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Appendix B A Selected Annotated Bibliography on Grazing Hydrology by Gerald F. Gifford and Everett Springer Watershed Science Unit, College of Natural Resources, Utah State University, Logan l. Adams, S. N. 1975. Sheep and cattle grazing in forests: a review. J. Appl. Ecol. 12:143-152. Damage to trees by grazing animals and prevention of damage by fencing or use of unpalatable species; effects of grazing on forest soils, including compaction and loss of nutrients; grazing as a tool in forest management, and management practices favoring forest grazing, including fertilizer usage and stocking rates, are discussed. 2. Alderfer, R. B. and R. R. Robinson. 1947. Runoff from pastures in relation to grazing intensity and soil compaction. J. Amer. Soc. Agron. 39:948-958. A type F rainfall simulator was employed in this study. Runs were for 1 hour with l.4 inches of water applied. Generally the greatest amount of runoff came from the heaviest grazed plots. Heavy grazing was associated with low soil cover, high bulk density, and low porosity. Compaction was confined to the 0-1 inch layer. 3. Aldon, E. F. 1964. Ground-cover changes in relation to run-off and erosion in west-central New Mexico. For. Serv. Res. Rpt. RM-34: 4 p. In 1952 a cooperative study on three San Luis Experimental Watersheds in New Mexico was begun to determine the feasibility of restoring the more deteriorated portions of this region. Grazing management was started, but full control of the livestock through over winter use was not achieved until 1958. The periods 1952-58 and 1959-62 have been examined to determine the effect this different grazing years had on sediment, surface run off, and ground cover. In three years average ground cover, measured by three key grass species, doubled from 3 to 5% up to 6 to 12%. Bare ground also decreased. Sediment production decreased between 0.2 and 0.7 acre-foot per year on the watersheds. 302
303 4. Allis, J. A. and A. R. Kuhlman. 1962. Runoff and sediment yield studies on rangeland watersheds. J. Soil and Water ⢠Conserv. 17:68-71. Describes a study initiated in 1957 to establish effects of grazing on watershed values in the northern Great Plains. Results are inconclusive since no information on grazing was given. 5. Ames, C. R. 1977. Wildlife conflicts in riparian management: grazing. In Importance, Preservation and Management of Riparian Habitat - - A Symposium. For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rpt. RM-43: 49-5l. Grazing has a negative impact on riparian zones which constitute a small but important range resource. Protection of the riparian zone where fencing is an established use can only be effectively achieved through fencing. 6. Bailey, R. W. 1945. Determining trend of range-watershed conditions essential to success in management. J. For. 43:733-737. Accurate determination of the condition and trend of the plant cover and soil mantle, site by site, is considered the key to satisfactory range-watershed management. Many unsatisfactory range-watershed situations are attributed largely to an inadequate understanding of condition and trend, including a tendency to rely upon single-factor indices rather than to consider all of the observable site factors. As a solution, the author advocates further research in ecology and soils, a fuller use of range condition and trend in surveys and inspections, and higher professional qualifications for range-watershed managers. 7. Barnes, F. F., C. J. Krabel, and R. S. LaMotle. 1939. Effect of accelerated erosion on silting in Morena Reservoir, San Diego, County, California. U.S.D.A. Tech. Bull. No. 639: 22 p. The kinds and locations of sediment in Morena Reservoir are described, and it is shown that the reservoir had lost 10.5 percent of its useful storage capacity through sedimentation in the 25.7 years since its constructtion. Physical and vegetation features of the watershed are described. The severe slope erosion and valley trenching that characterize the watershed area are reported to be the result of overgrazing and burning. 8. Barnetr, A. P., E. R. Beaty, and A. E. Dooley. 1972. Runoff and soil losses from closely grazed fescue, a new concept in grass management for the Southern Piedmont. J. Soil and Water Conserv. 27:168-170.
304 Simulated storms of 5.3 and 4.28-in of 2-hour duration were applied to a 4-year old tall-fescue pasture which was close-grazed all year round. Runoff, soil loss and⢠an erosion index are reproted for each event. Computations are made for rotation cropping of the site. 9. Bentley, J. R. and M. W. Talbot. 1945. How many head? West. Livest. J. 23:21, 40, 42, 43. Discusses the effects of the degree of grazing on the forage and soil. 10. Branson, F. A., R. F. Miller, and I. S. McQueen. 1962. Effects of contour furrowing, grazing intensities and soils on infiltration rates, soil moisture and vegetation near Fort Peck, Montana. J. Range Manage. 15:151-158. Contour furrowing was applied to slick and semi-slick soils with three grazing intensities. Infiltration rates were greater on semi-slick soil than slick and decreased with grazing intensity. 1l. Bransons, F. A. and J. B. Owen. . Plant cover, runoff, and sediment yield relationships on Mancos Shale in western Colorado. Water Resour. Res. 6:783-790. Relationships between vegetation and hydrologic measure- ments for 17 watersheds near Grand Junction, Colorado, were subjected to correlation analyses. Six years of vegetation measurements, four vegetation measurement methods, and 15 years of hydrclogic records were used in the analyses. Highly significant correlation coefficients were found for percent bare soil and runoff, but the relationships were found for percent bare soil and runoff, but the relationships between bare soil and sediment yields were not statistically significant. Geomorphic parameters such as angle of junction, mean slope, drainage density, relief ratio, length-width ratio, and watershed area were more highly correlated with sediment yields than with runoff. Correlation coefficients for spring vegetation measurements and runoff were higher than for autumn measurements. First contact methods and step point vegetation measurement methods were superior to the loop method and the all contacts point method. Curves for the relationship of runoff to bare soil were strikingly different for three sets of watersheds from different precipitation zones. Bare soil measurements may provide rapid and inexpensive estimates of runoff for watersheds similar to the ones studied. 12. Brown, D. E., C. H. Lowe, and J. F. Huusler. 1977. South- western riparian communities: their biotic importance and management in Arizona. In Importance, Preservation and Management of Riparian Habitat: A Symposium. U.S.D.A. For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rpt. RM-43: 201-211.
305 The various riparian communities occurring in Arizona and the southwest are described and their biotic importance discussed. Recommendations are made concerning the management of streamside environments and their watersheds. These include recommendations pertaining to the classification and inventory of riparian habitats; the establishment of study areas; the regulation and elimination of livestock grazing; the greater consideration of streamside vegetation in authorizing warer management projects; and the more conservative use of our watersheds. 13. Brown, H. E., M. B. Baker, Jr., J. L. Rogers, W. P. Clary, J. L. Kovner, F. R. Larson, C. C. Avery, and R. E. Campbell. 1974. Opportunities for increasing water yields and other multiple use values on ponderosa pine forest lands. For. Ser. Res. Paper RM-219: 36 p. Multiple use productivity is described, with special emphasis on the Beaver Creek Pilot Watershed near Flagstaff, Arizona. Changes in productivity and environmental quality are described following livestock grazing and various levels of forest thinning and clearing. Preliminary analytical procedures allow the user to estimate the tradeoffs in production and environ- mental quality. 14. Bryan, K. 1940. Erosion in the valleys of the southwest. New Mexico Quart. 10:227-232. Discusses problems or arroyo cutting in the southwestern United States. Points out that there have been at least 3 alternating periods of cutting and deposition. The last period of channel cutting, which is still active, began since 1880. Attributes arroyo cutting to mainly fluctuations in climate and states that over-grazing is merely a trigger force which precipitated the most recent event of arroyo cutting. 15. Bryant, H. T., R. E. Blaser, and J. R. Peterson. 1972. Effect of trampling by cattle on bluegrass yield and soil compaction of a Meadowville loam. Agron. J. 64:331-334. Increasing experimental trampling pressures (corresponding to 0, 60, and 120 cow trips repeated four times during the season) resulted in increased penetrometer resistance and the occurrence of maximum resistance nearer to the soil surface. Neither of these factors was affected by the height of the herbage at trampling. Bluegrass yields from plots clipped at 2.5 cm prior to trampling were slightly lower than from plots not clipped prior tc trampling. Increasing trampling pressures caused decreased forage yields particularly for tramplings in June and September.
306 16. Buckhouse, J. C. and G. B. Coltharp. 1976. Soil moisture ⢠responses to several levels of foliage removal on two Utah ranges. J. Range Manage. 29:313-315. Range plant clipping studies were conducted at two elevations on Utah's Wasatch Plateau during 1966 and 1967. It was found that extreme clipping treatments (complete denudation) resulted in significantly less soil moisture withdrawal than the undipped controls at the mid-elevation location. No significant differences were found among clipping treatments at the subalpine location, however. 17. Buckhouse, J. C. and G. F. Gifford. 1976. Water quality implications of cattle grazing on a semiarid watershed in southeastern Utah. J. Range Manage. 29:109--113. During 1973 and 1974 wildland water quality analyses were performed on a semiarid, chained and seeded, pinyon-juniper site in southeastern Utah. The area was treated in 1967 and protected from grazing until 1974. In 1974 livestock grazing was introduced and investigations continued to determine if any deleterious land use effects were present from fecal contamination by cattle. No significant changes were noted in fecal and total coliform production (fecal pollution bacterial indicators) from grazing use. There is an element of risk involved whenever data generated from a small area are projected to larger land areas. However, it appears that this level of livestock grazing (2 hg/AUM) did not constitute a public health hazard in terms of fecal pollution indicators on the semiarid watershed. 18. Burke, W., J. Galvin, and L. Galvin. 1967. Measurement of structure stability of pasture soils. Trans. 8th Int. Congr. Soil Sci. 1964, 2:581-586. Various moisture values, the Atterberg limits and undrained shear strengths at saturation and at pF =2 were determined for six soils known to be subject to treading damage. The resulting classification of soils according to their resistance to treading damage agreed with practical experience. 19. Buttery, R. F. 1956. Range conditions and trends resulting from winter concentrations of elk in Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado. J. Range Manage. 9:148. Reports range conditions and trends in condition observed by the line-intercept and Parker three-step methods on two concentration areas of elk winter range.
307 20. Cable, D. R. 1975. Range management in the chaparral type " and its ecological basis: The status of our knowledge. For. Ser. Res. Paper RM-155: 30 p. Chaparral in Arizona is used far below its potential. Conversion to grass can greatly increase water and grass production, and improve wildlife habitat. Management options include conversion to grass, main- taining shrubs in a sprout stage, changing shrub composition, reseeding, and using goats to harvest shrub forage. 2l. Cable, D. R. and S. C. Martin. 1975. Vegetation responses to grazing, rainfall, site condition, and mesquite control on semidesert range. For. Ser. Res. Paper RM-149: 24 p. Over a 10-year period, mesquite control increases perennial grass production 52 percent. Perennial grass production was highly dependent on both the previous and current summer's rainfall, indicating 2 years are required for recovery from a 1-year drought. Stocking rates could be estimated as accurately from rainfall as from grass production. 22. Campbell, A. G. 1966. Effects of treading by dairy cows on pasture production and botanical structure on a Te Kowhai soil. N.Z. J. Agric. Res. 9:1009-1024. The effect of pasture dry matter CD.M.) production and ⢠botanical composition of treading by dairy cows while grazing autumn-saved pasture in late winter was examined over three years. The silty clay soil was close to field capacity when trodden. Levels of treading in these ways were compared with controls from which the grass was cut and removed or cut and rerurned to the plots at the same time as the treading treatments were imposed. The effects of heavy treading on D.M. production were not great in any year, nor was there any evidence of cumulative effects when pastures were trodden for three years in succession. Differences between years in D.M. production and botanical composition were much greater than those caused by treatment effects within years. It is concluded that for this soil type a single period of severe treading when grazing off autumn-saved pasture in late winter will have little effect on animal prod- uction from such pastures unless utilization of the pasture is so high that the small pasture production loss is critical for animal production.
308 23. Chandler, R. F., Jr. 1940. The influence of grazing upon certain soil and climatic conditions in farm woodlands. J. Amer. Soc. Agron. 31:216-230. Eighteen paired grazed and ungrazed woodlands in New York were compared. Results indicated taht grazed sites had lower organic matter, higher bulk density, lower moisture content, and higher surface soil temperatures. 24. Chapman, H. H. 1933. Influence of overgrazing on erosion and watersheds. Civil Eng. 3:74-78. Points out that too little control of grazing and of other agencies harmful to the natural cover is a cause of flood damage and the rapid increase in erosion in the Intermountain region of the United States. Notes that engineering works alone cannot prevent erosion damage and restore the protection given by nature. Cites examples of destructive erosion and gullying. Suggest an intensive scientific study of the causes of erosion so as to determine control measures. 25. Chichester, F. W., R. W. Van Kuren, and J. L. McGuinness. 1979. Hydrology and chemical quality of flow from small pastured watersheds. II. Chemical quality. J. Environ. Qual. 8:167-171. A beef cattle-pasturing system involving four rotationally grazed summer pastures with winter-feeding on one pasture was studied on sloping upland watersheds in Ohio to determine its effect on chemical quality of water. The concentrations of chemicals in runoff from the pastures, which were summer-grazed only, increased relative to that of incoming precipitation but not enought to significantly impair water quality. Mo measurable sediment was lost from the pasture used only for summer grazing, allowing no chemical movement via that pathway. Much soil and plant-cover disturbance on the pasture used for winter-feeding, however, resulted in increased runoff, some surface erosion, and more chemical movement as compared with the pastures grazed only in summer. Considerably more chemicals moved in subsurface than in surface flow from the summer pastures while amounts of chemicals transported from the winter-feeding pasture were equally as great in surface runoff and subsurface flow. Watershed surface management was a key factor in determining the flow route of water in excess of that used for evapo- transpiration and, hence, the pathways and amounts of chemical transport from the pastures.
309 26. Chisholm, T. S. 197l. Runoff from a pastured watershed in Louisiana. Louisiana Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. No. 799: 15 p. Data for the period 1966-69 is presented and analyzed to describe rainfall-runoff relationships for a 50-acre, pastured watershed. 27. Clary, W. P. 1975. Range management and its ecological basis in the ponderosa pine type of Arizona: The status of our knowledge. For. Ser. Res. Pap. RM-158: 35 p. Summarizes and evaluates available information about Arizona ponderosa pine-bunchgrass ranges. It covers physical-biological characteristics, factors influencing livestock production, grazing allotment conditions, and economics, and correlates grazing with ot-her uses. Several knowledge gaps are also identified. 28. Clemm, D. L. 1977. Survival of bovine enteric bacteria in forest streams and animal wastes. M.S. thesis, Central Washington Univ., Wenatchee, Wash.: 19 p. This study was designed to determine the survival capacity of fecal indicator bacteria in fecal material and forest streams in central Washington. Results indicated taht fecal coliforms and streptococci can survive for four to five weeks in streams and over a year in fecal material. 29. Colborg, A. E. 1972. Soil compaction effects of livestock grazing on a crested wheatgrass seeding in southern Idaho. M.S. thesis, Univ. of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho: 50 p. Grazing did not increase soil compaction to a great extent, rather the opposite was frequently observed with pulverizing action of hooves, loosening the soil surface. Infiltration rates were reduced, but not enough to require corrective measures. 30. Cottam, W. P. and G. Stewart. 1940. Plant succession as a result of grazing and of meadow dissication by erosion since settlement in 1862. J. For. 38:613-626. Ecological changes in the vegetation of mountain meadow- lands in the West have recently attracted much attention as a phase of the erosion problem. Ordinarily, too little information regarding the specific history of these Changes is available to permit accurate analysis. The history of the case treated in the following paper is, however, unusually well known. Mountain meadows in southwestern Utah is a spot of much local historical interest. Moreover, the rapid invasion of heavily grazed sagebrush and grasslands by junipers is an ecological change of major consequence from the standpoint of both rangeworkers and foresters.
310 3l. Cottam, W. P. and F. R. Evans. 1945. A comparative study of the vegetation of the grazed and ungrazed canyons of the Wasatch Range, Utah. Ecol. 26:171-18l. A study of two adjacent canyons, one of which has been protected for 40 years, while the other has been heavily grazed for 100 years, showed the danger of complete extermination of palatable species of grass and shrubs through over-grazing. Some highly palatable shrubs have a density in the grazed canyon of less than one-third that in the ungrazed, while shrubs of low palatability have a density 13 times as great as in the ungrazed canyon, and advanced gully erosion is common along a sheep trail. 32. Coupland, R. T., N. A. Skoglund, and A. J. Heard. . 1960. Effects of grazing in the Canadian Mixed Prairie. In Proc. 8th International Grassland Congr.: 212-215. Principal effects of grazing on 8 natural pastures and adjoining climax vegetation were a decrease in mid- grasses, increases in low-growing grasses and sedges, decreased cover, reduction in mulch, decrease in infiltration rate on fine textured soils, and some reduced root production. 33. Craddock, G. W. and C. K. Pearse. 1938. Surface run-off and erosion on granitic mountain soils of Idaho as influences by range cover, soil disturbance, slope, and precipitation intensity. U.S.D.A. Circ. No. 482: 21 p. Results indicated the superiority of wheatgrass in controlling erosion and runoff. Calls for maintenance of wheatgrass ranges in order to meet both range management and watershed protection objectives. 34. Croft, A. R., L. Woodward, and D. A. Anderson. 1943. Measurement of accelerated erosion on range-watershed land. J. For. 41:112-116. Soil losses, physical and chemical changes caused by accelerated erosion are greatest on watersheds where grazing has been heaviest and smallest on lightly grazed sites. Results suggest that grazing management must not only take into account forage management, but also the effects grazing may have on the soil. Disturbance can be either through mechanical action or cover removal. 35. Croft, A. R. and L. Ellison. 1960. Watershed and range conditions on Big Game Ridge and vicinity, Teton National Forest, Wyoming. U.S. Forest Service, Ogden, Utah. 37 p.
311 Discusses causes of accelerated erosion and deterioration of vegetation (mostly subalpine with some Pinus flexilis and Abies lasiocarpa) observed at ca. 10,000 ft. alt. in Yellowstone Park. Fire, livestock and pocket gophers contribute to the effects, but the primary cause is the grazing and trampling of elk (Cervus canadensis). 36. Crouch, G. L. 1978. Effects of protection from livestock grazing on a bottomland wildlife habitat in northeastern Colorado. In Proc. Lowland River and Stream Habitat in Colorado, Symp. Oct. 4-5, 1978, Greeley, Colo.: 118-125. Vegetation on a bottomland wildlife habitat protected from grazing for 7 to 25 years was compared to an adjacent grazed tract. Overall cover and height of the understory was about twice as great on the.ungrazed area for each evaluation, but did not change appreciably over the 18-year interval. 37. Currie, P. 0. and H. L. Gary. 1978. Grazing and logging effects on soil surface changes in central Colorado's ponderosa pine type. J. Soil and Water Cons. 33:176-178. Measurement of soil surface elevation on ponderosa pine-bunchgrass lands in central Colorado showed that 35-years of grazing and winter logging had not caused serious erosion. All measurements indicated an aggradation of soil surface material in relation to differences in ground cover, grazing, and timber removal. Aggradation on ungrazed areas exceeded aggradation on grazed or logged areas by less than 7 millimeters. 38. Currie, P. 0. 1975. Grazing management of ponderosa pine- bunchgrass ranges of thecentral Rocky Mountains: The status of our knowledge. For. Serv. Res. Pap. RM-15S: 24 p, Pine-bunchgrass ranges have historically been important livestock-producing areas in the central Rocky Mountains. Grazing will continue to be important, but in conjunction with other uses of the land. Livestock-management techniques are well developed and soundly based on research within the pine bunchgrass type. There is a need, however, to understand the interrelationships of other land uses, particularly as they relate to human population pressures. Research needs, as well as what is known, are described for several vegetation cover types. Other resources, such as timber, soil, and water, are evaluated in relation to grazing. 39. Darling, L. A. and G. B. Coltharp. 1973. Effects of live- stock on water quality of mountain streams. In Proc. Symp. Water-Animal Relations, Southern Idaho College, Twin Falls, Idaho, June 1-8: 1-8.
312 This study was designed to determine the type and extent of livestock grazing effects on the water quality of streams passing through grazing compartments. Emphasis was placed on the effect of livestock grazing on the bacteriological indicator groups of total coliform, fecal coliform and fecal streptococci, with less attention given to selected physical and chemical parameters. The study was conducted on three mountain streams in the Bear River Range of northern Utah. Significant increases in the bacterial counts were noted during the grazing of cattle and sheep at stream locations immediately down-stream from the grazing activity. Bacterial counts in streams draining grazed watersheds reached seasonal maximum values during the grazing period, while counts from the ungrazed watershed remained relatively low and constant. The chemical and physical water quality parameters showed no clearcut effect from livestock grazing. 40. Davis, G. A. 1977. Management alternatives for the riparian habitat in the southwest. In Importance, Preservation and Management of RiparTan Habitat: A Symposium. For. Ser. Gen. Tech. Rpt. RM-43: 59-67. Management and environmental consequences of different uses of riparian habitat are considered. Grazing was indicated as causing 1) increased potential for devastating floods due to elimination of vegetative cover on the adjacent watersheds; and 2) removal of herbaceous material and seedlings and/or sprouts of woody riparian species in the bottoms. Wildlife management in the riparian zone is also considered. 41. Dee, R. F., T. W. Box, and E. Robertson, Jr. 1966. Influence of grass vegetation on water intake of Pullman silty clay loam. J. Range Mange. 19:77-79. Ring infiltrometers were used to compare water intake rates on four different grass types representative of various successional stages. Results indicated higher infiltration rates for plants with a higher successional stage. Infilrration was correlated to standing vegetation, litter, and litter and vegetation combined. 42. Dobbin, C. E. 1933. Sudden floods initiate erosion (letter to editor). Civil Engin. 3 (comments on influence of overgrazing on erosion and watersheds): 334. Discusses historical growth of arroyos in Chaco Canyon and concludes that climatic phenomena as well as over- grazing may be causes of erosion.
3l3 43. Doran, J. W. and D. M. Linn. 1979. Bacteriological quality of runoff water from pastureland. Appl. and Environ. Microbiol. 37:985-99l. Runoff from a cow-calf pasture in eatern Nebraska was monitored for bacteriological parameters. Counts in runoff from both grazed and ungrazed sites generally exceeded recommended water quality standards. The fecal coliform to fecal streptococci ratio was used to distinguish between wildlife and cattle. Also, the use of Streptococcus bovis for evaluating the effectiveness of management practices on minimizing contamination of surface water is discussed. 44. Dorignac, E. J. and L. E. Love. 196l. Infiltration studies on Ponderosa Pine Ranges of Colorado. Rocky Mtn. Forest and Range Exp. Sta., Sta. Paper No. 69: 34 p. During the years 1941 through 1954, infiltration studies were conducted on six range pastures at the Manitou Experimental Forest. Using the Rocky Mountain infiltrometer the following conclusions were reached: 1. Infiltration varies with cover type on Ponderosa Pine ranges. 2. Weight of dead organic matter and the amount of noncapillary pores in the surface soil were the most important measured factors influencing infiltration rates of granitic alluvium soils occurring in the Manitou pastures. 3. Providing protection from cattle grazing resulted in an increase in infiltration rates from those measured at the start of the experiment in 1941. Rather rapid recovery of infiltration rates was observed on pine grass, which showed most of the increase taking place in the first six years of protection. In the grassland, recovery infiltration rates continued through 1954, or 13 years after the start of the experiment. 4. Infiltration rates in grassland and pine-grass can be estimated by measuring the quantity of dead organic material and non-capillary pores in the surface soil. 45. Dragoun, F. J. and A. R. Kuhlman. 1968. Effect of pasture management practices on runoff. J. Soil £ Water Conserv. 23:55-57. Field trials were conducted over a 22-year period to determine the effects of contour furrowing, light and heavy grazing regimes, and eccentric-disking on soil-water storage and forage production in a
314 bromegrass-legume pasture of 6% slope on a Holdrege silt loam soil receiving 25 in. average annual rainfall. Contour furrowing conserved, on the average, l.2 in/year more precipitation than untreated plots, but the increase in soil moisture did not produce better pasture. Runoff from eccentric disked plots was 15-30% less than from untreated plots and runfof duration from heavily grazed plots was more than twice that from lightly grazed plots. 46. Duce, J. T. 1918. The effect of cattle on the erosion of Canon Bottoms. Sci. 47:450-452. Outlines the effect of cattle on the erosion of the arid Canon Country in southeastern and southwestern Colorado. Describes the formation and growth of arroyos. 47. Duley, F. L. and C. E. Domingo. 1949. Effect of grass on intake of water. Univ. Neb. Agr. Exp. Sta. Res. Bull. 159: 15 p. Infiltration tests were made on a number of grassland soils by means of a 16- x 72-inch sprinkler type infiltrometer. Tests were made on native meadow and range pasture land in a moist subhumid to dry subhumid climate. The various types of grasses tested were effective in inducing a high intake rate of water into the soil. However, the total cover, including live grass and associated litter, was more significant than the kind of grass or the type of soil. On an area affected by overflow deposits and trampling by animals, the intake rate on blue grass land was reduced to a very low point. 48. Dunford, E. G. 1949. Relation of grazing to runoff and erosion on bunchgrass ranges. Forest Serv., Rocky Mt. For. & Range Exp. Sta. Res. Note No. 7: 2 p. Runoff and sediment were collected from six 1/100 acre plots. Two plots were controls; two were moderately grazed; and two were heavily grazed. Runoff from rainfall increased for both treated plots but significant increase in sediment yields were observed on the heavily grazed plot only. 49. Dunford, E. G. 1954. Surface runoff and erosion from pine grasslands of the Colorado Front Range, J. For. 52:923-927.
315 Heavy grazing (2-1/2 acres per cow-month) appeared to increase erosion and surface runoff. Moderate grazing (4-acres per cow-month) does not appear to have any effect on runoff and erosion. Conclusion for the Front Range is moderate grazing is best from both economic and watershed standpoint. 50. Dunford, E. G. and S. Weitzman. 1955. Managing forests to control soil erosion. In. Water, u.S.D.A. Yearbook 1955: 235-242. Outlines principles of integrating timber and watershed management to control erosion from forest lands. Describes factors responsible for accelerated erosion from forest lands. Recommends measures of fire pre- vention, grazing control, logging, and construction of logging roads for erosion control. 5l. Dunne, T. 1979. Sediment yield and land use in tropical catchments. J. Hydrol. 42:281-300. Analyzes sediment yields from 61 Kenyan catchments on a regional basis and concluded land use is the dominant control within each region. Rangeland was included in this analysis. 52. Edmond, D. B. 1958. The influence of treading on pastures: a preliminary study. N.Z. J. Agric. Res. 1:319-328. Treading damaged the pasture; most of the effect followed the first treading but repeated treadings altered botanical composition. Increased treading had increased influence on plant and soil. 53. Edmond, D. B. 1963. Effects of treading perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) and white clover (Trifolium repens L. ) pastures in winter and summer at two soil moisture levels. N.Z. J. Agric. Res. 6:265-276. Reduced yields appeared, in the main, to be due to the lower vigor of a lesser number of grass tillers in trodden pastures. Particularly in wet soil, direct effects on plants, such as root damage, plant displacement, and burial in mud, appeared to be important. There also appeared to be significant changes in the soil itself, such as limitation of soil air, indicated by gleying at 1 to 1-1/2 in. depth in winter. 54. Edmond, D. B. 1974. Effects of sheep treading on measured pasture yield and physical condition of four soils. N.Z. J. Exp. Agric. 2:39-43.
316 Treading of sheep at 49.4 equivalent/ha on Manawa ryegrass and Manawa-Huia white clover pastures on four soil types (yellow brown loam, yellow brown pumice, fine sandy loam and silt loam) reduced pasture production significantly. There was a slight increase in herbage N in trodden plots, but no difference in K, P or Mg in white clover. The average height of growing points in tillers in ryegrass was reduced by treading. Soil bulk densities were higher in the 0-2.5 cm layer on trodden plots on all soils. 55. Ellison, L. 1346. The pocket gopher in relation to soil erosion en mountain range. Ecol. 27:101-114. Study conducted along the Wasatch Plateau in Utah indicated the pocket gopher to be an agent of . geologic normal and accelerated erosion. The accelerated erosion activities of the pocket gopher are initiated by overgrazing and are related to degree soil mantle is dissected and percent of bare soil. 56. Fisser, H. G. 1975. Study of rangeland soil movement characteristics. I-n Watershed Management, Proc. ASCE Symp., Aug. 11-13, Logan, Utah: 421-422. Study initiated in 1963 in Wyoming used erosion transects to measure soil movement from four treatments: 1) protected, 2) no protection from grazing; 3) herbicides; and 4 ) no herbicides. Results indicated no significant soil movement associated with the grazing treatment. Sites treated with chemicals had significant soil movement, and sites with herbicides and grazing had extremely significant movement. 57. Forsling, C. L. 1928. The soil protection problem. J. For. 26:994-997. Cites the main effects of tearing down factors such as grazing, logging, and fire to be 1) reduction of plant cover, thereby allowing erosive forces to operate; and 2) removal of plant material which lowers the fertility of the soil and its productive capacity. Examples are cited as to effects of cover on erosion. Emphasis is on overgrazing. 58. Forsling, C. L. 193l. A study of the influence of herbaceous plant cover on surface run-off and soil erosion in relation to grazing on the Wasatch Plateau, Utah. U.S.D.A. Tech. Bull. No. 220: 72 p. Results of 15 years of rainfall and runoff measurements and seven years ofsnow runoff measurements for two watersheds in central Utah indicated that increased plant cover from 16 to 40 percent reduced rainfall-runoff by
317 64 percent, erosion by 57 percent, and snowmelt- runoff by 57 percent. 59. Forsling, C. L. 1932. Erosion on uncultivated lands in the intermountain region. Sci. Monthly 34:311-321. Discusses the impact of unmanaged grazing and public land use on the native plant cover and erosion in this region. 60. Frank, E. C., H. E. Brown, and J. R. Thompson. 1975. Hydrology of Black Mesa watersheds, western Colorado. For. Ser. Gen. Tech. Rpt. RM-13: 11 p. Eleven years of runoff and suspended sediment data show no relationship to bare soil intercept, -which decreased although grazing utilized an average of 40 percent of the grass. By current classification schemes, sediment yields indicate very minor amounts of geologic erosion. 6l. Gard, L. E., R. F. Fuelleman, C. A. Van Doren, and W. G. ammlade. 1943. Runoff from pasture land as affected by soil treatment and grazing management and its relationship to botanical and chemical composition and sheep production. J. Amer. Soc. Agron. 35:332-347. Follow up of study reported by Van Doren et al. (1940) relating soil treatment and grazing management. Results conclude that soil treatment and moderate grazing produce the lowest runoff. Soil loss was low from all plots. 62. Gary, H. L. 1975. Watershed management problems and opportunities for the Colorado front range ponderosa pine zone: The status of our knowledge. For. Ser. Res. Pap. RM-139: 32 p. Soils in the region were developed from granites, are relatively infertile, and erode easily after abuse. Water yields are relatively low. Plot studies corro- borated with large-scale studies on timbered and grazed areas have provide guidelines for maintaining satisfactory watershed conditions. 63. Gifford, G. F. 1975. Beneficial and detrimental effects of range improvement practices on runoff and erosion. In Watershed Management, Proc. ASCE Symp., Aug. 11-13, Logan, Utah: 215-248. Reviews hydrologic impacts of various range improvement practices, including grazing, with results on water quantity and quality.
318 64. Gifford, G. F., J. C. Buckhouse, and F. E. Busby. 1976. Hydrologic impact of burning and grazing on a chained pinyon-juniper site in southeastern Utah. Utah Water Res. Lab. PRJNR012-1: 22 p. Results of several studies conducted at Blanding, Utah on a chained pinyon-juniper site with several different slash disposal techniques and grazing superimposed are presented. Results indicated minimal impact on bacterial water quality by grazing at a rate of 2 ha/AUM; lower infiltration rates on grazed vs. ungrazed sites, and no apparent trends were detected in sediment production. 65. Gifford, G. F. and R. H. Hawkins. 1978. A preliminary approach towards hydrologic modeling of rangeland grazing management systems. In Proc. First Intern. Rangela-nd Congress, Denver, Color.: 279-283. This paper briefly presents a preliminary attempt at modeling rangeland grazing management systems. The model is synthesized around grazing intensity as the key to impacting infiltration rates in future projected grazing patterns. Impacted infiltration rates are then converted to runoff curve numbers for appropriate vegetation types, cover conditions, and infiltration rates for use in calculating runoff volumes by the U.S. Soil Conservation Service technique. 66. Gifford, G. F. and R. H. Hawkins. 1978. Hydrologic impact of grazing on infiltration: A critical review. Water Resour. Res. 14:305-313. The hydrologic importance of grazing is receiving increased attention on rangelands in the United States. The literature on this topic is fragmented. This paper explores the available literature for infiltration and runoff. Generally, data relative to range condition are not adequate for evaluating hydrologic impacts. Data relating grazing intensity to infiltration rates are not available, yet distinct limitations are evident. These limitations are discussed in terms of identifying future research needs. The greatest need appears to be a detailed definition of the long-term effects of grazing (by year and season) on infiltration rates as a function of site, range conditions, and grazing intensity. Once obtained, infiltration rates must be coupled with an appropriate method for generating runoff volumes, storm hydrographs, and long-term water yields.
319 57. Glinsk, R. L. 1977. Regeneration and distribution of sycamore and cottonwood trees along Sonita Creek, Santa Cruz, County, Arizona. In Preservation, Importance, and Management of Riparian Habitat: A Symposium. For. Ser. Gen. Tech. Rpt. RM-43: 116-123. This study describes the effects of livestock grazing and streambed erosion on the regeneration and distribution of sycamore and cottonwood trees. Sycamores reproduced from root and truck sprouts and because of this their distribution is not as likely to change significantly. Cottonwood reproduction was nearly absent in areas grazed by cattle, and was confined to the narrow erosion channel. If this regeneration pattern continues, the future maximum width of the cottonwood forest will decrease nearly 60%. 68. Gradwell, M. W. 1974. Laboratory test methods for the structural stabilities of soils under grazing. Trans., 10th Intern. Cong, of Soil Sci. 1:341-350. Tests of resistance to penetration and of plasticity at field capacity failed to correlate with the observed susceptibilities of some New Zealand soils to plugging under animal treading. Resistance to pentration and plasticity change under treading in the wet season and the change may take different directions for different soils. The volumes of large pores in the soils after simulated treading correlated well with field performance. This is attributed to the influence of air content on the direction of the changes that occur. 69. Gunderson, D. R. 1968. Floodplain use related to stream morphology and fish populations. J. Wildl. Manage. 32:507-514. For two contiguous sections of a Montana stream, the agricultural use of the floodplain was related to cover, stream morphology, and fish populations. In one section the vegetation of the floodplain had been reduced by clearing and intensive livestock grazing; in the other section, which had received light use by livestock, vegetation was relatively unchanged. This ungrazed section had 76 percent more cover (undercut banks, debris, overhanging brush, and miscellaneous) per acre of stream than the grazed section. Brown trout (+6 inches) were estimated to be 27 percent more numerous and to weigh 44 percent more per acre in the ungrazed section 'of the stream, although their rate of growth was similar in the two stream sections.
320 70. Hanson, C. L., A. R. Kuhlman, and J. K. Lewis. 1978. Effect of grazing intensity and range condition on hydrology of western South Dakota ranges. S. Dakota State Univ. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. No. 647: 54 p. Studies showed that grazing intensity and changes in range condition affected vegetation, mulch and annual and summer runoff. Effects on daily evapotranspiration rates indicated that low range condition had lower rates early in the summer with the maximum rate continued later in the summer than on the high range condition. 7l. Hanson, C. L. and J. K. Lewis. 1978. Winter runoff and soil water storage as affected by range condition. In Proc. First Intern. Rangeland Congress, Denver, Colo.: 284-287. These data cover seven winters from a range hydrology study conducted on Mixed Prairie of the northern Great Plains at Cottonwood, South Dakota. Watersheds in the high range condition with the most vegetation and mulch captured the most blowing snow and stored the most soil water. However, winter runoff was about the same from watersheds in medium and low range condition as it was from watersheds in high range condition. 72. Harms, L. L., P. Middaugh, J. N. Dornbush, and J. R. Anderson. 1975. Bacteriological quality of surface runoff from agricultural land. Part II. Water and Sewage Work 123:71-73. Cultivated and noncultivated field under snowmelt and rainfall runoff conditions were compared. Fecal coliform counts in snowmelt runoff were higher for the pasture and hayfields, exceeded water quality criteria more frequently, because cattle were pastured on these sites longer. Rainfall runoff data from the pasture indicate potential pollution problems, but data were lacking for any conclusions. 73. Harper, V. L. 1953. Watershed managementâforest and range aspects in the United States. Unasylvia 3:105-114. This paper is a general review of such things as development of public concern about watershed values and effect of cover on watershed values. Some examples of forest and range watershed protection and improvement work are discussed.
321 74. Hawkins, R. H. and G. F. Gifford. 1979. Hydrologic impacts of grazing systems on infiltration and runoff: development of a model. Utah Wat. Res. Lab. Hydrol. and Hydraul. Series UWRL/H-79/01. 14 p. The response of infiltration rate (fQ) to grazing systems is modeled, based on infiltration-grazing information available from past studies. As inputs the model used a grazing system schedule, initial infiltration rate, and a characteristic recovery time. The output is a sequence of infiltration rates, from which hydrologic impact inferences may be made. Background, development, usage, cautions, and future research needs are given. A computer program of the model is supplied. 75. Honczarenko, G. 1957. Effect of grazing on vegetal cover and physical properties of meadow soil. Zesz. Frobl. Postep. Nauk Roln. 74:101-105. Grazing on very wet soils results in a massive occurrence of Deschampsia caespitosa and Juncus effusus, associated with low porosity and excess moisture. Deterioration of physical properties is most likely to occur on sandy soils and peats, whereas finely-textured soils (alluvial soils, loess, clay soils) are less liable to structural deterioration. 76. Houston, W. R. 1965. Soil moisture response to range improvement in the northern Great Plains. J. Range Manage. 18:25-30. The study was conducted in Montana during 1958. Various soil sites and improvement practices were implemented and measurements made during 1959 and 1961. Rest from grazing reduced moisture stress on most clay soils, but moisture stress increased on fine sandy loam soils in 1959. The data from 1961 represented a drought year and no difference in moisture was noted on any treatment. 77. Hurault, J. 197l. The erodibility of overgrazed soils in the Adamawa high plateau (Cameroon). Infiltration studies. Bulletin de 1'Association Francaise pour 1'Etude de Sol No. 1:23-56. Vegetation, soil fauna, apparent density, infiltration and runoff were studied in soils of the Banyo region. The soils are mainly red ferrallitic soils with frequent stone lines and occasionally ferruginous concretions.
322 Precipitation is approximately 1850 mm, distributed over 8 months. The extent to which these soils are eroded appears to depend mainly on their infiltration capacity, which in turn is associated with soil fauna, particularly termites, whose abundance and activity depend on the amount of lignified material available. The presence of woody species is therefore essential for controlling erosion in these soils, but compaction and the high rate of runoff under savanna conditions could not be directly attributed to overgrazing. 78. Johnson, A. 1962. Effects of grazing intensity and cover on water intake rate of fescue grassland. J. Range Manage. 15:79-82. The study was conducted in southwestern Alberta in Canada. Sites included ungrazed and areas which had been grazed at four different rates for ten years. Infiltrometer results indicated that even after ten years of heavy grazing, soil erosion by water was not a critical factor in management. Infiltration rates increased as the amount of mulch and vegetation increased. 79. Johnson, E. A. T952. Effect of farm woodland grazing on watershed values in the southern Applachian Mountains. J. For. 50:109-113. The effects of 1.1 years of grazing cattle on a forested Appalachian watershed are reproted. The experiment is described; the effects of grazing on vegetation, soil, and water are presented; and practical implications of grazing mountain watersheds are discussed. 80. Johnson, 3. R., H. L. Gary, and S. L. Ponce. 1978. Range cattle impacts on stream water in the Colorado Front Range. For. Ser. Res. Note RM-359: 8 p. Studies on two adjacent pastures along Trout Creek in central Colorado indicated only minor effect of cattle grazing on water quality. Bacterial contamination of the water, however, significantly increased. Following removal of the cattle, bacterial counts dropped to levels similar to those in the ungrazed pasture. 8l. Johnston-Wallace, D. B., J. S. Andrews, and J. Lamb, Jr. 1942. The influence of periodic close grazing and pasture fertilization upon erosion control. J. Amer. Soc. Agron. 34:9630974.
323 Pastures treated with adequate lime and fertilizers did not show an increase in water loss or erosion with periodic close grazing. Untreated pastures were less effective in controlling erosion. 82. Jones, B. E. 1933. Grazing control stops no floods (letter to editor). Civil Eng. 3 (comments on "The Influence of Overgrazing On Erosion and Watersheds"): 333-334. Silting of Arrowrock Reservoir with a loss of 6% of capacity was due in part to wave action on the borders and placer mining on the south and middle forks of Boise River. The watershed of Boise River is in a National Forest but never-the-less is a source of silt. Discusses floods in Manti, Ephraim, and Six Hill Canyons in relation to rainfall and vegetative cover; Over grazing as a cause of erosion is not proven. 83. Keen, B. A. and G. H. Cashen. 1932. Studies on soil cultivation II. The physical effects of sheep folding on the soil. J. Agric. Sci. 22:126-134. In this study the depth of the compaction effect was 10 cm with the maximum effect at 3-4 cm. 84. Kennedy, C. E. 1.977. Wildlife conflicts in riparian management: water. I-n Importance, Preservation and Management of Riparian Habitat: A Symposium. For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rpt. RM-43: 52-58. Discusses some changes and effects caused by uncontrolled grazing on riparian habitat, which includes type con- version in riparian zone, interruption of food chain, and maintenance of unstable stream channel conditions. 85. Knoll, G. and H. H. Hopkins. 1959. The effect of grazing and trampling upon certain soil properties. Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci. 62:221-23l. Ring infiltrometers were used to study infiltration on ungrazed, moderately-grazed, and heavily grazed sites. Infiltration in a 2-hour period was 2.58, 2.08, and l.58 inches, respectively. Bulk densities were l.08, l.17, and 1.27 g/cc, respectively. The effect on available soil water was seen in May when there was none below 2 feet in the profile on the heavily grazed site. There was much less mulch on the heavily grazed site. 86. Kotok, E. I. 193l. Vegetative cover, the water cycle and erosion. Agr. Eng. 12:112-113. With accelerated erosion, management must check the abuses at their source whether they are fire, destructive logging, or overgrazing, and the best possible mantle of vegetation must be established.
324 87. Kotok, E. I. 1932. Solving the forest and water riddle. Am. For. 38:488-491. Summarizes surveys investigating the contribution of forest devastation, overcutting, destructive fires, overgrazing and other abuses of forest and uncultivated lands to present soil and water problems. 88. Kotok, E. I. 1932. Solving the water riddle. Illus. Can. Forest and Outdoors 28:415-413. Provides proof of the costly effect of throughtless removal of forest cover, of forest fires, and of unregulated grazing practice. 89. Kunkle, S. H. 1970. Source and transport of bacterial indicators in rural streams. In Interdisciplinary Aspects of Watershed Management, Symp., Montana State Univ., Bozeman, Montana. August 3-6, ASCE: 105-132. Water quality studies were conducted on the Sleepers River Basin in Vermont during 1967-197l. Various land uses were present and all were sampled for bacterial indicators. Stream bacterial counts were very dependent on the hydrology involved, regardless of the source. Sources of bacteria were: 1) land surfaces; 2) the channels; and 3) direct inputs (sewers). 90. Kunkle, S. H. and J. R. Meiman. 1967. Water quality of mountain watersheds. Hydro1. Paper No. 21, Colorado State Univ., Fort Collins: 53 p. Water quality was investigated from April 1964-September 1965 on mountain watersheds of limited use in the Colorado Front Range. Physical, chemical, and bacter- iological parameters were measured. Analysis indicated that the bacteria were closely related to physical parameters of the stream, particularly the "flushing effect". Seasonal trends and relationships to physical water quality parameters are discussed. 9l. Lassen, L., H. W. Lull, and B. Frank. 1952. Some plant-soil- water relations in watershed management. Cir. U.S. Dept. Agric. No. 910: 64 p. A review, diagrammatically illustrated, of available technical knowledge on the relations of vegetation with infiltration, runoff, streamflow, etc., and its application to the management of catchment areas.
325 92. Laycock, W. A. and P. W. Conrad. 1967. Effect of grazing on soil compaction as measured by bulk density on a high elevation cattle range. J. Range Manage. 20:136-140. Bulk density of the soil in grazed plots was similar to that in ungrazed exclosures both in early summer before grazing and in late summer after grazing. Increases in bulk density during the summer both in grazed and ungrazed areas were attributed to changes in soil moisture. Soils in early summer were moist and swollen and thus weighted less per unit volume than did the dry soils in late summer. 93. Laycock, W. A., H. Buchanan, and W. C. Drueger. 1972. Three methods of determining diet, utilization, and trampling damage on sheep ranges. J. Range Manage. 25:352-356. Results of this study indicated one-half to two-thirds of the herbage removed by grazing could be accounted for by trampling. 94. Leithhead, H. L. 1959. Runoff in relation to range condition in the Big Bend-Davis mountain section of Texas. J. Range Manage. 12:83-87. According to studies with infiltration rings, runoff is increased in this area as ranges deteriorate in range condition because the soil absorbs moisture slower. A range site in good condition absorbs moisture 5 to 6 times faster than the same range site in poor condition. The loss of moisture by evaporation from the first foot of soil is about three times greater in closely grazed, poor condition range than it is from the same site in good condition that has been properly grazed. 95. Liacos, L. G. 1962. Water yields as influenced by degrees of grazing in the California winter grasslands. J. Range Manage. 15:34-42. Heavy grazing for more than 35 years had resulted in a shallower soil than the ungrazed sites during the same period. Increases in water yield were attributed to reduced infiltration and percolation rates, and shallow rooted plants. Both of these. were caused by heavy grazing. 96. Lodge, R. W. 1954. Effects of grazing on the soils and forage of mixed prairie in southwestern Saskatchewan. J. Range Manage. 7:166-170.
326 Four sites were established with a grazed and ungrazed treatment for each site. Soil analysis indicated differences in moisture content and bulk density between treatments. 97. Love, L. D. 1958. Rangeland watershed management. Proc. Soc. Amer. Foresters, 1958:198-200. In this general discussion paper, Love points out some of the factors needed to maintain or foster good grassland watershed conditions. These are as follows: l. A cover of herbaceous vegetation consisting of a high percentage of bunchgrasses. 2. A large amount of litter covering the soil surface. 3. A small percentage of bare or exposed soil". 4. High non-capillary porosity of surface soils consistent with soil profile characteristics. 98. Lull, H. W. 1949. Watershed condition and flood potential. J. For. 47:45-48. A watershed condition classification utilizing plant density and extent of visible erosion as criteria was used on the Ephraim Creek watershed in Utah to determine flood potential zones. Runoff production from these zones was indexed by infiltrometers and remedial measures for the watershed are described. 99. Lull, H. W. 1959. Soil compaction on forest and rangelaands. U.S.D.A. Misc. Publ. No. 768: 33 p. Describes the process of compaction (a) by logging, (b) by trampling of men and animals, analyses the site factors that affect compaction (soil texture and structure, soil density, soil m.c., organic-matter content, frost), discusses the effects of compaction on infiltration and percolation and on vegetation, and suggests measures to reduce it. 100. Lusby, G. C. 1970. Hydrologic and biotic effects of grazing versus nongrazing near Grand Junction, Colorado. U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 700-8:232-236. Over a period of 10 years, 4 grazed watersheds on salt- desert rangeland have ahd a slight increase in the amount of bare soil and rock, and a decrease in ground cover; cover on paired ungrazed watersheds has remained virtually unchanged. Runoff in the ungrazed watersheds has been about 30% less than in the grazed watersheds, and sediment yield has been about 45% less. The greatest changes occurred about 3 years after livestock was ex- cluded from 1 watershed of each of the pairs. Within areas of similar physiography, runoff appears to be directly related to the percentage of bare soil on the watershed.
327 10l. Lusby, G. C. 1973. Hydrologic and biotic effects of grazing vs. non-grazing near Grand Junction, Colorado. J. Range Manage. 23:256-260. The effect of grazing on the hydrology of salt-desert type rangeland has been studied near Grand Junction, Colorado for the past 14 years. Measurements of pre- cipitation, runoff, erosion, and vegetation have been made in four pairs of watersheds. One of each pair has been grazed by cattle and sheep as is normal in the region, and the other has not been used since the beginning of the study. Measurements made 10 years apart show that all four grazed watersheds have had a slight increase in the amount of bare soil and rock and a decrease in ground cover; cover on ungrazed watersheds has remained essentially unchanged. Runoff in the ungrazed watersheds has been about 30 percent less than in the grazed watersheds and sediment yield has been about 45 percent less. The greatest change in each of the relationships occurred about 3 years after livestock were excluded from one watershed of each of the pairs. Preliminary studies indicate that within similar physiography, runoff is directly related to the percentage of bare soil present on a watershed. 102. Marston, R. B. 1952. Ground cover requirements for summer storm runoff control on aspen sites in northern Utah. J. For. 50:303-307. Results from 23 summer storms showed erosion to be negligible (less than 1 cubic foot per acre) when 5% or less of the rainfall ran off as overland flow. Erosion increased rapidly with greater amounts of storm runoff. Because stable soil is a first requisite in land management, 5% storm runoff appears to be the maximum allowable for watershed protection purposes en this type of land. During major storms, with rainfall rates in excess of 3.00 inches per hour, a ground cover of at least 65% is needed to keep runoff to less than 5%. 103. Marston, R. B. 1958. Parrish Canyon, Utah: A lesson in flood sources. J. Soil S Water Conserv. 13:165-167. Runoff was measured for 11-years on an undisturbed site. Following this calibration period, cover was removed and runoff and erosion were greatly increased. High erosion rates on catchment slopes in the area have been aggravated by heavy grazing and burning.
328 104. Martin, S. C. 1975. Why graze semidesert ranges? J. Soil and Water Conserv. 30:186-188. Population increases are dramatically changing land use in the arid Southwest. Range livestock, however, require little fossil fuel to make high-quality food from forage that is otherwise uneconomical to harvest. Good grazing management can control erosion, and improve forage, wildlife habitat, esthetics, and recreation. 105. Mason, L. R. 1970. A look at range relicts. J. Soil & Water Conserv. 25:18-19. A range site of 2,700 to 8,075 ft which had never been grazed had an estimated vegetation production of 1,100 Ib/acre. Vegetation was mainly shrub with about 4% grass. Erosion and other features usually interpreted as an indication of over grazing were present. Two other range sites showed wind and water erosion not due to grazing use. 106. Meehan, W. R., F. J. Swanson, and J. R. Sedell. 1977. In- fluences of riparian vegetation on aquatic ecosystems with particular reference to salmonid fishes and their food supply. In Importance, Preservation and Management of Riparian Habitat: A Symposium. Forest Serv. Gen. Tech. Rpt. RM-43: 137-145. The riparian zone has important influences on the total stream ecosystem including the habitat of salmonids. Shade and organic detritus from the riparian zone control the food base of the stream and large woody debris influences channel morphology. Temporal and spatial changes in the riparian zone, the indirect influences of riparian vegetation on salmonids, and the effects of man's activities are discussed. 107. Meehan, W. R. and W. C. Platts. 1978. Livestock grazing and the aquatic environment. J. Soil £ Water Conserv. 33:274-278. Reviews livestock grazing impacts on water resources, quantity, quality, and fish habitat. Suggestions for future research in the aquatic habitat area are made. 108. Meeuwig, R. 0. 1965. Effects of seeding and grazing on infiltration capacity and soil stability of a sub-alpine range in central Utah. J. Range Manage. 18:137-180. Seven years after discing and seeding to grass, main effects were: decreased organic matter and capillary porosity in the surface soil, greater soil bulk density, and decreased plant and litter cover. Seeding did not
329 significantly effect infiltration or soil stability. Grazing during the previous 4 years decreased plant and litter cover and non-capillary soil porosity, but increased capillary porosity in the surface soil and decreased infiltration and soil stability. 109. Meeuwig, R. 0. 1960. Watersheds A and B--A study of surface runoff and erosion in the subalpine zone of central Utah. J. For. 58:556-560. Flood-source areas cannot be restored by exclusion of grazing alone. Other remedial measures are required to restore watershed stability. 110. Meeuwig, R. 0. 1970. Infiltration and soil erosion as influenced by vegetation and soil in northern Utah. J. Range Manage. 23:185-188. The influences of vegetation, soil properties, and slope gradient on infiltration capacity and soil stability of high-elevation herbland on the Wasatch Front in northern Utah were investigated under simulated rainfall conditions Results emphasize the importance of vegetation and litter cover in maintaining infiltration capacity and soil stability. Infiltration is also affected significantly by soil properties, notably bulk density, aggregation and moisture content. 11l. Meiman, J. R. and S. H. Kunkle. 1967. Land treatment and water quality control. J. Soil 5 Water Conserv. 22:67-70. Comparisons of turbidity, suspended sediment, and indicator bacteria between an unimpacted and impacted, by grazing and irrigation watersheds. Results showed bacteria to be a better indicator of land use than either suspended sediment or turbidity. The study indicated a strong relationship between bacteria and overland flow, stream discharge, and season of the year. Storms magnified differences between impacted and un- impacted streams. 112. Milne, C. M. 1976. Effect of livestock wintering operation on a western mountain stream. Trans. ASAZ 19:749-752. Animals may be confined during harsh winter conditions experienced in the intermountain western United States.
330 Results of this study concluded that such practices have little effect on stream chemical properties; a significant effect on bacteriological parameters which is short-lived from the source; and bacteriological parameters appear to be more suitable for this type of analysis. 113. Mullen, G. J., R. M. Jelley, and D. M. McAleese. 1974. Effects of animal treading on soil properties and pasture production. Irish Agric. Res. 13:171-180. In a three year experiment treading increased bulk density and surface roughness and decreased aggregate stability, soil permeability and herbage production. There were no significant differences between the effects of the two treading rates (2.0 and 6r2 animals/ha). Herbage growth was better on ploughed and paraquat-treated soil than on undisturbed pasture soil, in two of the three years. 114. Munns. E. N. 1947. Hydrology of western ranges. J. Soil S Water Conserv. 2:139-144. In this paper the author reviews early development of the rangelands of the west and their over-use, abuse and eventual deterioration. From this he reviews very briefly some of the early work done in the west to control overland flow and mud rock flows from principally high elevation watershed lands. Most of the described work comes from that done at Davis County, Utah. 115. Murai, H., Y. Iwasaki, and M. Ishii. 1975. Effect on hydrological conditions by the exchanging of ground cover from forest land to grass land. Intern. Assoc. Sci. Hydrol. Pub. 117:457-464. Conversion from forest to grass decreased infiltration rates in mountainous land. Livestock grazing super- imposed on the conversion decreased infiltration rates even further. 116. Olson, 0. C. 1949. Relations between soil depth and accel- erated erosion on the Wasatch Mountains. Soil Sci. 67: 447-45l. Shallow soils or those with a light clay subsoil require additional measrues, such as contour trenching and reseeding, besides reduction or elimination of heavy livestock use to restabilize. 117. Orr, H. K. 1960. Soil porosity and bulk dnesity on grazed and protected Kentucky bluegrass range in the Black Hills. J. Range Manage. 13:80-36.
33l Soils samples from four exclosures and adjacent grazed sites were analyzed for bulk density and pore volume to determine the effects of grazing. Compaction was detected in only the top 4 inches of the soil at two sites, top 2 inches at a third site, and not readily apparent at the fourth site. Texture classes and age of the exclosures appears to be important considerations. 118. Orr, H. K. 1970. Runoff and erosion control by seeded and native vegetation on a forest burn: Black Hills, South Dakota. For. Ser. Res. Pap. RM-60: 12 p. Growth of seeded species in combination with reestablishment of native vegetation reduced overland runoff and soil erosion to tolerable levels within one to four growing seasons. Gross rainfall was a poor indicator of runoff and soil erosion from small plots. Trende were best defined by declining rates of runoff and sediment production per unit of excess rainfall. Sixty percent ground-cover density (live vegetation plus litter) is postulated as the minimum necessary for soil stabilization. This cover density almost certainly could not have been reached within the 4-year study period without seeding. Seeded grasses-timothy and Kentucky bluegrass on coarse- textured soil and timothy and smooth brome on fine- textured soil-were especially important because of their dispersion and abundance, and persistence of litter production. 119. Orr, H. K. 1975. Recovery from soil compaction on blue- grass range in the Black Hills. Trans. ASAE 13:1076-1081. Not until the second year after fencing did soils on heavily grazed bluegrass range show significant increase in macropore volume. Infiltration capacities also increased and summer runoff decreased. Results indicated that more than one season of protection is necessary for significant soil recovery. 120. Osborn, B. 1952. Storing rainfall at the grass roots. Range Mange. 5:408-414. Range condition and water intake are discussed for sites in Texas and Oklahoma. Generally, infiltration was higher with better range condition, unless there was an impermeable layer restricting moisture movement. Relationships between bulk density and organic matter to water loss were also included. 121. Packer, P. E. 1953. Effects of trampling disturbance en watershed condition, runoff, and erosion. J. For. 51:28-3l.
332 This study was carried out on a portion of the Boise River watershed in Idaho. The study was designed to find out what influence trampling had on bluebunch wheatgrass and cheatgrass ranges which normally had sufficient protective cover (approximately 70% cover or more). The 70% figure includes aerial plant cover plus litter and rock cover. Following the artificial trampling, a modified type F infiltrometer was used. The study showed that if the given site had 90 to 95% initial ground cover that overland flow and soil erosion was maintained at a safe level even under 60% trampling disturbance. If initial ground cover on wheatgrass and cheatgrass sites were in the range of 70 to 85 percent, then a trampling disturbance-of from 20 to 40% caused increases in overland flow and soil erosion beyond that which was considered a safe maximum amount. 122. Packer, P. E. 1963. Soil stability requirements for the Gallatin Elk winter range. J. Wildl. Manage. 27:401-410. From various plots which were installed to measure ground cover density, soil bulk density, and soil eroded by high-intensity rainfall, it was found that management objectives for restoring and maintaining soil stability on this elk winter range include ground cover densities of at least 70% and soil bulk densities no greater than 1.04 g/cc. 123. Paulsen, H. A., Jr. 1975. Range management in the central and southern Rocky Mountains: A summary of the status of our knowledge by range ecosystems. For. Ser. Res. Pap. RM-154: 34 p. Summarizes a series of comprehensive reports on the seven recognized ecosystems: Semidesert grass-shrub, southwestern chaparral, pinyon-juniper, central Rockies ponderosa pine-bunchgrass, Arizona ponderosa pine- bunchgrass, mountain grassland, and alpine. Includes what is known, what can be recommended, and what additional information is needed for each ecosystem. 124. Pearson, G. A., G. A. Jung, R. E. Fowler, and D. M. Mitchell. 1975. Effects of grazing on infiltration rates in waste- water spray fields. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc. 39:954-957. Many food-processors use grass-covered sprayfields for treating waste water. These fields are generally mowed one or more times each year. To eliminate mowing costs, such fields could be fenced and used as irrigated pastures. However, since the primary purpose of such fields is waste water treatment, adverse effects on infiltration must be avoided, particularly in areas with shallow soils that cannot be manipulated for over- land flow.
333 A portion of a food-processor's wastewater treatment field was fenced and grazed for approximately 5 months during the summer and fall of 2 successive years. The soil series was Sassafras sandy loam and the grass species were 'Kentucky 31' tall fescue (Festuca elatior var. arundinacea (Schreb.) Wimm.) and orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata, L.). The infiltration rate at saturation was measured frequently throughout the period of grazing. It was found that trampling reduced the infiltration rate from an initial value of 2-2.5 cm/hr to a final value of 0.3 cm/hr. 125. Pickford, G. D. 1932. The influence of continued"heavy grazing and of promiscuous burning on soring-fall ranges in Utah. Ecol. 13:159-17l. Primarily concerned with vegetation type changes following grazing, burning, and grazing-burning treatments. Results indicated for heavy grazing a decrease in total plant density with a shift from perennial grasses to sagebrush. 126. Platts, W. S. 1978. Livestock interactions with fish and aquatic environments: Problems in evaluation. In Trans. 43rd North Amer. Wildlife and Natural Resour. Conf.: 498-504. Present grazing systems are not compatible with the envir- onmental needs of streams. A methodology is presented to determine more quantitatively the impacts of grazing on fisheries. Needs include remov- ing the natural variation and unbiased evaluation of stream environment conditions. 127. Platts, W. S. 1978. Livestock interactions with fish and their environments: A symposium summary. In Cal.-Nev. Wildlife Trans.: 92-96. Assesses the influence livestock have on aquatic and riparian environments, provides recommendations for more compatibility between livestock grazing and fisheries, lists management objectives for protecting, restoring, or enhancing fish and riparian habitats, and describes beneficial management practices. The importance of recognizing the riparian ecosystem as a separate management unit within the range system was emphasized. 128. Ratliff, R. D. and S. E. Westfall. 197l. Non-grazing and gophers lower bulk density and acidity in annual-plant soil. For. Ser. Res. Note PSW-254: 4p. After 34 years of non-grazing use, the soil exhibited lower surface bulk density and acidity than an adjacent grazed site.
334 129. Rauzi, F. 1956. Water-infiltration studies in the Bighorn National Forest. Wyoming Agr. Exp. Sta. Cir. No. 62. 7 p. One hour infiltrometer runs were made on pastures which were pitted and non-pitted. Generally, lightly grazed pastures had higher infiltration rates at the end of the test period. The pitted range held 39% more water during the second 30-min. period of the test from the adjoining non-pitted range. 130. Rauzi, F. 1960. Water-intake studies on range soils at three locations in the Northern Plains. J. Range Management. 13:179-184. One hour infiltrometer tests were made at one North Dakota and two Montana sites. Vegetation and litter analyses were also concluded in conjunction with the infiltrometer runs. Sites were classed as high or fair range condition and low or poor condition. Ranges rated in high condition absorbed almost three times as much water as those rated in low conditions. Regression analysis was employed to determine the effects of vegetation and mulch on infiltration, and it was found these two variables could account for 45-84 percent of the variation depending on the site. 13l. Rauzi, F. 1963. Water intake and plant composition as affected by differential grazing on rangeland. J. Soil S Water Conser. 18:114-116. Infiltration studies were conducted on native pasture grazed at three different intensities. Results indicated that loss of surface cover and heavy grazing reduced water intake. Total infiltration on the moderately grazed site was l.6 times greater than the heavy grazed sites. The ungrazed area had a cumulative of l.8 times that on the moderately grazed site. 132. Rauzi, F. and A. R. Kuhlman. 196l. Water intake as affected by soil and vegetation on certain western South Dakota rangelands. J. Range Management 14:267-27l. During the summer months of 1957 and 1958, water intake studies were conducted on rangeland watersheds in the ten- to fourteen-inch precipitation belt new Newell, South Dakota. Data from four range sites on four watersheds showed that water-intake rates were correlated with range sites, as
335 mapped by the SCS, where the range condition class was comparable. The effects of surface conditions such as texture, cracking, and amount of cover are important factors but during prolonged rainfall sub-surface features become important in determining the amount of water absorbed during a storm event. 133. Rauzi, F. and C. L. Hanson. 1966. Water intake and runoff as affected by intensity of grazing. J. Range Management 19:351-356. Water intake rates on differentially grazed rangeland watersheds had a nearly linear relationship with the heavily grazed watershed the lowest and the lightly grazed watershed the highest rate. Annual runoff was greatest from heavily grazed watersheds and least from the highly grazed. Storm characteristics were a factor in the production of runoff. 134. Rauzi, F., C. L. Fly, and E. J. Dyksterhuis. 1968. Water intake on mid-continental rangelands as influenced by soil and plant cover. USDA Tech. Bull. No. 1390: 58p. Infiltration studies were conducted with a sprinkling infiltrometer on rangeland sites in six states in the northern and central plains. Analysis indicated that infiltration in the second thirty minutes of the 1 hour run was most clearly correlated with vegetal cover or total weight of herbage. Soil structure was the most important soil parameter in terms of infiltration. 135. Rauzi, F. and F. M. Smith. 1973. Infiltration rates: Three soils with three grazing levels in northeastern Colorado. J. Range Management 26:126-129. The influence of soil type, grazing level, and vegetation on infiltration rates were evaluated at the Central Plains Experimental Range near Nunn, Colorado. Total plant material was significantly correlated with infiltra- tion rates on two of the three soil types tested. Heavy grazing significantly decreased infiltration rates on two of the soil types. Grazing influences did not reduce infiltration rates after 20 minutes of simulated rainfall. 136. Read, R. A. 1957. Effect of livestock concentration on surface- soil porosity within shelter belts. J. For. 55:529-530. Bulk density, total pore space, and large pore space of surface three inches of soil were compared for three South Dakota shelter belts. Results indicated statistically significant differences between protected and grazed sites.
336 137. Reed, M. J. and R. A. Peterson. 196l. Vegetation, soil and cattle responses to grazing on northern Great Plains Range. USDA Tech. Bull. No. 1252: 79 p. Study was conducted from 1932-1946 on both winter and summer ranges; information on stocking rates was given. Heavy summer grazing reduced litter cover, volume of roots, and organic matter of the surface soil. Bulk density increased, and infiltration rate decreased as did depth of water penetration. Intermediate and light stocking levels during the summer as well as winter grazing did not indicate as much of an effect. 138. Reigner, I. C. 195l. Erosion studies on the Schoharie Watershed, New York. For. Ser. , Northeast Forest Exp. Sta.", Sta. Paper 44:17 p. Sedimentation of Schoharie Reservoir was measured in 1950, when drought had dropped water levels to record lows. Accumulated sediment had reduced total capacity by l.75 percent in 24 years. Fifty-five percent of the watershed is covered with forest and 43.5 percent is in grass. Forty-six percent of the watershed was moderately eroded; 80 percent of this area was in grass. Only 0.39 percent of the watershed was severely eroded. Road banks, stream- banks, and reservoir shore lines contributed about 6 per- cent of the sediment. Better grazing practices could do much to prevent erosion. A thorough study of the water- shed, with view to planning a land-use program, is recommended. 139. Rhoades, E. D., L. F. Locke, E. H. Mcllvain, and H. M. Taylor. 1964. Water intake on a sandy range is affected by 20 years of differential cattle stocking rates. J. Range Management 17: 185-190. Study was conducted in northwestern Oklahoma with four levels of continuous cattle grazing imposed for 20 years. Infiltration rates were inversely proportional to grazing intensity. Bulk density and penetrometer measurements indicated that grazing compacted the soil. Little soil loss was observed even on the heavily grazed sites. Infiltration rates were correlated with quantity of vegetative cover, living and dead, and range condition class. 140. Rich, J. L. 191l. Recent stream trenching in the semi-arid portion of southwestern New Mexico, a result of removal of vegetation cover. Amer. J. Sci. 32:237-245. Describes the nature of the recent stream trenching in the semi-arid portion of southwestern New Mexico and gives evidence that this condition is the result of the removal
337 of vegetative cover. Gives a description and history of Cane Springs Canyon as a typical valley and discusses the features and conditions of the valley filling. Notes that existence of course stream gravel overlying finer alluvial matter in the bottom of trenches indicates that its deposition is recent and due to increased volume of flood waters. Increased volume of flood waters is a result of increased runoff due to the removal of vegetative cover brought about by over stocking. Sights historical evidence that the reduction in cover as a result of over stocking has taken place and flood increases co- incident with trench formation are of recent date. 11l. Rich, L. R. 196l. Surface runoff and erosion in the lower chaparral zone-Arizona. For. Serv., Rocky Mtn. Forest and Range Exp. Sta., Sta. Paper No. 66: 35 p. Two watersheds in this 9 watershed experiment were opened to grazing and comparisons were made. Comparisons of the areal average infiltration capacities for a ten year period 1932-41 indicated no grazing effects. 142. Rich, L. R. and H. G. Reynolds. 1963. Grazing in relation to runoff and erosion on some chaparral watersheds of central Arizona. J. Range Management 16:322-326. These data suggest that chaparral lands of central Arizona, where characterized by an interspersion of shrubs and perennial grass on moderate topography, can be properly grazed without detriment to soil stability or water regime. If no more than 40% of perennial grass production is removed at the end of the summer growing season, ground cover does not deteriorate and appears sufficient to maintain a stable soil. 143. Robbins, J. W. D. 1978. Environmental impact resulting from unconfined animal production. Environmental Protection Agency Rpt. EPA-600/2-78-046: 34 p. This report outlines and evaluates current knowledge related to environmental problems resulting from unconfined animal production. Animal species directly addressed are cattle, sheep, and to a limited extent, hogs. Information for the report came from literature and current research reviews plus direct inputs from a group of 17 specialists in the subject field. Unconfined animal production utilizes about 40'% of U.S. land area, consists of hundreds of thousands of individual units, receives almost 50% of all livestock wates, and is compatible with a high quality environment. Associated environmental problems are limited to those that affect surface water quality. These nonpoint source problems
338 are not directly related to number of animals involved; they are intimately dependent on hydrogeological and management factors and are best described as results of the erosion/sediment phenomenon. 144. Sampson, A. W. and L. H. Weyl. 1918. Range preservation and its relation to erosion control on western grazing lands. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 675: 35 p. Discusses erosion damages and factors determining the amount of erratic runoff and erosion. Notes the effect of silt on fish and other aquatic life. Comments on excessive erosion and debris deposition due to flood of July 28, 1912, at head of Ephraim Canyon and to flood of July 30, 1912 in Becks Canyon in the Manti National Forest, Utah. Gives preventative and remedial measures. 145. Sarkisyan, S. S. and E. F. Shur-Bagdasaryan. 1967. Interaction of vegetation and soils of various mountain steppe pastures overgrazed and eroded to different extents. Pochvovedenie No. 12:37-44. On lightly grazed, non-eroded soil in Armenia, the sub- aerial and subterranean biomass was 5-10 times greater than on heavily or very heavily grazed and eroded soils. Thickness of the humus horizons (A + B) of soil decreased with increased grazing intensity, and those horizons were absent from very heavily grazed soils. 146. Sartz, R. S. 1970. Effect of land use on the hydrology of small watersheds in southwestern Wisconsin. In Symposium on the Results of Research on Representative and Experimental Basins, Wellington, N.Z., IASH/AIHS/UNESCO: 286-295. Runoff was compared between a heavily grazed catchment (grazed throughout the growing season) and a lightly grazed catchment (grazed only at the end of the growing season). Peak flow rates were three times higher from the heavily grazed pasture for 5 large events measured. Maximum sediment concentrations also indicated the effect of increased grazing intensity. 147. Severson, K. E. and C. E. Boldt. 1978. Cattle, wildlife, and riparian habitats in the western Dakotas. In Management and Use of Northern Plains Rangeland. Reg. Rangeland Symp., Bismarck, N.D., Feb. 27-28: 91-103. Impact of cattle on riparian zones is considered. Particularly important is the fact that these zones occupy relatively little area and will be overused no matter what the stocking rate. There is an indication that winter grazing does not seem to damage riparian zones as much as summer grazing. Common grazing systems two- and three-pasture deferred rotation did not appear to benefit riparian zones. Rest rotation has not been evaluated.
339 ,.48. Sharp, A. L. , J. J. Bond, J. W. Neuberger, A. R. Kuhlman, and J. K. Lewis. 1964. Runoff as affected by intensity of grazing on rangeland. J. Soil 8 Water Conserv. 19:103-106. In studies initiated near Cottonwood, South Dakota, in 1963, runoff was measured on ranges that had been subjected to light, moderate, and heavy grazing since 1942. The measurements of runoff made during 1963 indicate that runoff normally increases with increases in pressure and that heavy grazing is particularly condusive to increasing the proportion of rainfall that occurs as runoff. However, the data also show that with unusually abundant rainfall over a period of time, runoff from lightly grazed areas may be greater than from those moderately or"heavily grazed. The antecedent soil moisture is important when considering this latter point. 149. Smeins, F. E. 1975. Effects of livestock grazing on runoff and erosion. In Watershed Management, Proc. ASCE Symp., August 11-13, Logan, Utah: 267-274. Review of domestic livestock production impacts on vegetation and soils of the watershed. Concludes that moderate grazing may not increase erosion, but could in- crease runoff in relation to lightly grazed and ungrazed areas. 150. Smith, D. R. 1967. Effects of cattle grazing on a ponderosa pine-bunchgrass range in Colorado. USDA Tech. Bui. No. 1371: 60 p. Three grazing intensities were employed: 1) light 10-20 percent removal of current growth and dominant forage grasses; 2) moderate 3C-40 percent; and 3) heavy greater than 50 percent. Erosion rates measured by an infiltrometer were two to four times higher under heavy grazing than light grazing. Infiltration rates decreased in an area protected from cattle grazing for 11 years, while they remained about the same for the intensity of grazing over the other sites. 15l. Springfield, H. W. 1976. Characteristics and management of southwestern pinyon-juniper ranges: The status of our knowledge. For. Serv. Res. Paper RM-160: 32 p. The major problem in the pinyon-juniper type is widespread deterioration of the range resources due to overgrazing and increases in tree density. General guidelines are available for judging the condition and grazing management of pinyon-juniper ranges, as well as for deciding where and how to control trees.
340 152. Steinbrenner, E. C. 195l. Effect of grazing on floristic composition and soil properties of farm woodlands in southern Wisconsin. J. For. 49:906-910. Grased and ungrazed sites were compared in six woodlots located in Wisconsin. Water permeability indicated that ungrazed sites could transmit water from 3.3 to 245 times faster than grazed soils. Porosity was greater on ungrazed vs. grazed sites, as was organic matter content. 153. Stephenson, G. R. and L. V. Street. 1978. Bacterial variations in streams from a southwest Idaho rangeland watershed. J. Environ. Qual. 7:150-157. Sources and variations in b.acterial indicators are reported from stream sites over a 3-year period on a 233 km^ range- land watershed in southwest Idaho. The occurence of fecal coliforms was indirectly related to the presence of cattle on summer range and winter pastures. Fecal coliform counts in adjacent streams were found to increase soon after cattle were turned in and remained high for several months after cattle were removed. Runoff from rainstorms increased both total and fecal coliform concentrations in streams on summer range with limited management and adjacent to winter pastures, but runoff from snowmelt had little effect. Total coliform counts varied mroe with change in streamflow than did fecal coliform counts. In fenced summer range allotments, under deferred grazing management, the effects were the same, except bacterial counts were not as high or persistent. The decrease in bacterial concentrations at several downstream sampling sites indicated that certain stream segments were self-purifying. The presence or absence of livestock along the streams overshadow any effect variations in chemical concentration of the water might have on bacterial concentrations. 154. Stewart, G. and C. L. Forsling. 1931. Surface run-off and erosion in relation to soil and plant cover on high grazing lands of central Utah. J. Amer. Soc. Agron. 23:815-832. Results are presented from 2 experimental watersheds of approximately equal area in central Utah, at an elevation of about 10,000 feet. . Of the total run-off from the depleted area (16% plant cover) during 1915-1920, 4.16% was due to summer rainfall and 95.4% due to melted snow. The summer rainfall, however, carried 80.1% of the total sediment removed. After the plant cover had improved to 40%, only l.3% of the total run-off resulted from summer rains.
341 By increasing the cover on the depleted area to 40% cover, the total sediment eroded decreased 46% and the amount carried in each 1000 cubic feet of run-off water decreased 57%. Even when the previously depleted area was restored to 40% cover the runoff and sediment production was greater than the continuously well-vegetated area. Roughly, 3 to 5 times as much total water ran off the area with the poorer plant cover. 155. Stewart, G. R. 1933. A study of soil changes associated with the transition from fertile hardwood forest land to pasture types of decreasing fertility. Ecol. Monogr. 3:107-145. Typical soil conditions associated with the growth of hardwood forest, pasture grasses, and moss and fern were investigated in central New York. Change from trees to grass resulted in a loss of permeability to water, smaller water-holding capacity, and lessened air space. Forest soils and better pasture types have significantly deeper A and B horizons than did the poor grazing land, or the moss and fern areas. Root growth of better pasture grasses was more extensive than that of the poorer. Forest soils possessed the highest initial content of nutrates. Kentucky blue grass soils had the highest level of mineral nutrients. 156. Striffler, W. D. 1964. Sediment, streamflow, and land use relationships in northern Lake Michigan. For. Ser. Res. Paper LS-16: 12 p. Various land uses were compared within a drainage basin. Pasture occupied 18 percent of the land area and contributed 24 percent of the average sediment load. Fluctuations in stream discharge were theoretically higher from pastures. 157. Swift, T. T. 1926. Date of channel trenching in the southwest (letter to editor). Sci. 63 (letter refers to "Date of Channel Trenching in the Arid Southwest" by Bryan): 70-7l. Cites writers observations on bank erosion, increased channel width, floods of the Gila River, and arroyo cutting on Sansimon Wash as a result of overgrazing. 158. Talbot, M. W., H. H. Biswell, P. 3. Rowe, and A. W. Sampson. 1942. The San Joaquin Experimental Range. Other studies and experiments in the program of the San Joaquin Experimental Range. Calif. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 663:136-142. Describes studies on artificial reseeding of rangeland, runoff, and erosion as affected by cattle grazing, and the chemical composition of important range plants. Nine 1/40-acre plots were established on gentle slopes with grass cover for the runoff and erosion studies. The
342 plots were left ungrazed during 4 rainy seasons for purposes of calibration. During the next two seasons grazing of light and moderate intensity of cattle showed no signifi- cant increase in surface runoff and erosion. The study did not investigate total water yield nor the effects of heavy grazing. 159. Tanner, C. B. and C. P. Mamaril. 1959. Pasture soil compaction by animal traffic. Agron. J. 51:329-33l. Animal traffic caused serious compaction of fine textured pasture soils, severely decreased pore-space open to aeration, and caused a 20% decrease in alfalfa-brome- Ladino yields during the first pasturing year on Ontonogan clay loam. 160. Thilenius, J. F. 1975. Alpine range management in the western United States -- principles, practices, and problems. The status of our knowledge. For. Ser. Res. Pap. RM-157: 32 p. Reviews the present knowledge on the ecology and management of the alpine zone in western North America; describes the characteristics of the alpine; covers the unique ecology of the high-elevation, cold-dominated, alpine ecosystems; and discusses their management, with emphasis on the range resource and its relationship with other uses. 161. Thomas, G. W. and V. A. Young. 1954. Relation of soils, rainfall and grazing management to vegetation -- western Edwards Plateau of Texas. Texas Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 786: 22 p. Ring infiltrometer were used in this study. Results indicate the sod effects on initial infiltration, but in terms of a final constant rate the effects were seen in only 1 sod forming type. 162. Thompson, J. R. 1968. Effect of grazing on infiltration in a western watershed. J. Soil S Water Conserv. 23:63-65. Infiltrometer experiments and measurements of ground cover and soil bulk density were made on grazed and ungrazed plots of sparse, desert-shrub type vegetation growing on poor, shallow soils developed on Mancos shale. Results indicate that infiltration is affected less by grazing than by seasonal changes in soil-surface characteristics. 163. Tiedemann, A. R. and H. W. Berndt. 1971. Vegetation and soils of a 30-year deer and elk exclosure in central Washington. Northwest Sci. 16:59-66.
343 Quantity of vegetation and litter were higher in an exclosure than the adjacent area still accessible to wildlife. No differences in the soils of the two sites were noted. 164. Trimble, G. R., C. E. Hale, and H. S. Potter. 195l. Effect of soil-water relationships. For. Serv., Northeastern For. Exp. Sta. Pap. No. 39: 44p. In this study, grazing was indicated as having the greatest effect on soil-water relationships. Organic matter content was reduced by 32 percent and bulk density increased by 80 percent. Water movement and detention storage were reduced in the upper layers (A horizon). 165. Tromble, J. M., K. G. Renard, and A. P. Thatcher. 1974. In- filtration for three rangeland soil-vegetation complexes. J. Range Manage. 27:318-32l. A rotating disk rainfall simulator was used to examine infiltration-runoff relations from selected rangeland sites as influenced by a soil-vegetation complex. The simulator assisted in quantifying infiltration rates for different management practices on different soil types. Infiltration was greater for brush dominated plots than for either grazed plots or grass plots without grazing. Antecedent soil moisture decreased infiltration rates. Crown cover was approximately twice as much as brush plots as on grass plots and significantly influenced infiltration. 166. Turner, G. T. 197l. Soil and grazing influences on a salt- desert shrub range in western Colorado. J. Range Management 24:31-37. Responses of vegetation and ground cover to winter grazing by livestock and to exclusion of livestock for 10 years were observed on soils derived from shale, sandstone, and a mixture of shale and sandstone. Although distinct soil-vegetation relationships were evident, changes attributed to grazing were relatively small. Vegetation and other cover on nongrazed range was practically the same at the end as at the beginning of the study. Overall reductions in galleta, shadscale and snakeweed were attri- buted to drought, while differential responses of Salina wildrye, Gardner saltbush, Greenes rabbitbrush, and annual plants were ascribed to grazing. Inherently low site capability and subnormal precipitation were believed responsible for the general lack of response of vegetation to exclusion of livestock. 167. Turner, G. T. and H. A. Paulson, J4. 1976. Management of mountain grasslands in the central Rockies: The status of our knowledge. For. Serv. Res. Pap. RM-161: 24 p.
344 Knowledge is generally adequate for proper grazing management of these grasslands, but management and improve- ment costs tend to be relatively high because of their remoteness. Suggested improvements to increase range usability, improve forage production, and control livestock must be coordinated with water and timber production, and wildlife and recreation needs. 168. U.S. Forest Service. 1940. Influences of vegetation and water- shed treatments on runoff, silting, and streamflow. U.S.D.A. Misc. Publ. 397: 80p. This paper is a summary progress report of research dealing with land-water relationships, particularly the basic relationships between land use and runoff, debris deposition, the shoaling of stream channels, silting of reservoirs, and other phenomena that have followed logging, cultivating, burning and grazing. Includes a discussion on reservoir silting. 169. Van Doren, C. A., W. L. Burlison, L. E. Card, and R. F. Fuelleman. 1940. Effect of soil Treatment and grazing management on the productivity, erosion, and runoff from pasture land. J. Amer. Soc. Agron. 32:877-887. Plots were treated with limestone and phosphorous and regulated and intensive grazing were superimposed. On treated plots, regulation of grazing increased vegetal cover 3 to 4 times over the treated-intensively grazed plots; no difference in cover was noted for untreated plots under either grazing scheme. Essentially the same pattern held for runoff and sediment with treated-intensive grazing having more runoff and about the same soil loss. Land with no soil treatment indicated no response to grazing management. 170. Van Keuren, R. W., J. L. McGuinness, and F. W. Chichester. 1979. Hydrology and chemical quality of flow from small pastured watersheds: I. Hydrology. J. Environ. Oual. 8:162-166. Surface runoff, soil loss, and subsurface flow were measured from four rotationally grazed summer pastures. One of these pastures was also used as a winter-feeding area. Surface runoff volumes and peak rates from the three pastures used only for summer grazing were generally less as compared with values for earlier years when the fields were in meadow and light pasturing; however, runoff from the winter-feeding area was markedly increased. Both before and after the initiation of grazing, the area used only for summer grazing had but a trace of soil loss.
345 More soil was lost from the winter-feeding area, particularly during the dormant season. Water-balance studies indicated that during the growing season surface run-off and subsurface outflow were higher and evapo- transpiration (ET) was less from the winter-feeding area than from areas summer-grazed only. During the dormant season, surface runoff was higher and subsurface outflow was lower from the winter-feeding area than from the summer-grazed areas, whereas ET was similar. 17l. Whitman, W. C., D. Zellar, and J. J. Bjugstad. 1964. Influence of grazing on factors affecting water intake rates of range soils. Abstract from Proc. N. Dakota Acad. Sci. 18:7l. Comparisons between ungrazed or lightly grazed and moderately to heavy grazing on seven range soil types in North Dakota were made for the period between 1962-63. No effects were detected on organic matter content between uses and bulk density was l.16 g/cc on ungrazed versus l.23 g/cc on grazed sites. Infiltration rates for the second inch of applied water averaged 6.0 in/hr for ungrazed and 3.1 in/hr for grazed areas. Reduction in mulch was given as the reason for reduced infiltration rates. 172. Wind, G. P. and C. J. Schorthorst. 1967. The influence of soil properties on suitability for grazing on soil properties Trans. 8th Int. Congr. Soil Sci., 1964, 2:571-580. The bearing capacity depends mainly' on the bulk density of the topsoil; during grazing, bulk density increases by compaction until the bearing capacity equals the hoof pressure of the cattle. Trampling damage, instead of compaction, occurs when the soil is wet to saturation. To avoid trampling damage, depth of the ground-water table in peaty soil must be at least 60 cm during grazing in wet periods. Aeration and bearing capacity showed an inverse relationship. 173. Woods, C.N. 1948. Floods and the grazing of livestock on the watersheds of Utah. J. For. 46:387-389. A letter concerning generation of the disastrous floods in Utah. The author takes issue with a G. S. G. S. Water Supply Paper No. 994, Cloudburst Storms in Utah, which indicated natural phenomenon not land use activities caused floods. Mr. Woods provides information to contradict the conclusion reached in Water Supply Paper No. 994..
346 174. Woodward, L. and G. W. Craddcck. 1945. Surface runoff potentials of some Utah range-watershed lands. J. For. 43:357-365. How much, when, and why surface runoff occurs on mountainous range-watershed lands is of vital concern to wildland managers who must husband limited soil moisture to maintain productivity and at the same time protect down- stream areas from damage by floods and sedimentation. This paper describes the rainfall and infiltration charac- teristics responsible for overland flow on some of the mountain lands in Utah. Basic data are combined in three theoretical analyses to show (1) the amount of surface runoff to be expected for a number of sites when subjected to a major storm; (2) the minimum storm that'will produce runoff; and (3) the frequency at which runoff can be expected. The results indicate that great diversity of surface runoff on the mountain lands and the ways in which resource management can augment or reduce the hazard of overland flow. 175. Woolhiser, D. A., C. L. Hanson, and A. R. Kuhlman. 1970. Overland flow on rangeland watersheds. Ln Results of Res. on Repre- sentative and Experimental Basins", Wellington, N.Z.: 23-39. Describes the application of the kinematic cascade to model overland flow from watersheds which have different grazing intensities. Roughness for these conditions is discussed. 176. Woolley, R. R. 1933. Floods in well forested regions (letter to editor). Civil Engin. 3 (comments on the article "Influence of Overgrazing on Erosion and Watersheds: by Chapman): 296-287. Erosion due to rainfall and topography rather than over- grazing. Serious floods also occur in Vermont where overgrazing is unreported. Floods near Pueblo, Colorado were greater before grazing than after. The Wasatch Plateau in Utah provides favorable conditions for cloud bursts, hence floods result. 177. Yamamoto, T. 1963. Soil moisture contants and physical oroperties of selected soils in Hawaii. For. Ser. Res. Note PSW-2: 10 p. Data representing known land use are grouped into four categories: Forest, cultivated area, pasture, and idle grassland. 178. Yanamoto. T. and P. Duffy. 1963. Water storage capacities of soil under four different land uses in Hawaii. For. Serv. Res. Note PSW-5: 4 p.
347 Pore volume and size were higher under forest cover than under cultivation, pasture, or idle grassland. 179. Yates, M. E. 197l. Effects of cultural changes on Makara Experimental Basin: Hydrological and agricultural production effects of two levels of grazing on unimproved and improved small catchments. J. Hydrol. (N.Z.) 10:59-84. The effects of hard and lax grazing of unimproved and over- sown and topdressed pastures on small catchments of 0.6 - l.5 hectares are discussed. The oversowing and topdressing has resulted in a trebling of pasture production and, when hard grazed,-a trebling of stock-carrying capacity. Under lax grazing, the stock- carrying capacities of both unimproved and improved pastures have been reduced to two-thirds of those pertaining under hard grazing. Oversowing and topdressing decreased annual runoff, increased surface retention, reduced the number of days on which flow occurred, and reduced the percentage of occurrence of given daily runoffs over the greater part of flow range. Individual hydrographs have shown no increase in rise time but an increase in lag and depletion time, decreased flow before the peak, decreased peak discharges and decreased runoff. The magnitude of these changes was greater when the improved pastures were lax grazed.
