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Suggested Citation:"Summary." National Research Council. 1975. Nonhuman Primates: Usage and Availability for Biomedical Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18765.
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Suggested Citation:"Summary." National Research Council. 1975. Nonhuman Primates: Usage and Availability for Biomedical Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18765.
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Page 92
Suggested Citation:"Summary." National Research Council. 1975. Nonhuman Primates: Usage and Availability for Biomedical Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18765.
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Page 93
Suggested Citation:"Summary." National Research Council. 1975. Nonhuman Primates: Usage and Availability for Biomedical Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18765.
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Page 94
Suggested Citation:"Summary." National Research Council. 1975. Nonhuman Primates: Usage and Availability for Biomedical Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18765.
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Page 95
Suggested Citation:"Summary." National Research Council. 1975. Nonhuman Primates: Usage and Availability for Biomedical Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18765.
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Suggested Citation:"Summary." National Research Council. 1975. Nonhuman Primates: Usage and Availability for Biomedical Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18765.
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Page 97
Suggested Citation:"Summary." National Research Council. 1975. Nonhuman Primates: Usage and Availability for Biomedical Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18765.
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SUMMARY Usage and acquisition patterns for primates in the United States can be described by four parameters: 1) the holding capacities of facilities using primates, 2) the volume of imported primates, 3) the biomedical uses of primates, and 4) current breeding programs. Size of Facilities Using Primates The results of a 1973 ILAR survey are summarized in Table 35. Inven- tories of nearly 50, 000 primates were identified by respondents to the questionnaires. The facilities in the private sector included research" institutions, pharmaceutical companies, and hospitals; universities and primate centers; and state and local health departments. Federal govern- ment facilities reported holding 7, 150 primates with 3,000 of these primates held intramurally at NIH, 2, 600 at military laboratories and Veterans Administration hospitals, and 400 at other facilities including the Center for Disease Control. The final 1,150 primates held at the Caribbean Primate Research Center were included with federal facilities. Because the term "use" led to ambiguities in estimating the total number of primates used for biomedical programs, it was found to be less appropriate for annual reports than records of inventories and new acquisitions. Under the Animal Welfare Act of 1970, USDA registered facilities in the private sector and reported usages of 55,000 primates by 276 research facilities in 1972 and a similar number in 1973. Although inventories and usages were not strictly comparable, if a third of the omitted facilities in the private sector were assumed to hold a third of the primates, then the total inventory of biomedical facilities nationwide should be adjusted to 68, 000. The Volume of Imported Primates The estimated volume of primates most frequently imported in 1972 are contrasted in Table 36 with those volumes reported by users and suppliers to be imported for biomedical programs in 1973. The majority of the 34), 600 Old World primates imported were used in biomedical programs. Of the total imports, 2,400 were species generally imported only for exhibition. Three of the four most frequently used primate species were imported from South America, although only 1/4-1/2 of the New World imports were identified as used in biomedical programs. The most frequently imported species were rhesus macaques, squirrel monkeys, marmosets, and capuchins. These species along with vervets, long-tailed macaques, baboons, and night monkeys were the most widely used scientifically. 91

92 TABLE 35 NUMBERS OF PRIMATES MAINTAINED FOR BIOMEDICAL PROGRAMS IN UNITED STATES INSTITUTIONS No. Primates USDA, 1972 Use ILAR, 1973 Inventory Facilities Research institutes, drug companies Universities, primate centers Local government 29, 100 25,000 900 18,800 17,450 400 TOTAL (private sector) 55,000 36, 650 Federal government Suppliers 7, 150 5,700 SURVEY TOTAL Adjustment, 34% private sector not 49, 500 18,400 surveyed ADJUSTED TOTAL 67, 900

93 TABLE 36 CURRENT VOLUMES OF PRIMATES IMPORTED AND USED IN BIOMEDICAL PROGRAMS IN THE UNITED STATES Species Minimum No. Biomedical Imports 1973 Total Imports Imports for USDI Biomedical 1972 Use (%) Old World Rhesus macaque Vervet monkey Long-tailed macaque Baboon Other 25,000 3,200 3, 500 1, 300 1, 600 23,000 3,300 1,400 1,300 4,000 100 97 100 100 40 TOTAL (Old World species) 34, 600 33,000 100 New World Squirrel monkey Saguinus sp. Night monkey Capuchin Other 5, 600 2, 800 2, 100 800 25,000 5,400 3, 500 6, 100 4,600 22 52 60 100 13 2 TOTAL (New World species) 11, 400 44,600 26 Old World New World 34,600 11,400 33,000 44,600 100 26 TOTAL 46,000 77,600 59 Range of estimates Current "best estimate" 46,000-55,000 70,000-91,000 50-71 73 55,000 75, 000

94 Current estimates of total imports range from a low value of 70, 000 published by the U.S. Department of Commerce for 1973 to 91, 000 for the higher of 2 estimates published by the U.S. Department of the Interior for 1972. A higher percentage of imported primates was used in biomedical programs than has been reported previously and the best current estimate is 55,000 of 75,000, or at least 73 percent. The remainder were imported for exhibition and the pet trade and also included dealers' losses. Records for the intramural facility at NIH showed that the losses during quarantine averaged 11-12 percent over the past 15 years. The majority of primates handled by the facility were rhesus macaques shipped directly from India. Quarantine losses for night monkeys and marmosets reached 50 percent. Assuming that this loss rate is typical nationwide, then as many as 10, 000 primates (13 percent of 75, 000) may be lost annually by importers during conditioning and quarantining. Dealers have buffered the scientific community from an awareness of the volume of these losses by the practice of selling partially conditioned animals to many institutions. Estimates of losses have indicated that nearly half of the 20, 000-40, 000 imported primates attributed to the pet trade may in fact be losses inherent in the present system of commercial collecting. Past estimates for the pet trade were derived by subtracting scientific use from total imports. The lack of regulations by importing countries to eliminate the unsystematic pet trade in South American pri- mates has been considered to be one of the major reasons for increasing restrictions on exports by host countries. New regulations proposed by the U.S. Department of the Interior and the Public Health Service, covering the importation of animals, would effectively eliminate the pet trade. Termination of the pet trade will also eliminate the scapegoat for many of the losses accruing from the wasteful methods of trapping, shipping, and holding imported primates. The responsibility that users assume in reducing the wastage in transit and use may be expected to affect the number of imported primates available to cover a portion of the needs of medical research. A few institutions have already demonstrated success in reducing losses in collecting rhesus macaques, baboons, and long-tailed macaques by sponsoring expeditions to capture and ship these animals. The importance of similar efforts for capturing arboreal species is stressed. Pressures from professional organizations and government regulations have converged in attempting to correct the abuses of the past commercial trade in primates. In 1973, the primate specialist group of the IUCN recommended that governments in the source countries should not only restrict exports of wild primates but should also tax exports if necessary to conserve natural populations of laboratory primates and to encourage the development of self-sustaining breeding colonies. Biomedical Uses of Primates Respondents to the 1973 ILAR survey indicated their 1974 needs for primates from imports and current inventories. In a sample of 41,000 primates, summarized in Table 37, pharmacology and toxicology, together with vac- cine production and safety testing, accounted for the first 37 percent of the primates used. The largest annual requirement of rhesus macaques was

95 for the production and safety testing of polio vaccines, which required 3,000 and 2,000, respectively. Studies of specific diseases and experimental surgery accounted for the second largest demand, or 36 percent of the total primates. Another 16 percent of the demand came from studies of neuro- physiology, while the final 11 percent were used in studies of physiology, reproduction, and social behavior. Few investigators indicated a preference for the sex of experimental animals. The substitution of males for females in many experiments was considered important in protecting the reproductive capacity of captive and wild populations. Increased emphasis on husbandry and social behavior was considered necessary for managing multigenerational breeding colonies. Biomedical demand for general use species such as rhesus macaques and squirrel monkeys has been distinguished from demand for special use species, such as marmosets and night monkeys. As summarized in Table 25, more than 80 percent of the animals in the latter group are currently used in a single research category. Demand for special use species is expected to increase and broaden as baseline data accumulate on them. The substitution of other taxa for primates was not considered to be feasible by 60 percent of the investigators studying infectious diseases, and a third of respondents working in other fields. Table 38 summarizes the alternative primate species that are presently used in various research areas. Current Breeding Programs Total 1973 births represented less than 5 percent of the total annual demand. Breeding of night monkeys and capuchins was noticeably lacking relative to their usage rates. Breeding colonies have been supported until now primarily to obtain fetuses and infants for research rather than for production. The production of fetuses was not indicated in tabulations on birth rates but represented a fourth of all reproduction for rhesus macaques. The inventories of F^ and F£ females have nearly reached 1, 000 animals but no long-term funding has been established for these colonies. Placing a higher priority on research over captive breeding has resulted in using current breeders (that are already adjusted to confinement) for exper- imental purposes rather than for production. Captive breeding has been discussed frequently in terms of production centers for wild-caught breeders, and these overestimate potential net yields from captive colonies. A distinction between production centers and self-sustaining breeding colonies was stressed because it has become unrealistic to assume that there will be a continuing supply of wild-caught breeders available to stock colonies. The estimates of net yield summarized in Table 39 were based upon a reproductive rate of 80 percent for 10 years per female with 15-percent losses of infants. Many researchers have considered these rates to be overly optimistic. Rates of 50 percent for 5 years may be more realistic, especially for species other than rhesus macaques. Such estimates would greatly increase the numbers of maturing animals that must be held for replacement of breeding stock and would

96 TABLE 37 PERCENT DEMAND FOR SPECIES BY BIOMEDICAL RESEARCH AREA Percent Demand for Species by Research Area Sample Total Percent Research Area Rhesus Marmoset Squirrel Night Other Pharmacology- toxicology 30 1 25 0 30 10,499 25 Vaccine production, safety testing 18 7 6 0 2 4,944 12 Disease, experi- mental surgery 24 90 27 82 39 14,654 36 Neurophysiology 17 1 25 18 13 6,599 16 Physiology, reproduction, social behavior 11 1 17 0 16 4,415 11 TOTAL 24 ,587 3,604 3, 310 2,086 7,524 41, 111 Percent 60 9 8 5 18 100 TABLE 38 MOST FREQUENT ALTERNATIVE SPECIES USED IN BIOMEDICAL PROGRAMS Rank of Species by Area Research Area 1 2 3 Pha rmacology- toxicology Rhesus Vervet Squirrel Vaccine production, safety testing Rhesus Marmoset Squirrel Diseases Infectious Rhesus Night Marmoset Neoplasm Marmoset Rhesus Squirrel Organ system Rhesus Squirrel (Long -tailed)* Experimental surgery Rhesus Baboon (Stumptail) Neurophysiology Rhesus Squirrel (Baboon) Sensory Rhesus Night (Squirrel) Reproductive physiology Rhesus Baboon (Long -tailed) Social behavior Rhesus Squirrel Long -tailed *Parenthesis indicate <200 animals of species reported.

97 TABLE 39 COMPOSITION AND PRODUCTION OF A SELF-SUSTAINING BREEDING COLONY PER 100 BREEDING FEMALES Colony Composition* Female Male Inventory No. breeders 100 10 110 Gross annual production 40 40 - Infant loss in 1st yr-15% 34 34 - Replacement holding for 3 yr 10 1 33 Net yield (held for sale at 1 yr) 24 33 57 TOTAL INVENTORY 212 Annual colony maintenance $36, 500/57 yearlings costs ($0. 50/day/animal $640/yearling x 365 days x inventory) $6. 4 million/ 1 0, OOO yearlings *Assume 80% birth rate for 10 yr/female.

98 greatly reduce net yield. Current estimates of per diem costs are $1. 00 per day for most biomedical institutions rather than $0. 50 per day. Main- tenance costs of captive-reared young will be considerably higher than the $640 indicated in this table, unless economies can be realized from large scale production of breeding in free-ranging conditions and in compounds outside of present research facilities. Total costs would rapidly increase if there were a reduction in the reproductive rate, increases in daily main- tenance costs, or demand for primates older than 1 year. Population Trends Few estimates of total wild populations are available except for rare and endangered species. The area of established national reserves in tropical countries that meet the UN criteria for listed national parks represents a first approximation of the size of primate populations that will be afforded long-term protection. More government protection is afforded African primates than species on other continents due to the larger size of African reserves. Nearly 60 percent of the African forms have more protection than any Asian species and nearly 40 percent have more protection than any Latin American form. This pattern of protection is inversely related to the current biomedical demand for species by continent. The decreasing supply of wild primates resulting from deforestation and habitat loss has emphasized the need for an immediate long range investment in self- sustaining breeding colonies if primates are to continue to be available on a predictable, though modest, scale as experimental animals.

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