215

experimental approach, 218

history of, 203

optical flow algorithms, 219, 221, 224-225

Neutrinos, 72, 76

Neutron stars, 84

Neutrons, 76

Newsome, William A.K., 201, 228-229

Newton, Isaac

law of gravitation, 68

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences. 1992. Science at the Frontier. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1859.
×

laws of motion, 47

Philosophiae naturalis principia mathematica, 150

Nitrate radical, 187, 188-190

Nitric acid, 187, 188-189, 190

Nitric oxide, 185

Nitrogen, 28

Nitrogen dioxide, 185, 196

Nitrogen oxides, 180, 182, 195, 197

Nitrous acid, 187, 188, 190

Nobel prizes, 121, 156

Nonlinear systems, 45, 46;

see also Dynamical systems

Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, 124, 144-145, 147, 242

O

Omega, 68-69, 80

Oncogenes, 115, 116-117

Onoda, George Y., 250-251

Optics technology

bandwidth and connectivity advantages, 159-160

in computers, 156-162

lens construction, 160, 161

molecular beam epitaxy technique and, 160, 161

quadrature filter mirrors, 165

Oxford University, 248

Oxidation-reduction reaction, 31, 34, 39, 41-42, 43

Oxygen, 28, 183

Ozone

molecule, 183

National Ambient Air Quality Standard, 195

stratospheric layer, 179, 183-184

tropospheric pollution, 182, 183, 184-187, 190, 197

P

Pagels, Heinz, 169-171, 173-174, 202, 211, 215

Paleontocosmology, 72, 91

Pangaea, 7

Papert, Seymour, 212

Parallax-second (parsec), 72

Paramagnetism/paramagnetic substances, 139, 142-143

Particle accelerator, 41, 49, 76, 237

Peacock, Simon, 3

Peebles, P. James E., 70

Penrose, Roger, 248, 249, 250

Penzias, Arno, 74

Perner, Uli, 187

Peroxyacetyl nitrate, 190, 196, 197

Petrologists, 2

Phenotypes, 100-101

Pheophytin, 33

Phonons, soft, 244

Photodiodes, 36-40

Photolithography, 156, 161

Photolysis

and ozone production, 183-186, 190

and smog production, 190

Photons

critical limit for communications, 156

harvesting and using, 29-32

and photosynthesis, 28-29

relativity applied to, 84

speed of, 72, 158-159

Photosynthesis, artificial

back electron transfer in, 33

energy efficiency, 27, 30, 35

as an energy source, 26-27

excited-state electron transfer in, 34-36

first steps, 33-40

photoconversion systems, 30

photodiode construction and, 36-40

photovoltaic cells, 40-43

reaction centers, 38

self-assembly in, 37, 39

and semiconductors, 37

Z-scheme representation of apparatus, 31, 35

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences. 1992. Science at the Frontier. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1859.
×

Photosynthesis, natural

in bacteria, 32

chlorophyll, 30, 31, 33

crystallographic studies, 33

electron transfer, 32

evolution of, 27, 32

genetic engineering and, 33

photon harvesting and use, 29-32

photosystems, 30-31

process, 25, 26, 33

quantum physics and, 28-29

reaction center, 31-33

Z-scheme, 31

Photovoltaic cells

construction of, 41

cost barriers, 25-26, 40

energy efficiency, 27

gallium arsenide-gallium antimonide stacked junction cell, 27

liquid semiconductor junctions, 41-43

point-contact crystalline silicon cells, 27

strontium-titanate cell, 42-43

Physics

condensed-matter, 13, 233-254;

see also Quasicrystals;

Superconducting/superconductors

contributions to geology, 7, 11, 13

of light energy, 28-29

mathematics in, 65

of magnetic resonance imaging, 120, 121, 123-134

particle, 77, 149

quantum, 26, 29, 34, 36, 42, 78, 121

and photosynthesis, 29

solid state, 11

of water at critical temperatures, 172, 173

of x-ray systems, 121

Pick's disease, 145

Pitts, James N., Jr., 187, 188

Pitts, Walter H., 212

Planck, Max, 28-29, 123

Planck's constant, 29, 55

Planetesimals, 4

Planets, window of stability, 49;

see also individual planets

Plants

aerobic, 29, 31

anaerobic, 27

chlorophyll, 30, 31

reaction center, 31

see also Photosynthesis, natural

Plate tectonics, 2

basalt formation and, 18

colliding plates, 14-15

deformation of plate boundaries, 14-15

direction of plate movement, 8-9

distribution of major surface plates, 8

genesis of, 7

and mantle convection, 13-18, 21-22

process, 8-9

rate of movement, 8

on Venus, 22

and volcanism, 15-18

Platt, Uli, 187, 188

Poggio, Tomaso, 212

Poincaré, Jules Henri, 48, 150

Poisson's equation, 90

Polyribosomes, 98

Pool, Robert, 192

Porphyrin, 39

Positron emission tomography, 120, 121, 123, 138

Pound, R.V., 129

Press, William, 85, 153, 162-165, 167, 170, 174

Princeton University, 47, 70, 85, 242, 244

Principia Mathematica, 68

Probabilistic models, 57

Prokaryotes, transcription and translation in, 102

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences. 1992. Science at the Frontier. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1859.
×

Proline, 110

Protons, 76

MRI interactions with, 120

P680 molecule, 32

Purcell, Edward, 124, 129

Q

Quadratic bifurcation locus, see Mandelbrot set

Quantum

electrodynamics, 123

mechanics, 57, 62, 84, 90-91

numbers, 29

physics, 26, 29, 34, 36, 42, 78, 121, 126

theory, 237

wells, 161

Quarks, 76

Quasars, 73, 78

double image, 85

and galaxy formation, 82-84

identification of, 80-81

number per volume of space,

optical spectrum, 83

redshifts, 81, 82

Quasicrystals, 233, 234

Bragg peaks, 250

computer simulations, 248, 251-252

discovery, 247-250

growth of, 251-252

Penrose rules, 248-252

properties, 247

symmetry, 248, 252

twinning, 249

Quinone, 33

R

Rabi, I.I., 123

Radioactive dating methods, 8

Radioactive labeling, 107, 108, 109, 138

Radiology/radiologists, 122, 146

Ramón y Cajal, 203

Random behavior, 46

Rayleigh waves, 10

Reactive organic gases, 181-182, 194-195, 197

Real numbers, 52

Real-world systems, 50, 54

Recombinant DNA technology, 94, 113, 117;

see also Genetic engineering

Redshift data, 70, 71, 77-82, 91, 92, 93

Reductionism, 170

Rees, Douglas, 26, 32, 33, 34

Regulation, air quality, 180-183, 194-197

Relativity, 62, 69, 76, 79, 81, 84

Relaxation

behavior, 126

BPP theory of, 129

complexities of, 132-134

contrast agents and, 143

pathway in biological tissues, 134

in solids and monomolecular solvents, 129

spin-lattice, 127

spin-spin, 128-129

T1 and T2 times as data, 126-129

T1 and T2 times as diagnostic lens, 129-132, 136-137, 139

in water, 129, 132

Renal systems, 143

Resonance

and gravitational forces, 48

quantum physics of, 126

see also Magnetic resonance imaging

Reverse biochemistry studies, 109

Rheology, 6, 14

Riemann, Georg, 150

RNA

bicoid, 114

messenger (mRNA), 97-99, 101, 103, 104

polymerase, 103, 104, 105, 106

role of, 97, 103

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences. 1992. Science at the Frontier. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1859.
×

transfer (tRNA), 98

translation, 102

Roentgen, Wilhelm, 121, 122, 134-135, 142

Rosenblatt, Frank, 212

Rotator cuff tears, 137

Rubin, Vera, 68

Rumelhart, David, 217

Russell, Armistead G., 184, 185, 192

Rutgers University, 153, 168

Ryle, Gilbert, 210

S

Salk Institute, 200

Santa Barbara Cottage Community Hospital, 120, 132

Saturn, 13, 22, 48-49

Scanning microscopy, 111, 205

Schmidt, Maarten, 81

Schrieffer, Robert, 235

Schwarzschild radius, 81

Segev, Idan, 210, 214

Seismic tomography, 9-10

Seismic waves

collection centers, 9

information gained from, 2, 4-5, 9, 10

formation process, 9-10

propagation, 11

surface, 10, 16

Seismologists/seismology, 2, 13

Seitzer, Pat, 87

Sejnowski, Terrence, 200, 201, 211, 213, 214, 217, 225, 227-229

Self-similarity, 57, 61

Semiconductors

and computer development, 158

construction of, 156, 160-162

electrical conductivity, 155

interfacial reactions, 42

liquid, junction, 41-42

molecular beam epitaxy and, 160-162

and molecule-based electronic devices, 37

n-type, 41, 42

photoelectrochemical cells, 40, 43

p-type, 41, 42

Shane, Donald, 70

Shannon, Claude, 154

Shear waves, 10

Shechtman, Dany, 247-248

Sherrington, Charles, 200, 210

Shockley, William, 155, 156

Signal processing, 165

Silicates

chemical reactions between iron and, 19

structural transformations, 11-12

Silicon

dioxide, 28

oxidizers, 42

Silk, Joseph, 74, 75

Simulated annealing, 163

Smale, Stephen, 49

Smarr, Larry L., 149-152, 174, 175, 176, 192, 193

Smithsonian Institution, 83

Smog, 180, 181, 182, 187, 190, 193

Snowflake formation, 172, 173

Socolar, E.S., 251

Sodium chloride, 28

Soft tissues, magnetic resonance imaging of, 134-137

Solar technology, 40;

see also Photovoltaic cells

Sound waves, see Seismic waves

South Pacific Superswell, 16-17

Space

measurements in, 76-77

telescope, 79

Spectrographs, 77

Spectrometers/spectrometry, 77

Stanford University, 217, 243

Stark, David, 119-120, 142, 143

Starlight, 78

Stars

blue, 80

Cepheid variable, 79

formation of, 91-93

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences. 1992. Science at the Frontier. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1859.
×

heavier of, 82, 83

neutron, 84

State University of New York, Stony Brook, 201

Steinhardt, Paul, 248-252

Stern, Otto, 123

Stevenson, David, 2, 4-5, 9, 11-14, 17-20, 22-23

Stokes, George, 150

Stonehenge, 66

String theory, 65

Struhl, Kevin, 99, 107, 108

Suess, Eduard, 7

Sun, 72

composition, 77

gravitational field, 84

magnitude, 86

photosphere, 77, 81

Supercomputers centers, 152

Connection Machine, 175-176

costs, 176

Cray, 175, 192-193, 196

defined, 151

importance of, 149, 152-153

Internet system, 152

smog simulation, 178, 192-193, 196

spread of, 152

Superconducting Supercollider, 237

Superconducting/superconductors, 36

applications, 245-246

challenges posed by, 238-242

copper oxide, 245

dimensionality issue, 241

energy gap in materials, 241-242

high-temperature, 233-234, 238-246

history, 234-238

isotope effect, 237, 241

Josephson junction, 240

and magnetic fields, 235, 237, 245

properties of, 235, 237, 245

theories, 235-237, 242-245

tunneling by Cooper-pair electrons, 237, 238, 242

vortex glass theory, 246

yttrium-based, 246

Surfaces

minimal, 168, 169

quantum physics at, 42

T

TATA boxes, 111, 112

Taylor, Jean, 153, 168, 169

Telecommunications, 156-157, 160

Telescopes, 76-77, 79, 85-86, 165

Thermal electric generation, 40

Thermodynamics, laws of, 26

Thinking Machines Corporation, 175

Thurston, William, 47, 62

Thymine, 96, 97, 104

Tjian, Robert, 94, 99, 103, 105, 106, 110, 111, 116-117

Topology, of transcription factors, 110-111

Transcription factors and mechanisms

activation role, 110-111, 112, 114

in adenoviruses, 105-106

binding domains, 106-107

creation of proteins, 103-104

in development, 111, 113-114

in Drosophila fruit fly, 113

experimental quantities, 106-107

genetic studies of, 107-110

histone clearance, 104

hybrid proteins, 110

messenger RNA role, 97-99, 101, 104

model, 104

as oncogenes, 116-117

process, 104

promoter region, 106

RNA polymerase II role, 104

role, 94, 113

sequence of steps, 101-103

topology, 110-111

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences. 1992. Science at the Frontier. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1859.
×

transduction pathways in cells, 116-117

in yeast, 107-108

zinc finger proteins, 107

Transform fault, 9

Transgenic mice, 114

Transistors, 155, 156

Tukey, J.W., 163

Tumorigenesis, 115-116, 145;

see also Cancer

Turing, Alan, 202, 211, 212

Turner, Edwin, 85

Tyson, J. Anthony, 67, 73, 79, 84-91

U

Ullman, Shimon, 200, 201, 210, 221, 223-225

Ultrasound imaging, 121, 122, 147

Ultraviolet radiation, 183

Uncertainties, doubling time, 56

Uniformitarianism, 6-7

Universe

age of, 80

black holes, 81-82, 85

computer simulation of formation of, 71-72

critical density (omega), 69

dark-matter problem, 68-69

density field simulation, 92

evolution of, 67, 70, 75;

see also Big Bang theory

filaments, 72

halos, 82, 91

inhomogeneities in, 71, 85

interstellar gases, 82, 91

map, 70

observable, 72-73

singularity, 75, 79

space-time fabric, 76

steady-state theory of, 67

texture of, 69-74

voids, 71, 72, 73

see also Galaxies

University of Alabama, 238

University of Arizona, 73, 83

University of California

Berkeley, 3, 47, 49, 74, 94, 233

Los Angeles, 99, 120, 134, 180

Riverside, 187

San Diego, 200, 217

San Francisco, 95, 145, 225

Santa Cruz, 3, 69

University of Chicago, 79

University of Houston, 238

University of Illinois at Champaign-Urbana, 149, 152, 170, 192, 243

University of Maryland, 46

University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 3

University of Paris-XI, 54

University of Rochester, 26, 35

University of Texas, Austin, 26, 36

Uracil, 104

Uranus, 22, 48-49

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 181-182

V

Vacuum tubes, 155-156

Valdes, Frank, 86

Venus, 22

Very large-scale integrated circuits, 155, 199, 200

Viologen, 39

Viruses, 100

Visible light

speed of, 72, 77-78

wavelengths, 66-67, 78

Vision models

algorithms, 223-228

illusions in, 222-223, 224-225

motion detectors in the brain, 218-223

smooth pursuit of targets, 226-228

vestibulo-ocular reflex system, 225-227

Volcanism

anomalous plate margin, 15

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences. 1992. Science at the Frontier. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1859.
×

hot spot, 15-17

intraplate, 15

and mantle convection, 17-18

and plate tectonics, 15-18

Volcanologists, 2

von Neumann, John, 150, 151

Voyager spacecraft, 22

W

Walsh functions, 163

Washington University (St. Louis), 47

Water

anisotropically weighted, 145

interaction on macromolecular surfaces, 132-133

and magnetic resonance imaging, 121-122, 129

physics of, at critical temperatures, 172

relaxation times in, 129, 132-133

silicon oxidation, 42

SrTiO3-semiconductor-based cell for photoelectrolysis, 43

sunlight and, 30

Watson, James, 95, 96, 101, 117

Wave packets, 237

Wavelet concept, 163, 164-168

Weather

doubling times for equations involving, 55

models, 192, 193

White, Simon, 70, 90

Whitehead Institute, 94, 99

Wiener, Norbert, 211

Wilson, J. Tuzo, 15

Wilson, Robert, 74-75

Wind turbines, 40

Winer, Arthur, 180, 187, 188, 189-190, 197

Wirtanen, Carl, 70

Wolfram, Stephen, 153, 168-173, 174

Wolfram Research, Inc., 153, 170

Wrighton, Mark S., 25-28, 30-35, 39, 40, 41-42, 43

Wu, Maw-Kuen, 238

X

X-ray systems, 134-135

angiography, 139-140

disadvantages, 120, 121, 139-140

physics of, 121

Y

Yeast

protein GCN4, 117

transcription process in, 107-108

Yorke, James, 46

Z

Zeolites, 38, 39

Zettl, Alex, 233, 240-242, 245, 246

Zeugmatography, 124

Zinc finger proteins, 107

Zwicky, Fritz, 68, 84, 85

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences. 1992. Science at the Frontier. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1859.
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Science at the Frontier Get This Book
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Science at the Frontier takes you on a journey through the minds of some of the nation's leading young scientists as they explore the most exciting areas of discovery today.

Based on the second Frontiers of Science symposium sponsored by the National Academy of Sciences, this book describes recent accomplishments and new directions in ten basic fields, represented by outstanding scientists convening to discuss their research. It captures the excitement and personal quality of these exchanges, sometimes pointing to surprising connections spanning the boundaries of traditional disciplines, while providing a context for the reader that explains the basic scientific framework for the fields under discussion.

The volume explores:

  • New modifications to scientific theory as geologists probe deep inside the earth and astrophysicists reach to the limits of the observable universe for answers to some of nature's most fundamental and vexing questions.
  • The influence of research in smog formation on the public debate about how to effectively control air pollution.
  • The increasing use of computer modeling in science, from describing the evolution of cellular automata to revealing the workings of the human brain via neural networks.
  • The rise of dynamical systems (the study of chaotic behavior in nature) to a full-fledged science.
  • The search to understand the regulation of gene activity and the many biological problems—such as the onset of cancer—to which it applies.
  • Recent progress in the quest to transform what we know about photosynthesis into functional, efficient systems to tap the sun's energy.
  • Current developments in magnetic resonance imaging and its promise for new breakthroughs in medical diagnosis.

Throughout this work the reader is witness to scientific discovery and debate centered on such common concerns as the dramatic and transforming effect of computers on scientists' thinking and research; the development of more cross-disciplinary perspectives; and the very nature of the scientific enterprise itself—what it is to be part of it, and its significance for society.

Science at the Frontier is must reading for informed lay readers, scientists interested in fields other than their own, and science students considering a future specialization.

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