Mines and Bunkers: Volume 10, Fire Safety Aspects of Polymeric Materials (1980)

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Fire Safety Aspects of Polymeric Materials VOLUME 10 MINES AND BUNKERS Report of The Committee on Fire Safety Aspects of Polymeric Materials NATIONAL MATERIALS ADVISORY BOARD Commission on Soclotechnical Systems National Research Council Publication NMAB 318-10 National Academy of Sciences Washington, D.C. 1980 NAS·NAE JUN 0 2 1981 LIBRARY 

1Pr l/SJ- IpsSN3 V. JO L I I VOLUME 10 - MINES AND BUNKERS 0� ( 7q-J q J.0-1 � Fire Safety Aspects of Polymeric Materials ©TECHNOMIC Publishing Co., Inc., 1980 265 Post Road West, Westport, CT 06880 This work may be reproduced In whole or in part for the official use of the U.S. Government Printed in U.S.A. Library or Congress Card No. n-79218 ISBN 08n62-231-0 

NOTICE The project that is the su bject of this re port was approved by the G overni ng Board of the Nati onal Research Counci l , whose members are drawn from the Cou n­ cils of the National Academy of Sciences, the Nati onal Academy of E ngi neeri ng, and the I nsti tute of Medici ne. The members of the comm ittee responsi ble for the report were chosen for the i r special competences and with regard for appropriate bal ance. This repo rt has been reviewed by a grou p other than the authors according to procedures a pproved by a Report R eview Comm ittee consisti ng of members of the N ation al Academy of Sciences, the N ati onal Academy of Engi neering, and the I nstitu te of Medici ne. This study by the National Materials Advisory Board was conducted u nder Con­ tract No. 4-35856 wi th the National Bu reau of Standards. Pri nted in the United States of America . 

FOREWORD This vol u me is one of a series of reports on the fi re safety aspects of polymeric materi als. Th is work reported he re represents the resu lts of the fi rst i n-depth study of this important su bject. The investi gation was carried out by a comm ittee of d istinguished poly mer and fi re technology schol ars appointed by the National A­ cademy of Sciences and operating under the aegis of the National Materials Ad­ visory Board, a unit of the Comm ission on Soci otechnical System s of the National Research Cou nci l. Poly mers are a large class of materials, most new members of which are man­ made. Wh ile their versatil ity is demonstrated da i l y by thei r rapidl y bu rgeoning use, there is sti l l mu ch that is not known or not widely understood about thei r proper­ ties. In parti cu lar, the burn ing characteristics of pol ymers are onl y now be i ng fu l l y appreciated and the presen t study is a landmark i n the understand i ng o f the fi re safety of these u biquitou s materials. In the fi rst vo lumes of th is series the comm ittee has identified the l i m its of man 's knowl edge of the com busti bi l ity of the growi ng number of polymeric ma­ teri als used commercial l y, the natu re of the by-products of that combusti on and how fire behav ior i n these systems may be measured and predicted. The latter vol umes deal with the s pecific appl icati ons of pol y meric materials, and in all cases the comm ittee has put forth usefu l recommendations as to the di recti on for futu re acti ons to make use of these materials safer for society. Harvey Brooks, Chairman Comm issi on on Soci otechnical Systems 

ABSTRACT Thi s volu me in the series on the F i re Safety Aspects of Pol ymeric M ateri als focuses on the fi re safety aspects of natu ral and synthetic polymeric materi als prevai l i ng or constituting the su bstance of m i nes and bun kers. The methodology of fire scenario devel opment is descri bed and mine fi re scenarios are presented. F i re dynam ics and the materials used in mi nes are then criti cal ly reviewed. Design cri­ teria for mines, mine equi pment, and m i ne fire detection and suppression systems are exami ned i n deta i l and smoke and tox icity hazards are identified. Conclusions are drawn and appropriate reco mmendations are set forth. VOLUME S OF THIS SE RIE S Volume 1 Materi a l s : State of the Art Vol ume 2 Test Methods, Specifications, and Standards Vol u me 3 Smoke and Tox icity Vol u me 4 F i re Dynami cs and Scenarios Vol ume 5 E lements of Polymer F i re Safety and Guide to the Designer Volume 6 Ai rcraft : Civi l and M i l i tary Vol ume 7 Bui ldi ngs Vol ume 8 Land Transportation Veh icles Volume 9 Shi ps Vol ume 10 M i nes and Bunkers 

PRE FACE The Nati onal Materials Advisory Board ( N M AB ) of the Commission on Socio­ technical Systems, Nati onal Research Counc i l , was asked by the Department of Defense Office of Research and E ngi neering and the National Ae ron autics and Space Ad mi n istration to "in iti ate a broad survey of fi re-su ppressant polymeric materi als for u se in aeron autical and space veh icles, to i de ntify needs and oppor­ tunities, assess the state of the art in fi re retardant pol ymers ( i ncluding avai lable materials, products, costs, data requ i rements, methods of test and tox icity prob­ lems), and descri be a comprehensive program of research and devel opment needed to u pdate the tech nol ogy and accelerate appl icati on where advantages wi l l accrue i n performance a n d econ omy . " I n accordance with i ts u s u a l practice, the N M AB convened representatives of the requesting agencies and other agencies known to be work ing in the field to deter· mine how, in the national interest, the project m i ght best be u nderta ken . It was quickly learned that wi de du pl ication of interest ex ists. At the request of other agencies, sponsors h i p was made ava i l able to all govern ment departments and agen­ cies with an interest in fi re safety. Concurrentl y , the scope of the project was broadened to take i nto account the needs enunciated by the new sponsors as wel l as those of the ori ginal sponsors. In addition to the Departmen t of Defense and the National Aeronautics and Space Ad ministrati on, the tota l l ist of sponsors of th is study now com pri ses Depart· men t of Agriculture, Depa rtment of Com merce ( National Bureau of Standards), Nati on al F i re Prev· e ntion and Contro l Admin istration, Department of I nterior ( B u­ reau of Mines, Division of M i ning Research, Health , and Safety ) , Department of Housi n g and U rban Deve lopment, Depart ment of Health, Education and We l fare ( Nati onal I nstitute of Occu pational Safety and Health ), Department of Transporta· tion ( F ederal Avi ation Adm inistration, U. S. Coast Gu ard ) , Department of Energy, Consumer Product Safety Comm ission, Envi ronmental Protection Agency, and the Postal Service. The committee was origi nal l y consti tuted on November 30, 1 972. The m em ber· ship was expanded to its present status on July 25, 1 973. The new scope was establ ished after presentation of reports by liaison representatives wh i ch covered needs, views of pro bl em areas, current acti vities, fu ture pl ans, and relevant resou rce materi als. Tutorial presentations were made at meetings held in the Academy and during site visits, when the com m i ttee or its panels met with experts and organiza­ tions concerned with fi re safety aspects of pol ymeric materi als. These site visits (upwards of a doze n ) were an i mportant feature of the com mittee's search for authentic information. Additional i n pu ts of forei gn fi re technol ogy were suppl ied by the U.S. Army Foreign Science and Technology Center and N M AB staff. 

ACKNOWLE DGE ME NTS I n the drafti ng of th is report, va l u a ble in puts were made by a large number of people. Special th anks go to the members of the M i nes and Bun kers Panel that consisted of Fran k E. Karasz, Ch airman; Charles F. Reinhardt ; Arnold Rosenth a l ; G i u l iana Tesoro a n d t o the l i a ison members Davi d Forshey ; Herbert C. Lam b ; I rvi n g Litant; a n d Arnol d Weintraub. The su bstantial written contri butions b y E rnest B . Altekruse a n d R obert B. Wi l l ia mson are very much appreciated. I wou l d also l i ke to acknowledge with than ks Barna Toekes, Engineering and Management Consultant, for his contri butions in organi zation and editing much of the report. The fol lowi ng people at the Bureau of M ines, Pittsburgh, were especia l l y hel pfu l : D r. Robert F. Chai ken, M r. Harry C. Vera kis, M r. J. Navy, Mr. D . B u rgess, M r. R . W . Van Dolah, M r. M. Herzberg, a n d M r. J . Kuchta. M y apol ogies to those we may have inadvertently om itted. I acknowledge with gratitude the assistance in th is project of D r. Robert S. Shane, NMAB Consu l tant. Dr. Herman F. Mark, Chai rman 

NATIONAL MATERIALS ADVISORY BOARD Chairman : Mr. Wi l l iam D. Manly Senior Vice President Cabot Corporation Boston, Massachusetts Past Chairman : Mr. Jul ius J. Harwood D irector Mater ials Science Laboratory Engineeri ng and Research Staff Ford Motor Company Dearborn, Michigan Members D r. George S. Anse l l D r. Larry L He nch Dean, Sch ool o f Engineering Professor and Head Rensse l aer Polytechn ic I nstitute Ceramics D iv ision Troy, New York Department of Materials Sciences and Engineering Dr. H. Kent Bowen University of Fl orida Professor, Ceramic and E lectrical Gai nesv i l le, F l orida Engi neeri ng Massachusetts I nstitute of Tech nol ogy D r. R obert E. Hughes Cam bridge, Massachusetts Professor of Chemistry Executive Di rector Dr. Van L. Canady Materials Science Center Sen ior Pl anning Associate Department of Chemistry Mobi l Chemical Company Cornel l University New York, New York I thaca, New Yo rk Dr. George E. Dieter, Jr. D r. John R. Hutch i ns I I I Dean, Col l ege of Engineeri n g Vice President and D i rector of Universi ty o f Mary l and Research and Deve l opment Col l ege Park, Mary l and Techn ical Staff Division Corn ing G l ass Works Dr. Joseph N. Epel Corning, New York Director, Pl astics R esearch and Development Center D r. Sheldon E. lsakoff Budd Corporati on Di rector Troy, M i chigan Engi neering Research and Devel op­ ment D iv ision E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Co. , I nc. W i l m i n gton, Delaware 

D r. Frank E. Jaumot, Jr. D r. Dorothy M. Si mon D i rector of Advanced Engi neering Vice President and D i rector of Delco Electronics Division Research General M otors Corpo ration AVCO Corporation Kokomo, Indiana G reenwich, Con necticut Dr. James W. Mar D r. Wil l iam M . Spu rgeon Professor D i rector, Manufacturing and Aeronautics and Astronautics Quality Control Massachusetts I nstitute of Tech nology Bendix Corporation Cam bri dge, Massachusetts Southfield, M ich igan Dr. Frederick T. Moore D r. Roger A. Strehlow I nd ustri al Advisor Professor I ndustrial Deve l opment and Aerona utical an d Astron au tical F i nance Department Engineering World Bank Un iversity of I l l inois at U r bana­ Washington, D. C. Cha mpaign Urbana, I l l inois D r. R . By ron Pipes D i rector D r. Michael Tenen bau m Center for Com pos ite Mater ials Consu ltant Department of Mechanical and Flossmoor, I l l inois Aerospace Engi nee ri ng University of Del aware D r. Wi l l iam A. Vogely Newark, Del aware Professor .and Head Department of M i neral Eco nom ics Dr. Al len S. R usse l l Pennsy lvania State Unive rs ity Vice President - Science and University Park, Pennsy lvan i a Technology Al u m i n u m Company of Dr. Al bert R . C . Westwood America D i rector Pitts bu rgh, Pennsy lvania Martin Marietta La boratories Martin Marietta Corporation Dr. Joh n J. Schanz, Jr. Balti more, Mary land Senior Speci alist Congressional R esearch Se rvice- E N R Li brary of Congress NMAB Washingto n, D . C. D r. Wi l l ia m R. Prindle Executive D i rector D r. Arnol d J. S i l verman Professor Dr. Ro bert V. Hemm Department of Geology Execut ive Secretary University of Montana M issou la, Montana 

N AT I O N AL MATE R I AL S ADV ISO RY BO A R D CO MM ITT E E O N F I R E SA F E TY ASPECTS O F POLYM E R I C MATE R I AL S Chai rman H E R M A N F. M A R K, E meritus Dean, Polytech nic I nstitute of New York, Broo k­ l yn, New York. Members E R I C BAE R , Head, D ivision of M acromolecu lar Science, Case-Western Reserve U n i­ versity, Cleveland, Oh io. A L F R E D E. B R OWN, Celanese Corporation, New York. JO H N M. B UT L E R , Manager, Organic and Polymer Synthes is, Monsanto Research Corp., Dayton, Ohio. R AY M O N D F R I E DMAN, Vice Pres ident and Scientific Di rector, Factory M utu al R esearch Corp. , Norwood, Massachusetts. A LF R E D R. G I LB E RT, Manager, O rganic and Pol y mer Chem istry Branch, Chemis­ try La boratory, Corporate R & D, General Electric Company, Schenectady, New York. CA R LOS J. H I LADO, Research Professor, I nsti tute of Chemical Biology, Un iver­ sity of San F rancisco, Cal iforn ia. RAYMO N D R. H I N D E R S I N N , Section Manager, R esearch Center, H ooker Chem i­ cal Co. , N i agara Fal ls, New York. W I L L IAM C. H USH I NG, Vice President, Kensington Management Consul tants, Bath, Maine. F R A N K E. KA R ASZ, Professor and Co- D i rector, Materials Research Laboratory, Pol y mer Scie nce & Engineering Dept., Univers ity of Massach usetts, Amherst. TED A. LOO M I S, Professor & Chai rman, Department of Pharmacology , School of Medicine, Un iversity of Washington, Seattle. R I C HA R D S. M AG E E, Professor, Department of Mechanical Engi neeri ng, Stevens I nstitute of Technology, Hoboken, New Jersey. Ell M. P E A R C E, Head, Department of Chem istry, Professor of Polymer Chem istry and Chem ical Engi neering, Polytechn ic I nstitute of New York, B roo kl yn, New York. CHA R L E S F. R E I N H A R DT, Di rector, Haske l l Laboratory for Tox icol ogy and I n­ dustri al Medici ne, E. I . du Pont de Nemours and Co. , Newark , Del aware. A R NO LD R O S E NTHAL, Celanese Corporation, Su mm itt, New Jersey. DO NA LD G . SM I L LI E, Ch ief Structures Devel opment Engi neer, McDonne l l Doug- 

l as Corp. , Long Beach, Cal i forn ia. G I U L I A N A C. TESO RO, Adjunct Professor, F i bers and Polymers Laboratori es, M assachusetts I nstitute of Technology, Cambridge. N I CHO LAS W. TSCH O EG L, Professor, Depa rtment of Chem ical E ngi neeri ng, Divi­ sion of Chemistry and Chemical Engi neering, Cal ifornia I nstitute of Tech nology, Pasadena. R O B E RT B. W I L L I A MSON, Associ ate Professor of Engi neeri ng Science, Dept. of Civi l Engi neeri ng, University of Cal iforn ia, Berkeley. L iaison Representatives J E R O M E P E RSH, Staff Specialist for Materials and Structu res, O D USD R E ( ET), Department of Defense, Washington, D. C. E R N EST B. AL T E K R USE, Chief, Department of C l i n i cs, Moncrief Arm y H ospital , F ort Jackson, South Caro l i n a. A L LAN J. M cQUADE, U.S. Army Nati ck La boratories, Natick, Massachusetts. G EO R G E R. THOMAS, Depa rtment of the Army, Army M aterials and Mech anics R esearch Center, Watertown, Massachusetts. HE R BE R T C. LAM B, Nava l Faci liti es Engineering Command, Alexandri a, Virgi n i a. DAN I E L P R ATT, Naval Sh ips Engineering Cente r, Hyattsvi l l e, Mary l and. G EO R G E SO R K I N, Naval Sea Syste ms Command, Washington, D.C. JAC K ROSS, Wright-Patterson Ai r Force Base, Ohio. B E R NA R D AC H H AM M E R, National Aeron autics and Space Adm inistration, Ad­ vanced Research and Technology Division, Wash i ngton, D . C. JO H N A. PAR K E R, National Aeronautics and Space Adm inistration, Ames Re­ search Ce nter, M offett F ield, Cal i forn ia. A R NO LD W E I NTRAUB, Department of Energy, Wash i ngton, D . C. D AV I D F O R SH EY, Department of the I nterior, Bureau of M i nes, Washington, D . C. JOS EPH E. C LA R K, National F i re Prevention Contro l Agency, Department of Commerce, Washington, D . C. C LAYTO N H UGG ETT, Center for F i re Research, National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D . C. L E S L I E H. B R EDEN, F i re Safety E nginee ri ng Division, Center for Fire Research , National Bureau of Standards, Washi n gton , D.C. I R V I N G L I T ANT, Depa rtment of Transportation (DoT), Systems Center, Kendal l Square, Cambridge, M assachusetts. GEO R G E B AT ES, J R . , Department of Transportation, Federa l Aviation Adm in is- 

tration, Wash ington, D. C. R A LPH R U SSE L L, Aircraft Division, DoT, Federal Av iation Adm in istrati on , Na­ t i on al Avi ation Faci l ities Experi mental Station, Atlanti c City, New Jersey. PA U L W. SM ITH, Aviation Tox ico l ogy Laboratory, Civil Aeromedical I nstitute, Okl ahoma City, Oklahom a. R OBERT C. McG U IRE, DoT, Federal Aviation Administration, Washington, D . C. T HO M AS G. H O R E FF, DoT, Federal Aviation Administration, Washington, D . C. DAN IE L F. SHEEHA N, DoT, U. S. Coast G u ard, Washington, D . C. W I L L IAM J. WER NER, Department of Housing and Urban Development, Wash ing­ ton, D.C. DO NA LD L. MOORE, Department of Housing and U rban Develo pment, Washing­ ton, D.C. ROMA N K U C H K UDA, Environmental Protection Agency, Wash ington, D.C. NELSO N GETCHE L L, U . S. Depa rtment of Agricultu re, Beltsv i l le, Mary l and. W ILSON A. REEVES, Cotton Finished Laboratory, U.S. Department of Agricu l­ tu re, New Orleans, Louisiana. HE R BE RT W. E I C H NER, Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, F orest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wiscons in. R I CHA RD E. WI BERG, Nationa l I nstitute for Occu pational Safety and Health, Rockv i l le, Mary land. JAMES RYA N, Consumer Product Safety Comm ission, Bethesda, M aryland. J U RGE N KRUSE, M aterials Research Div., Office of Postal Science and Tech nolo­ gy, Rockville, Maryland. Technical Advisors I RV I NG N. E I N HOR N, Kent State Univers ity, Kent, Ohio. National Materials Advisory Board Staff ROBE RT S. SHANE, Consu l tant 

CONTE NTS Chapter 1 I ntroduction 1.1 Scope and Meth odology 1 1 .2 Scope and Lim itati ons 2 1 .3 Bun kers - A Special Consideration 3 1 .4 Com m i ttee Viewpoi nts 5 1 .5 Organi zati on of th is report 5 Chapter 2 Summary of Concl usion and R ecommendations 7 2. 1 I ntroduction 7 2. 2 General Conclus ions 7 2.3 Specific Concl usions and Recommendati ons 8 2.3. 1 F i re Dyna mics a nd Scenarios 8 2.3. 2 Materials 8 2.3. 3 Design Criteria in M i ne Safety and Hazard Control 9 2.3.4 Smoke and Tox icity 9 Chapter 3 F i re Dynamics and Scenarios 11 3. 1 I ntroduct i on 11 3.2 M i ne and Bun ker F i re Scenarios 11 3.2. 1 Gu idel ines for Development 12 3.2. 1 . 1 Pre- Fire Conditions 12 3.2. 1 . 2 I gnition Sou rce 12 3.2. 1 .3 Mater ial F i rst Ignited 13 3.2. 1 .4 Com bustion Types - Fl aming and Smoldering 15 3.2. 1 . 5 F i re Propagation 15 3.2. 1 .6 Evo l ution of Smoke and Toxic Gases 16 3. 2. 1 . 7 Detection 17 3. 2. 1 . 8 Extinguish ment 17 3.2. 1 . 9 Sum mary of Essential Scenario El ements 17 3.2.2 Gu idel i nes for Ana lysis 18 3.2.3 Selected M ine F i re Scenarios 20 3.2.3. 1 I nsulation and H ydra u l i c Hose F i re Causes Short Ci rcuit 20 3.2.3. 2 Fire Caused by Spontaneous Com bustion - Smoke, Heat, Tox ic Gases 22 3.2.3.3 Major M i ne F i re and Fatal ities Caused by Arcing Trol ley Cable 23 3.2. 3.4 Cutting M achine F i re Causes 27 3. 2.3. 5 Polyureth ane Foam F i re Caused b y Spontaneous Com bustion 29 3. 2.3. 6 Conveyor Be lt and Coal Dust F i re Presu mably Caused by F rictional Heat 31 

3.2. 3. 7 Coal Bed F i re Caused by Blast i ng 32 3.2.3.8 Coal F i re Caused by an E lectric Arc and a Subsequent Explos ion 34 3.2.3.9 Conveyor Belt and Ti m ber F i re Caused by Electric Arc 39 3.3 F ire Dynamics 40 3.3. 1 Properties of M i ne Fires 41 3.3. 1 . 1 Modes of Propagation 41 3.3. 1 .2 Control l i n g Mechan isms and Equ i l i brium States 42 3.3. 1 .3 Observati ons in Acci dental and Experimental M i n e F i res 45 3.3.2 Temperature of Fu mes Behind the F i re Zone 48 3.3.2. 1 Steady State Heat Exchange with Ai rway Walls 48 3.3.2.2 Non Steady State Heat Exchange with A i rway Wal ls 49 3.3.3 Forces Developed by Fumes 52 3.3.4 Qual itative Prediction of Vent i l ation Distu rbances Caused by F i res 54 3.3.4. 1 Horizontal Airways 54 3.3.4. 2 Ascensional l y Venti lated Ai rways 54 3.3.4.3 Descensiona l l y Venti l ated A i rways 55 3.3.4.4 Examples of Ai rflow Reversals 56 3.3.4. 5 Sui table Venti l ation Plans 56 3.3.5 Quanti tative Predictions of Venti l ation Distu rbances Caused by F i res 59 3.4 Conclu sions and Recommendations 59 3.5 R eferences 61 Chapter 4 Materi als 62 4. 1 I ntroduction 62 4. 1 . 1 F i re Safety Characteristics of Poly meric Material s 62 4. 1 . 2 F i re-Retardant Mechanisms 64 4. 1 .3 Economic Facto rs 64 4.2 Specific Polymeric Materi al s 64 4.2. 1 Wood 64 4.2. 2 The rmopl asti cs 65 4.2. 2. 1 Polyvinyl Ch loride 65 4.2.2.2 Styrene Polymers 66 4.2. 2.3 Polyolefins 66 4.2. 2.4 Acrylics 67 4.2. 2. 5 Nylon 68 4.2.2.6 Polycarbonates 69 4.2. 2. 7 Acetals 69 4.2. 2.8 Polyesters 70 4.2.3 Thermosetting Resins 70 

4.2.3. 1 Phenolic Resins and Molding Compounds 70 4.23.2 Urea/Formaldehyde and Melamine Formaldehyde Resins 71 4.2.3.3 Unsaturated Polyester Resins 71 4.2.3. 4 Epoxy Resins 72 4.2.3.5 Furan Resins 72 4.23.6 Amine Resins 73 4.2.4 Elastomers 73 4.24. 1 Hydrocarbon-Based Elastomers 73 4.2.4. 2 Chlorine-Containing Elastomers 73 4. 2.4.3 Nitrile Rubbers 74 4.2.4.4 Polyurethane Elastomers 74 4.2.4.5 Polysulfide Rubbers 74 4. 2.4.6 Silicon Rubbers 74 4. 2. 4.7 Phosphonitrilic Elastomers 75 4.2.5 Foams 75 4.2.5. 1 Polyurethane Foams 76 4.2.5.2 Polystyrene Foams 77 4.2.5.3 Poly(vinylchloride) Foams 77 4.2.5.4 Rubber Foams 77 4.25.5 Urea/Formaldehyde Foams 78 4.2.5.6 Phenol/Formaldehyde Foams 78 4.2.6 Fibers 78 4.2.6. 1 Natural Fibers 78 4.2.6. 1 . 1 Cotton 78 4. 2.6. 1 .2 Wood Fibers 78 . 4.2.6.2 Commodity Synthetic Fibers 79 4.2.6.2. 1 Speciality Synthetic Fibers 79 4.2.6.3 Inorganic Fibers 79 4.2. 7 Fire Retardant Coatings 79 4.2.7. 1 Alkyd Coatings 80 4.2.7.2 Intumescent Coatings 80 4.3 Specific Usage of Polymeric Materials in Mines 80 4.3. 1 Ventilation Cloth 81 4.3.2 Conveyor Belts 81 4.3.3 Electrical Conductor Insulation 84 4.3.4 Sealants 85 4.3. 5 Hydrocarbon Fuels 86 4.4 Conclusions and Recommendations 86 4.5 References 87 Chapter 5 Design Criteria in Mine Safety and Hazard Control 88 5. 1 Introduction 88 

5.2 A pproaches to Des ign Criteria Development 88 5.3 Belt Conveyors 90 5.3. 1 Descri pti on 91 5.3. 2 H istory of Hazard Control 92 5.3.3 Cu rrent R esearch and Futu re Trends 93 5.3.4 F i re Tests 93 5.3.5 F i re Warn i ng Systems 94 5.3.6 Suppresion of Conveyor Be lt F i res 95 5.4 Wire and Cable I nsu lation 96 5.4. 1 Test Program 96 5.4.2 Test Resu lts 97 5.5 H yd rau l ic Systems 99 5.6 Polyurethane Foam 101 5.6. 1 Descri pti on 1 02 5.6.2 Hazard Control 1 03 5.7 M ine F i re Detection 1 05 5.7. 1 Sensors and Systems 1 05 5. 7. 2 Recent Developments 1 06 5.7. 2. 1 Tu be Bundle Sampling 1 06 5. 7.2.2 Detection of Spontaneou s H eating 1 07 5.7.2.3 Spontaneous Com bustion Research 1 07 5. 7. 2.4 Develo pment of Sensors 1 08 5.8 I gn ition Quench i ng and F i re Su ppresi on 1 08 5.8. 1 Mine F ace l n gition Quench ing 1 08 5.8. 2 Coa l D ust Expl osion Barriers 1 09 5.8. 3 Remote Seal ing System for Extinguishing Coa l M i ne F i res 110 5.8.4 M ine Shaft F i re and Smoke Protection System 113 5.9 Surface M i n i n g Equ ipment Protection Systems 1 14 5.9. 1 Automatic F i re Protecti on Systems for Large Haulage Veh i cles 115 5.9. 2 F i re Protection System for Coa l Augers 115 5.9.3 F i re Protection of Su rface M i n i ng Mach i nery 1 16 5. 1 0 Concl usions and Recommendations 117 5. 1 1 References 118 Chapter 6 Smoke and Tox icity 121 6. 1 I ntroduction 1 21 6.2 Perspective on Experimental Data 1 22 6.2. 1 Experimental Work 1 23 6.2. 2 Cl in ical Data Based o n Aircraft F i res 1 23 6.3 Evaluating the Hazards of Tox ic F umes and Smoke 1 24 6.3. 1 Com parison of Mater ials 1 24