Laser Radar Progress and Opportunities |
Committee on Review of Advancements in Active Electro-Optical Systems
to Avoid Technological Surprise Adverse to U.S. National Security
Division on Engineering and Physical Sciences
NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL
OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES
THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS
Washington, D.C.
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COMMITTEE ON REVIEW OF ADVANCEMENTS IN ACTIVE ELECTRO-OPTICAL SYSTEMS TO AVOID TECHNOLOGICAL SURPRISE ADVERSE TO U.S. NATIONAL SECURITY
PAUL F. McMANAMON, University of Dayton, Chair
WALTER F. BUELL, The Aerospace Corporation, Vice Chair
MELISSA G. CHOI, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
JOHN W. DEVITT, Raytheon Vision Systems
ELSA GARMIRE, Dartmouth College
GARY W. KAMERMAN, FastMetrix, Inc.
KENNETH A. KRESS, KBK Consulting, Inc.
JEANETTE LURIER, Raytheon
PRADIP MITRA, DRS Technologies
PETER F. MOULTON, Q-Peak, Inc.
JONATHAN M. SMITH, University of Pennsylvania
ABBIE WATNIK, Naval Research Laboratory
ELI YABLONOVITCH, University of California, Berkeley
Staff
TERRY JAGGERS, Board Director
GREGORY EYRING, Study Director
DANIEL E.J. TALMAGE, JR., Program Officer
SARAH CAPOTE, Research Associate (until March 2013)
DIONNA ALI, Research Assistant
CHRIS JONES, Financial Associate
Preface
In today’s world, the range of technologies with the potential to threaten the security of U.S. military forces is extremely broad. These include developments in explosive materials, sensors, control systems, robotics, satellite systems, and computing power, to name just a few. Such technologies have not only enhanced the capabilities of U.S. military forces, but also offer enhanced offensive capabilities to potential adversaries—either directly through the development of more sophisticated weapons, or more indirectly through opportunities for interrupting the function of defensive U.S. military systems. Passive and active electro-optical (EO) sensing technologies are prime examples.
In 2010, the National Research Council (NRC) published the report Seeing Photons: Progress and Limits of Visible and Infrared Sensor Arrays. That report focused on key passive sensor technologies and concluded that detector technology was nearing background-limited infrared photodetection (BLIP) for many tactical scenarios, and that therefore new detectors were unlikely to provide any “surprise” technologies.
This report builds upon and expands the scope of the 2010 report by considering the potential of active electro-optical (EO) technologies to create surprise; i.e., systems that use a source of visible or infrared light (typically but not always a laser) to interrogate a target in combination with sensitive detectors and processors to analyze the returned light. The addition of an interrogating light source to the system adds rich new phenomenologies that enable new capabilities to be explored.
In late 2011, the intelligence community, with the U.S. Army as the lead, approached the NRC to conduct a study to evaluate the potential of active EO systems to generate technological surprise. In response, the NRC formed the ad hoc Committee on Review of Advancements in Active Electro-Optical Systems to Avoid Technological Surprise Adverse to U.S. National Security, and the study contract was signed in September of 2012. The statement of task given to the committee is as follows:
The NRC ad hoc committee will:
• Evaluate the fundamental, physical limits to active electro-optical (EO) sensor technologies with potential military utility; elucidate tradeoffs among technologies including: direct and heterodyne systems, scanning and flash ladar, Geiger mode, linear mode, and polarization based ladar, synthetic aperture vs. real beam ladar; and parameters including sensitivity, dynamic range, polarization sensitivity, etc. Compare these limits to the near term state-of-the-art, identifying the scaling laws and technical and other impediments currently restricting progress.
• Identify key technologies that may help overcome the impediments within a 5-10 year timeframe, the implications for future military applications, and any significant indicators of programs to develop such applications. Speculate on technologies and applications of relevance that are high impact wildcards with feasible deployment within 10 years. Discuss available laser illumination technologies, including wall-plug efficiency. Femtosecond pulse width laser sources should be considered. Discuss available detector/receiver approaches and technologies. Discuss laser beam steering approaches. Discuss processing approaches to convert ladar data into useable information.
• Consider the pros and cons of implementing each existing or emerging technology, such as noise, dynamic range, processing or bandwidth bottlenecks, hardening, power consumption,
weight, etc. Identify which state and non-state actors currently lead worldwide funding, research, and development for the key technologies. Highlight the scale, scope, and particular strengths of these research and development efforts, as well as predicted trends, timescales, and commercial drivers.
• Evaluate the potential uses of active EO sensing technologies, to include 3D mapping and multi-discriminate laser radar technologies. Laser vibration detection, atmospheric compensation, multiple illumination wavelengths, polarization, and speckle considerations should be included as methods of determining object identity and status.
A report will be authored by the committee addressing the foregoing tasks.
This has been a challenging effort because of the breadth of active EO sensing modalities and contributing technologies. A further complication is that discussion of military or dual-use applications of a technology is always limited by classification issues or other restrictions. The main body of this report is unclassified. Where possible we tried to use unclassified, publicly available sources to discuss the areas covered in the statement of task
This report was reviewed in draft form by individuals chosen for their diverse perspectives and technical expertise in accordance with the procedures approved by the Report Review Committee of the NRC. The purpose of this independent review is to provide candid and critical comments that will assist the institution in making its published report as sound as possible and to ensure that the report meets institutional standards for objectivity, evidence, and responsiveness to the study charge. The review comments and draft manuscript remain confidential to protect the integrity of the deliberative process.
We wish to thank the following individuals for their review of the report: Steven R. Brueck, University of New Mexico, Joseph Buck, Fieldcraft Scientific, Ronald G. Driggers, Naval Research Laboratory, James R. Fienup (NAE), University of Rochester, Robert Q. Fugate (NAE), New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology, William Happer (NAS), Princeton University, Sumanth Kaushik, MIT Lincoln Laboratory, Dennis K. Killinger, University of South Florida, Paul D. Nielsen (NAE), Software Engineering Institute, and Julie J.C.H. Ryan, George Washington University,
Although the reviewers listed above have provided many constructive comments and suggestions, they were not asked to endorse the conclusions or recommendations, nor did they see the final draft of the report before its release. The review of this report was overseen by Edwin P. Przybylowicz, Eastman Kodak Company. Appointed by the NRC, he was responsible for making certain that an independent examination of this report was carried out institutional procedures and that all review comments were carefully considered. Responsibility for the final content of this report rests entirely with the authoring committee and the institution.
The committee also thanks the NRC staff for its dedicated work, in particular Greg Eyring, the study director, and Dionna Ali, who managed the administrative and logistical aspects with grace and efficiency.
Paul McManamon, Chair
Walter Buell, Vice Chair
Committee on Review of Advancements in Active Electro-Optical Systems to Avoid Technological Surprise Adverse to U.S. National Security
Contents
Report Scope and Committee Approach
2 ACTIVE ELECTRO-OPTICAL SENSING APPROACHES
One-Dimensional Range Profile Imaging Ladar
Two-Dimensional Active/Gated Imaging
Three-Dimensional Direct-Detection Active Imaging
Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy
Commercial Laser/Ladar Products
3 EMERGING ELECTRO-OPTICAL TECHNOLOGIES
Temporal Heterodyne Detection: Strong Local Oscillator
Temporal Heterodyne Detection: Weak Local Oscillator
Digital Holography/Spatial Heterodyne
Multiple Input, Multiple Output Active Electro-Optical Sensing
Ladar Using Femtosecond Sources
General Conclusions—Emerging Systems
Remote Ultra-Low-Light Imaging
Quantum Dot Infrared Detectors
Beam Steering and Stabilization
Processing, Exploitation, and Dissemination
5 FUNDAMENTAL LIMITS OF ACTIVE ELECTRO-OPTICAL SENSING
Concluding Thoughts and Overarching Conclusion and Recommendation
B Meetings and Participating Organizations
C Laser Sources and Their Fundamental and Engineering Limits
Acronyms
1-D | one-dimensional |
2-D | two-dimensional |
3-D | three-dimensional |
AFRL | Air Force Research Laboratory |
A-GNR | armchair-edge-boundary graphene nanoribbons |
ALIRT | Airborne Ladar Imaging Research Testbed |
ALMDS | Airborne Laser Mine Detection System |
ALS | airborne laser scanning |
APD | avalanche photodiode |
ASE | amplified spontaneous emission |
BLIP | background-limited infrared photodetector |
BTEX | benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylene |
CALIOP | Cloud-Aerosol Lidar with Orthogonal Polarization |
CCD | charge-coupled device |
CLEAR | Center for Lidar Environmental and Atmospheric Research |
CMOS | complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor |
COD | catastrophic optical destruction |
CONOPS | concept of operations |
COP | coefficient of performance |
CPA | chirped pulse amplification |
CPM | critical phase matching |
DARPA | Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency |
DAS | detector angular sub-tense |
DAWN Doppler | aerosol wind lidar |
DBR | distributed Bragg reflector |
DIAL | differential absorption lidar |
DISC | differential scatter lidar |
DOP | degree of polarization |
DPAL | diode-pumped alkali laser |
DTED | digital terrain elevation data |
DWELL | quantum dot in the well |
EO | electro-optical |
ESA | European Space Agency, also excited state absorption |
ESPI | electronic speckle-pattern interferometry |
FFT | fast Fourier transform |
FLIR | forward looking infrared |
FM | frequency-modulated |
FMCW | frequency-modulated, continuous-wave |
FOPEN | foliage penetration |
FOV | field of view |
FPA | focal plane array |
FSM | fast steering mirror |
FTIR | Fourier transform infrared |
FWHM | full width at half maximum |
GM-APD | Geiger-mode avalanche photodiode |
GPS | global positioning system |
GPU | graphics processor unit |
GQD | graphene quantum dot |
GSD | ground sample distance |
GVD | group velocity dispersion |
HALOE | High Altitude Lidar Operational Experiment |
HDVIP | high-density vertically integrated photodiode |
HME | home-made explosive |
ICCD | intensified charge-coupled device |
ICL | interband cascade laser |
IDCA | integrated detector/cooler assembly |
IFF | identify friend or foe |
IR | infrared |
IR&D | internal research and development |
ISR | intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance |
ITAR | International Traffic in Arms Regulations |
JHPSSL | Joint High-Power Solid-State Laser program |
Ladar | laser detection and ranging |
LASCA | laser speckle contrast analysis |
LFM | linear frequency-modulated |
LIBS | laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy |
Lidar | light detection and ranging |
LIF | laser-induced fluorescence |
LIMARS | Laser Imaging and Ranging System |
LM-APD | linear-mode avalanche photodiode |
LO | local oscillator |
LOCAAS | Low Cost Autonomous Attack System |
LPE | liquid phase epitaxy |
LR-BSDS | Long Range Biological Standoff Detection System |
LWIR | long-wavelength infrared |
MCDS | multiple correlated double sampling |
MSM | metal semiconductor metal |
MBE | molecular beam epitaxy |
MIMO | multiple input, multiple output |
MIT | Massachusetts Institute of Technology |
MLE | maximum likely estimation |
MOVPE | metal organic vapor phase epitaxy |
MPE | maximum permissible exposure |
MWIR | mid-wavelength infrared |
NA | numerical aperture |
NASA | National Aeronautics and Space Administration |
NCPM | non-critical phase matching |
NDVI | normalized difference vegetation index |
NEI | noise equivalent input |
NEPh | noise equivalent photons |
NETD | noise equivalent temperature difference |
NIF | National Ignition Facility |
NIIRS | national imagery interpretability rating |
NIR | near infrared |
NIST | National Institute of Standards and Technology |
NPL | National Physics Laboratory |
NRC | National Research Council |
NRI | negative refractive index |
OAWL | optical autocovariance wind lidar |
OPA | optical parametric amplifier |
OPD | optical path difference |
OPG | optical parametric generator |
OPL | optical phase-locked loop |
OPO | optical parametric oscillator |
OSA | optical spectrum analyzer |
PC | photonic crystal |
PED | processing, exploitation, and dissemination |
PIN | p-doped-intrinsic (undoped)-n-doped |
PMT | photomultiplier tube |
PNR | polarization non-reciprocity |
PRF | pulse repetition frequency |
PSD | power spectral density |
QCL | quantum cascade laser |
QCW | quasi-continuous wave |
QD | quantum dot |
QDIP | quantum dot infrared photodetectors |
QE | quantum efficiency |
QPM | quasi-phase matching |
QWIP | quantum well infrared photodetector |
R&D | research and development |
Radar | radio detection and ranging |
RER | relative edge response |
RF | radio frequency |
RHI | range-height indicator |
ROIC | read out integrated circuit |
RRDI | range-resolved Doppler image |
RULLI | remote ultra-low light level imaging |
SAL | synthetic aperture laser ladar |
SALTI | Synthetic Aperture Lidar Tactical Imaging |
SAR | synthetic aperture radar |
SBS | stimulated Brillouin scattering |
SC | supercontinuum |
SCM | single carrier multiplication |
SERS | surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy |
SL | superlattice |
SNCR | signal-to-noise and clutter ratio |
SNL | Sandia National Laboratories |
SNR | signal-to-noise ratio |
SPGD | stochastic parallel gradient descent |
SPI 3-D | Standoff Precision Identification in Three Dimensions |
SPIDAR | spatially processed image detection and ranging |
SPM | self-phase modulation |
SPS | spectral pattern sampling |
SR | spectral reflectance |
SRL | scanning Raman lidar |
SVI | spectral vegetation index |
SVM | support vector machines |
SWaP | size, weight, and power |
SZ | surf zone |
TCPED | tasking, collection, processing, exploitation, and dissemination |
TDLAS | tunable diode laser absorption spectroscopy |
TEC | thermoelectric cooler |
TE-IPD | transferred-electron intensified photodiode |
TERCOM | terrain contour matching |
ToF | time of flight |
UAV | unmanned aerial vehicle |
UV | ultraviolet |
VAD | velocity azimuth detector |
VCSEL | vertical-cavity surface-emitting diode laser |
VIPA | virtually imaged phased array |
VSW | very shallow water |
WANDER | wavelength normalized depolarization ratios |
YAG | yttrium aluminum garnet |
ZDW | zero dispersion wavelength |