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Plasma Processing of Materials: Scientific Opportunities and Technological Challenges
Plasma Processing of Materials:
Scientific Opportunities and Technological Challenges
Panel on Plasma Processing of Materials
Plasma Science Committee
Board on Physics and Astronomy
Commission on Physical Sciences, Mathematics, and Applications
National Research Council
National Academy Press
Washington, D.C. 1991
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Plasma Processing of Materials: Scientific Opportunities and Technological Challenges
NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard for appropriate balance.
This report has been reviewed by a group other than the authors according to procedures approved by a Report Review Committee consisting of members of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine.
The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Frank Press is president of the National Academy of Sciences.
The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. Robert M. White is president of the National Academy of Engineering.
The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Stuart Bondurant is acting president of the Institute of Medicine.
The National Research Council was established by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy's purposes of furthering knowledge and of advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Frank Press and Dr. Robert M. White are chairman and vice chairman, respectively, of the National Research Council.
This project was supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. ECS-8922375, the Office of Naval Research under Contract No. N00014-89-J-1728, the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency under Contract No. N60921-91-M-3233, and the Air Force Office of Scientific Research through the National Science Foundation under Grant No. PHY-8814509.
Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 91-66812
International Standard Book Number 0-309-04597-5
Additional copies of this report are available from:
National Academy Press
2101 Constitution Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20418
S465
Printed in the United States of America
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Plasma Processing of Materials: Scientific Opportunities and Technological Challenges
PANEL ON PLASMA PROCESSING OF MATERIALS
JOSEPH PROUD,
GTE Laboratories Incorporated,
Chair
RICHARD A. GOTTSCHO,
AT&T Bell Laboratories,
Vice Chair
JAMES BONDUR,
Applied Materials, Inc.
ALAN GARSCADDEN,
Wright Research and Development Laboratory
JOACHIM V. HEBERLEIN,
University of Minnesota
G. KENNETH HERB,
AT&T Bell Laboratories
MARK J. KUSHNER,
University of Illinois
JAMES E. LAWLER,
University of Wisconsin
MICHAEL A. LIEBERMAN,
University of California, Berkeley
THOMAS M. MAYER,
Sandia National Laboratories
ARTHUR V. PHELPS,
Joint Institute for Laboratory Astrophysics
WARD ROMAN,
United Technologies Research Center
HERB SAWIN,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
HAROLD F. WINTERS,
International Business Machines
National Research Council Committee Liaison Representatives
JOHN H. PEREPEZKO,
University of Wisconsin, Solid State Sciences Committee
ANDREW U. HAZI,
Lawrence Livermore Laboratory, Committee on Atomic, Molecular, and Optical Sciences
CHARLES F. KENNEL,
University of California at Los Angeles, Plasma Science Committee
Government Liaison Representatives
JAMES B. GERARDO,
Sandia National Laboratories
LAWRENCE S. GOLDBERG,
National Science Foundation
JERRY J. PERRIZO,
Air Force Office of Scientific Research
CHARLES W. ROBERSON,
Office of Naval Research
JAMES R. ROBERTS,
National Institute of Standards and Technology
RONALD D. TAYLOR, Senior Program Officer
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Plasma Processing of Materials: Scientific Opportunities and Technological Challenges
PLASMA SCIENCE COMMITTEE
FRANCIS PERKINS,
Princeton University,
Chair
JONATHAN ARONS,
University of California, Berkeley
MAFIA ASHOUR-ABDALLA,
University of California, Los Angeles
IRA B. BERNSTEIN,
Yale University
E. M. CAMPBELL,
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
RONALD C. DAVIDSON,
Princeton University
ALAN GARSCADDEN,
Wright Research and Development Center
RICHARD A. GOTTSCHO,
AT&T Bell Laboratories
ROY GOULD,
California Institute of Technology
ROBERT L. McCRORY,
University of Rochester
JOSEPH PROUD,
GTE Laboratories Incorporated
NORMAN ROSTOKER,
University of California, Irvine
RAVI SUDAN,
Cornell University
Former Members of the Plasma Science Committee Who Were Active During Formation of the Panel on Plasma Processing of Materials (1988-1991)
CHARLES F. KENNEL,
University of California, Los Angeles,
Chair
DAVID E. BALDWIN,
University of Texas
JOHN M. DAWSON,
University of California, Los Angeles
JOHN H. MALMBERG,
University of California, San Diego
RONALD D. TAYLOR, Senior Program Officer
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Plasma Processing of Materials: Scientific Opportunities and Technological Challenges
BOARD ON PHYSICS AND ASTRONOMY
FRANK D. DRAKE,
University of California, Santa Cruz,
Chair
LLOYD ARMSTRONG,
Johns Hopkins University
HOWARD C. BERG,
Harvard University
WILLIAM F. BRINKMAN,
AT&T Bell Laboratories
PRAVEEN CHAUDHARI,
IBM T.J. Watson Research Center
GEORGE W. CLARK,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
JEROME I. FRIEDMAN,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
HAROLD P. FURTH,
Princeton University
MARTHA P. HAYNES,
Cornell University
CHARLES F. KENNEL,
University of California, Los Angeles
GILLIAN KNAPP,
Princeton University
STEVEN E. KOONIN,
California Institute of Technology
ALBERT NARATH,
Sandia National Laboratories
GEORGE W. PARSHALL,
E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Company, Inc.
JOSEPH M. PROUD,
GTE Laboratories Incorporated
VERA RUBIN,
Carnegie Institution of Washington
DAVID N. SCHRAMM,
University of Chicago
DANIEL TSUI,
Princeton University
DONALD C. SHAPERO, Director
ROBERT L. RIEMER, Associate Director
RONALD D. TAYLOR, Senior Program Officer
SUSAN M. WYATT, Administrative Associate
MARY RIENDEAU, Administrative Secretary
ANNE K. SIMMONS, Senior Secretary
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Plasma Processing of Materials: Scientific Opportunities and Technological Challenges
COMMISSION ON PHYSICAL SCIENCES, MATHEMATICS, AND APPLICATIONS
NORMAN HACKERMAN,
Robert A. Welch Foundation,
Chair
PETER J. BICKEL,
University of California, Berkeley
GEORGE F. CARRIER,
Harvard University
DEAN E. EASTMAN,
IBM T.J. Watson Research Center
MARYE ANNE FOX,
University of Texas
PHILLIP A. GRIFFITHS,
Institute for Advanced Study
NEAL F. LANE,
Rice University
ROBERT W. LUCKY,
AT&T Bell Laboratories
CLAIRE E. MAX,
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
CHRISTOPHER F. McKEE,
University of California, Berkeley
JAMES W. MITCHELL,
AT&T Bell Laboratories
RICHARD S. NICHOLSON,
American Association for the Advancement of Science
ALAN SCHRIESHEIM,
Argonne National Laboratory
KENNETH G. WILSON,
Ohio State University
NORMAN METZGER, Executive Director
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Plasma Processing of Materials: Scientific Opportunities and Technological Challenges
Preface
In 1989, the Executive Committee of the Division of Plasma Physics (DPP) of the American Physical Society (APS) made a presentation to the Board on Physics and Astronomy (BPA) arguing that a Plasma Science Committee should be established by the National Research Council (NRC). Shortly thereafter, the new committee was formed under the auspices of the BPA.
Among its first projects, the Plasma Science Committee (PLSC) launched a study of plasma processing of materials by convening an informational meeting at which representatives of the materials processing community provided technical background and identified issues and priorities. It was noted that low-temperature plasma science is vitally important to the industrial sector in areas such as materials processing and semiconductor fabrication. Yet the basic research and education efforts in this area are inadequate and are not nearly commensurate with its technical and economic importance. Accordingly, the PLSC called for the formation of a panel of specialists to carry out a science and technology assessment with the following specific charge:
Evaluate the potential impact of advances in low-temperature plasma science on surface processing technology, with emphasis on semiconductor applications.
Identify key research problems in plasma physics and chemistry and the interaction of plasmas with surfaces.
Recommend means to bring to bear the strengths of the plasma science community on the scientific, technological, and educational issues identified in the study.
The Panel on Plasma Processing of Materials (PPPM) was organized in 1990 and met several times to address this charge. The panel was selected to provide representation from industry as well as from academic institutions, and liaison members were appointed who concurrently served on the Plasma Science Committee, the Solid State Sciences Committee (SSSC), and the Committee on Atomic, Molecular, and Optical Sciences (CAMOS).
A daunting problem for the panel stemmed from the diversity of industrial applications of plasma-based systems used in the processing of materials. In its deliberations and its effort to focus the study, the panel concerned itself with two major areas of industrial applications, namely, microelectronics and aerospace. Three subpanels were formed to assess (1) applications of plasma processing of materials in the electronics and aerospace industries, (2) the basic plasma science that supports the applications, and (3) the related educational needs. The subpanels were charged to confront issues affecting the future health of the technology and science, the competitive position of the U.S. technology, identification of emerging technologies, the role of funding and coordination of research goals, and cooperation among industrial, academic, and national laboratory resources.
A two-day workshop was held early in 1991 to bring together some two dozen additional experts from the low-temperature plasma community for the purpose of soliciting their review of the panel's draft findings and to obtain additional input. Workshop participants reviewed a preliminary report by the panel and followed the topical approach of the subpanels. The workshop presentations and breakout groups emphasized identification of issues. The acknowledged diversity of subject matter was indeed matched by the diverse views of the
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Plasma Processing of Materials: Scientific Opportunities and Technological Challenges
participants, which led to lively debate but also to consensus on many of the key issues. This report, prepared by the Panel on Plasma Processing of Materials, is intended to summarize the views of the working panel members, the input received as a result of the workshop, the useful comments of numerous colleagues contacted by the panel, and many helpful suggestions contributed by the report's NRC-appointed peer reviewers.
The Panel on Plasma Processing of Materials finds that plasma processing of materials is a technology critical to implementing some of the key recommendations of the NRC study Materials Science and Engineering for the 1990s (National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1989) and to enhancing the health of the technologies identified in the Report of the National Critical Technologies Panel (U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1991), specifically in the areas of materials synthesis and processing and microelectronic processing.
Although the work of the panel is now complete, it is the hope of its members that this report will clarify the critical importance of low-energy plasma science in materials processing and that a coordinated national focus will be developed to meet the demanding technological challenges that lie ahead. The diversity and emerging nature of plasma processing suggest that this will not be an easy task, but it is one that must not fail, given the economic importance of the technology and its enormous potential for stimulating economic growth.
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Plasma Processing of Materials: Scientific Opportunities and Technological Challenges
Acknowledgments
The panel is grateful to R. McGrath for his extensive contributions to the chapter on education in plasma science, to J. Verdeyen for his input on the history of low-energy plasma science, and to R. Matula for his extensive literature searches. It is also indebted to J. Fincke and D. E. Ibbotson for their contributions to the basic science section, to A. Kornblit for his contribution to the applications section, and to J. T. Herron for his work on chemical kinetics and data base requirements. Contributions from E. S. Aydil, K. Ceraso, D. Economou, D. B. Graves, C. Jurgensen, L. E. Katz, S. Marshall, J.P. McVittie, G. Oehrlein, K. Olasupo, G. S. Selwyn, and D. Vitkavage are gratefully acknowledged. The panel could not have completed its work without the help of its NRC staff officer, Ronald D. Taylor. Thanks are also due to the editor, Susan Maurizi, and Anne Simmons, who prepared the manuscript.
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Plasma Processing of Materials: Scientific Opportunities and Technological Challenges
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Plasma Processing of Materials: Scientific Opportunities and Technological Challenges
Contents
1
Summary, Findings, Conclusions, and Recommendations
1
Summary
1
Findings, Conclusions, and Recommendations
2
2
Plasma Processing and Low-Energy Plasma Science
6
Classification of Plasmas
7
Brief History of Low-Energy Plasma Science and Technology
8
Industrial Applications of Plasma Processing of Materials
9
Interface Between Basic Plasma Science and Applications
11
Scope of This Report
11
3
Plasma Processing in the Electronics Industry
13
Microelectronics Fabrication
18
Plasma Etching
21
Anisotropy
21
Selectivity
22
Uniformity
22
Damage
23
New Materials
24
Plasma Deposition
24
Planarization, Filling, and Interconnection
25
Surface Modification
26
New Materials
26
Plasma Cleaning
28
Low-Pressure Plasma Reactor Technology
28
Single-Wafer Processing
29
Process Control
30
New Plasma Sources
30
Magnetic Confinement
30
Downstream Processing
31
Modulated Processing
31
Clustered Processing
33
Thermal Plasma Reactor Technology
33
Toward Flexible Microelectronics Manufacturing
34
Findings and Conclusions
35
4
Scientific Foundation of Plasma Processing
37
Surface Processes
39
Theory and Simulation
39
Experimental Studies
41
Beam-Surface Experiments
41
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Plasma Processing of Materials: Scientific Opportunities and Technological Challenges
Ex Situ Analysis
43
Plasma Generation and Transport
44
Low-Pressure Plasma Modeling
45
Analysis
45
Fluid Simulations
46
Particle-in-Cell and Kinetic Simulations
46
Thermal Plasma Modeling
47
Toward CAD Tools and Expert Systems
49
Chemical Kinetics
49
Multidimensional Modeling and Magnetic Effects
49
Stability of Processing Plasmas
50
Accuracy and Reliability of Numerical Simulation Methods
50
Plasma Diagnostics
51
Positive Ions and Neutrals
51
Electron Density and Energy Distribution
53
Fields
53
Negative Ions
53
Particulates
55
Reference Reactors
55
Data Base for Plasma Generation and Transport
55
Present Status
56
Needs
56
Distribution of Information
57
Plasma-Surface Interactions
57
Boundary Conditions
58
Passive Surfaces
59
Particulates
59
Microstructure Evolution
60
In Situ Analysis
60
Funding for Plasma Processing Research
61
Japanese Research
61
French Research
63
Findings and Conclusions
63
5
Educational Issues
65
Educational Requirements for Undergraduates
66
Laboratory Courses and the Scientific Method
67
Research Experiences and Cooperative Programs
67
U.S. Graduate Education
67
Texts and Computer-aided Instruction
69
Faculty Development
69
Continuing Education
69
Foreign Educational Offerings
70
Japan
70
France
71
Findings and Conclusions
72
Appendix: Participants in Workshop on Plasma Processing of Materials
75
