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OCR for page 206
Appendix A
Review of World Aquaculture
MAJOR WORLD AQUACULTURE PRODUCTS
Finfish Culture
Table A-1 provides an overview of world aquaculture production in 1987
by region and type of seafood. Marine and freshwater species are combined
in the available statistics on world production. Historically, world aquacul-
ture has been dominated by the pond culture of freshwater finfish, particu-
larly the various species of carp (common, Chinese, Indian) grown through-
out Europe and Asia. Together, all varieties of carp still account for
approximately 4 million metric tons (mmt), or more than one-quarter of the
world's annual production of finfish cultured in fresh water. More recently,
other species of finfish have contributed significantly to freshwater aqua-
culture, such as tilapia (0.3 mmt), rainbow trout (0.2 mmt), channel catfish
(0.2 mmt), and eel (0.1 mmt). These, and minor contributions from crayfish
culture (0.03 mmt) and the giant freshwater prawn Macrobrachium (0.03
mmt), bring the total production of freshwater organisms to nearly 5 mmt,
or about one-third of the world's total.
The cultivation of marine finfish has lagged far behind that of freshwater
species. The oldest such practices are the growing of milkfish in the Philip-
pines, Indonesia, and other tropical Asian countries (0.3 mmt) and of the
yellowtail (amberjack) in Japan (0.2 mint). Milkfish are grown in shallow
estuarine ponds; yellowtail, in net cages. In both cases, rearing technology
is relatively crude. Neither species can be matured or spawned routinely in
captivity, so the industries are based on the collection of fry (juveniles)
from the wild. Both species are still fed primarily natural food.
206
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208
APPENDIX A
A more recent development in marine finfish culture is the growth of
salmonids in net pens of cages in protected coastal waters. For many years,
salmon have been hatchery spawned and reared to small size, at which
stage they are physiologically adapted for introduction to salt water; they
are then released to the ocean to enhance natural stocks. Beginning about
1970, attempts were made to rear Pacific salmon smelt in cages in the Puget
Sound area of Washington. The initial product, a 150- to 250-gram (g) "pan-
sized" salmon that could be reared in one growing season, did not prove
to be very successful in the marketplace, and the practice gradually dwindled.
A decade later, Norwegians initiated the net-cage culture of Atlantic
salmon in their large fjord systems, this time holding the fish for two
growing seasons, and feeding them a carefully formulated pelleted diet until
they reached a size of 4-5 kilograms (kg). The practice proved highly
successful, a single 12 x 12 meter cage producing as much as 5-10 tons of
salmon over an 18-month grow-out period. Atlantic salmon cage culture
has now spread to the United Kingdom, France, Spain, both coasts of the
United States and Canada, Chile, Australia, and New Zealand; in 1988,
nearly 0.2 mmt were produced worldwide.
Several other marine finfish are currently grown successfully in smaller
quantities in various parts of the world. These include gilthead sea bream,
sea bass, and turbot in Europe; aiyu, flounder, puffer fish, red and black sea
bream, and several other species in Japan; and the estuarine grouper in
Malaysia, Singapore, and Hong Kong. Together, annual production of the
several marine finfish now in culture probably approaches 1 mmt, only
about 20 percent of freshwater finfish culture.
Crustacean Culture
The culture of crustaceans is almost entirely restricted to two groups of
shrimp or prawns: the giant freshwater prawn Macrobrachium and several
species of marine shrimp of the genus Penaeus.
After development of the technology for rearing Macrobrachium in Ma-
laysia in the early 1960s, there was much interest in growing the species
throughout the world's tropics. Interest has flagged during the past decade,
due more to marketing than to technical problems and to the inability of the
product to compete with marine species. Macrobrachium spp. are still
grown successfully in a number of small scattered operations, with produc-
tion totaling approximately 0.02 mmt.
Marine (penaeid) shrimp culture, on the other hand, is one of the fastest
growing and economically most successful forms of aquaculture in practice
today. The technology for hatchery spawning of gravid (fertile) female
penaeids and controlled rearing of their larvae in captivity, were first devel-
oped more than 50 years ago in Japan and rapidly spread throughout
Southeast Asia. When it was found that the postlarvae could be grown
r
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REVIEW OF WORLD AQUACULTURE
209
out quickly and easily to a marketable adult in shallow estuarine ponds,
shrimp culture spread to the Philippines and Indonesia.
By the late 1970s, the shrimp farming industry had spread to the Western
Hemisphere, where it was initially centered in the extensive estuarine sys-
tem of Ecuador's Guayas River and Gulf of Guayaquil. Subsequently the
industry moved into virtually all of the tropical maritime countries of South
and Central America, Mexico, and the southern parts of the United States.
However, Ecuador remains the major producer in the Western Hemisphere.
As in the case of shrimp farming in Asia, the Latin American industry is
based on the collection of postlarvae from the wild, supplemented as neces-
sary by hatchery production of young from wild-caught gravid females.
Dependence on wild postlarvae or gravid females restricts the location of
shrimp farms to coastal regions, where natural populations occur in abun-
dance. Even in those locations, supplies may be erratic and undependable,
and they may disappear entirely with the onset of unfavorable climatic
phenomena such as the South American E1 Nino.
Shrimp aquaculture is the production of shrimp involving control of one
or more phases of their biological cycle or control of the environment in
which they develop. Management systems may be extensive, such as large
seminatural or natural marsh impoundments or rice fields (low stocking
rates and little or no feeding and water exchange); semi-intensive, such as
large drainable ponds (medium stocking, feeding, and water exchange); or
intensive, such as small, highly controllable ponds (high stocking rates,
water circulation and exchange, and nutritionally complete diets). Indoor
raceways would exhibit the highest degree of technology, with control of
nutrition and environmental requirements for year-round growth. However,
to date no indoor raceways have proved economically viable for commer-
cial production of shrimp.
Worldwide, the significance of shrimp aquaculture has increased dra-
matically over the past decade. In 1980, only about 2 percent of the world's
shrimp supply was produced by aquaculture, whereas by 1990 farmers were
supplying 25 percent of the market (Table A-2) (Rosenberry, 1991a). Most
TABLE A-2 World Shrimp Production, 1991 (heads-on)
Amount Percentage of
Source (mmt) World Production
Fisheries 1.4967 75
(4.327 billion lb)
Aquaculture 0.633 25
(1.393 billion lb)
SOURCE: Rosenberry ( 1991 b).
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REVIEW OF WORLD AQUACULTURE
211
(81 percent) of this production is concentrated in the Eastern Hemisphere
(Southeast Asia) (Table A-3. A fairly recent and dramatic entry to shrimp
farming has been mainland China, which in just a decade or so has become
the world's leading producer of aquacultured shrimp (Table A-4~(Rosen-
berry, 1991a,b).
Western Hemisphere production is led by Ecuador (Aiken, 1990; Rosenberry,
l991a,b), which contributes 75 percent of the region's farmed production,
whereas the United States produces only about 1 percent (Table A-5~. China
TABLE A-4 Eastern Hemisphere Shrimp Production, 1991
Area in
Production Production Yield Number of Number of
Country (%) (acres) (lb/acre) Hatcheries Farms
China 26.1 345,800 923 1,000 2,000
Indonesia 25.2 494,000 623 250 20,000
Thailand 19.7 197,600 1,255 2,000 3,000
India 6.3 160,550 479 16 2,500
Philippines 5.4 123,500 534 250 3,000
Vietnam 5.4 395,200 167 120 1,000
Taiwan 5.4 19,760 3,340 800 2,000
Bangladesh 4.5 247,000 223 0 1,000
Other 1.4 39,520 445 25 175
Japan 0.6 1,235 6,235 40 165
Total 100 2,024,165 602 4,501 34,840
SOURCE: Rosenberry (199lb).
TABLE A-5 Western Hemisphere Shrimp Production, 1991
Area in
Production Production Yield Number of Number of
Country (%) (acres) (lb/acre) Hatcheries Farms
Ecuador 74.9 358,150 615 150 1,700
Colombia 6.7 9,880 2,004 20 30
Mexico 3.7 12,350 891 6 100
Honduras 3.4 17,290 573 2 25
Panama 3.0 9,880 891 6 40
Peru 2.6 9,880 779 3 60
United States 1.2 1,112 3,167 3 25
Other 4.5 11,856 1,113 17 75
Total 100 430,398 683 207 2,055
SOURCE: Rosenberry ( l 991 b).
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212
APPENDIX A
has constructed some 1,000 hatcheries to produce juvenile shrimp for stock-
ing in aquaculture ponds; Ecuador has 150 hatcheries; the United States has
only 3 (Tables A-4 and A-S). Overall, Asia has approximately 4,500 hatcheries,
whereas the Western Hemisphere has a little more than 200 (Table Am.
Mollusk Culture
Bivalve mollusks (i.e., oysters, clams, mussels, scallops) are sessile, grow
without confinement, and feed on natural food organisms (i.e., unicellular
algae suspended in the water). Their cultivation on privately owned or
leased bottom is therefore simple and inexpensive, and differs little from
capture fishing on public grounds. In either case, aquaculture is involved if
and when natural stocks become depleted and must be enhanced by reseed-
ing the bottom.
Cultivation of seed in hatcheries is a well-developed technology for most
important commercial species of mollusks that was initiated in the United
States in the 1920s and is now widely practiced around the world. How-
ever, hatchery production of seed is costly; it may often be avoided by
collecting natural seed or enhancing the natural set of seed by placing seed
or spat collectors at strategic times and locations in the growing area.
Shellfish larvae are, of course, most abundant where there are large popula-
tions of adult animals, as at major aquaculture sites, most of which may
consequently collect their own seed without recourse to hatcheries.
The Japanese discovered many years ago that oysters could be grown
much more quickly and abundantly in a three-dimensional mode, from sur-
face to bottom, on ropes or wires suspended from rafts. The shellfish there-
by have access to a much greater supply of food; they are protected from
sedimentation and benthic predators; and vastly more animals may be
grown per unit area than by traditional bottom culture methods. Raft cul-
ture of oysters, mussels, and scallops is now common practice in those
countries that are the leading producers of bivalve mollusks (i.e., Japan,
China, Taiwan, North and South Korea, Spain). In most if not all such
operations, natural seed is collected at or near the culture site.
Of the 3 mint of mollusks cultured in 1988, 67 percent were grown in
East Asia and another 20 percent in Europe (Table A-11. The Pacific cupped
oyster (Crassostrea gigas), grown most abundantly in Japan but now suc-
cessfully introduced around the world, is the leading cultured bivalve spe-
cies (0.8 mmtJ. The several species of mussels now grown in many differ-
ent countries together yielded 1 mmt; various clam species accounted for
another 0.4 mmt; and the Japanese scallop, first grown in that country only
about five years ago, had already contributed 0.3 mmt by 1988 (FAO, 1990~.
If the Japanese experience is typical, scallops, which grow extremely fast
and command a high market price, may overtake other bivalve species as a
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REVIEW OF WORLD AQUACULTURE
213
Stake culture of oysters in Japan.
Lea
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favored culture product. Scallop farms have now been started up in Peru,
Chile, Canada, the United States, and China. Bivalve mollusk farming is,
by far, the most successful form of marine animal culture; it is more than
twice as productive as finfish and crustacean culture combined. Despite the
strong emphasis and publicity given to penaeid shrimp culture in recent
years, mollusk farming has been advancing much more rapidly, and the
value of the product is, in most cases, equally attractive.
Seaweed Culture
Different species of seaweed have long been regarded as both luxury
and staple foods or food supplements in many Asian countries. The red
alga Porphyra, grown and marketed as nori in Japan, is among the most
costly of seafood. The kelp Laminaria, also grown in Japan, was formerly
exported in quantity to China, whose inhabitants are susceptible to the glan-
dular disease goiter, caused by an iodine deficiency, a condition remedied
by a seaweed dietary supplement. Today, China grows more than 1 mmt
(dry weight) of Laminaria annually and now exports part of the crop to
Japan (Tseng, 19811.
In addition to their direct use as human food, many seaweeds contain the
polysaccharides agar, algenic acid, or carrageenan, which, when extracted
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214
APPENDIX A
from the plants, have widespread commercial value as emulsifying or sus-
pending agents in the food, drug, and cosmetic industries. The dwindling
supply of wild stock of these seaweeds has led to their cultivation in several
countries. About one-half of the Chinese crop of Laminaria is used for
extraction of algenic acid; the other half is consumed as food. The red
seaweed Gracilaria is grown in Taiwan and Chile as a source of agar;
another red algae, Eucheuma, is cultured in the Philippines for its carrag-
eenan content.
A total of 4 mmt of seaweed was grown worldwide in 1988, 90 percent
in Asia. This is the largest group, by weight but not by value, of cultivated
marine organisms, representing 25 percent of the total and about 42 percent
of the marine component.
It should be pointed out that seaweeds are sometimes not included in
aquaculture statistics (an omission that may lead to considerable confusion
when comparing data). If seaweed is omitted from consideration, total
world aquaculture production for 1988 was 11 mmt., of which only about 5
mmt (43 percent) were from marine aquaculture.
TABLE A-6 Value of Aquaculture Production by Leading Countries,
1984-1987 (hundred U.S. dollars)
1984 1985 1986 1987
China 4,O59,465 4,788,214 5,440,725 6,078,454
Japan 2,263,753 2,279,309 3,439,373 3,895,790
Taiwan PC 607,576 631,672 818,655 1,110,282
India 746,300 746,300 746,300 746,300
United States 500,403 429,410 484,211 563,649
Philippines 446,639 468,332 511,182 560,317
USSR 357,279 365,596 464,481 537,767
Ecuador 235,200 211,435 214,781 510,671
France 226,178 243,857 425,298 474,033
Vietnam 327,400 375,600 433,080 459,480
Korea, Republic of 253,278 266,222 327,310 438,560
Korea, Democratic
People's Republic 398,700 420,700 420,700 420,700
Indonesia 264,805 351,393 375,427 385,740
Norway 133,357 177,534 233,343 314,348
Italy 140,008 140,247 185,612 238,153
Thailand 105,989 114,848 147,485 237,803
Other
Total world production 12,430,634 13,592,725 16,345,988 18,911,991
SOURCE: FAO Fisheries Circular No. 815, Rev. 1, 1989.
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REVIEW OF WORLD AQUACULTURE
Economics of World Aquaculture
The monetary value of the 1988 world aquaculture crop of 14 mmt is
estimated to be $22.5 billion (U.S.), an increase of 19 percent from the
$18.8 billion value of the 1987 crop and more than twice that of the 1985
yield ($13.1 billion) (FAO, 1990) (Table A-6~. Of the 144 countries that
now report aquaculture statistics to the Food and Agriculture Organization
(FAO) of the United Nations, only 60 provided information on prices
and value, so total value estimates are based just on those reports. How-
ever, those 60 include most of the total production.
The value of world aquaculture has clearly increased much more rapidly
than the size of the crop, probably owing mainly to world inflation. Some
of the increased value may result from recent emphasis on high-priced luxury
species (i.e., mollusks, shrimp, salmon), but the overall increase in produc-
tion has resulted as much from low-value crops, such as seaweed, as from
more expensive items.
MARINE AQUACULTURE PRACTICES AND POLICIES
Throughout the world, the most common form of marine aquaculture is
carried out by collecting and growing "wild seed" in ponds, cages, or other
enclosures, with the addition of fertilizer and, in some cases, food. Culture
practices are primitive, labor and monetary inputs are small, and production
is low. Such extensive marine aquaculture is practiced in warm parts of the
world in countries that have ample available coastal waters and a traditional
marine diet. Even in areas where intensive culture is practiced, the industry
often depends on collections from the sea in the form of gravid females,
fertilized eggs, spat, postlarvae, or juvenile animals. This practice sooner
or later conflicts with fisheries resources and is not a viable alternative
for the U.S. aquaculture industry.
The trend in developed countries is toward intensive culture, with breeding,
rearing, and harvesting in controlled facilities using high stocking densities
and formulated feeds. The ultimate objective is regular production of a high
quality product at a designated time, independent of season. Examples of
marine animals under intensive culture are red sea bream, yellowtail, and
Japanese flounder in Japan; sea bream, sea bass, and turbot in temperate Euro-
pean countries; European eel and salmon in northern Europe, Japan, North
America, Chile, and New Zealand; and the banana prawn in Singapore, as
well as the tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon' throughout Southeast Asia (Juario
and Benitez, 1988; Gousset, 19901. Other species under investigation for
intensive culture include cod, halibut, and dolphin (Tilseth, 19901.
Bridging the gap between extensive and intensive systems, ocean ranch-
~ng is best known in the production of salmon and is used when the cultured
i.
215
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216
APPENDIX A
species does not stray, as is the case with oysters and abalone, or when a
species can be trained or migrates naturally to return to a site, as with some
salmon. Ocean ranching may be the system of choice for most mollusk
and algae culture. Similar to ocean ranching is stock enhancement, the pro-
duction of large numbers of young that are released to the sea and harvested
by ordinary fisheries methods. The value of such stocking programs in in-
creasing fisheries production is still under debate, but stocking is being carried
out in the United States as well as in Japan and Norway.
Aquaculture goals vary from country to country but generally include the
following:
· generation of needed and inexpensive protein;
· reliable production of quality products not readily available from natu-
rally occurring sources;
· expansion of foreign trade by increasing exports or reducing imports;
· development of new industry and jobs; and
· enhancement or maintenance of fishery resources through stocking.
All but the first of these goals are important in driving aquaculture develop-
ment in the United States.
ROLE OF GOVERNMENT
Government has played a pivotal role in aquaculture development in
many countries that have become world leaders in marine aquaculture, in-
cluding Norway, Denmark, France, Canada, and Japan. For the most part,
these groups are concerned with both fisheries and marine aquaculture, and
much of the aquaculture development emanates from a fisheries manage-
ment perspective. Long-range planning and a strong commitment by the
central government in Norway, and by central and provincial governments
in Canada, have been responsible for the rapid growth of marine aquacul-
ture in those countries. A good example is the Canadian government's
support of the emerging pen-raised salmon industry in New Brunswick.
Impressive growth of this industry was in part a result of $5 million in
industry development funds from the New Brunswick government, the es-
tablishment of a government-funded demonstration farm, and the provision
of grants and extension services (Bettencourt and Anderson, 19901.
STATUS OF MARINE AQUACULTURE BY REGION
Asia
The Asia-Pacific region is the center of development of world aquacul-
ture and accounts for approximately 80 percent of world aquaculture pro-
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REVIEW OF WORLD AQUACULTURE
221
the market price for salmon make it a risky investment venture (Cook,
1990; Egan and Kenney, 1990~.
Salmon, oysters, mussels, and marine trout currently dominate the aqua-
culture industry, but new species are in the research and development stage.
Species expected to make a significant contribution to commercial aquacul-
ture in Canada in the next 10 years include arctic char, bay scallops, nori,
and Irish moss (Aiken, 19901. Research to develop new products is carried
out by federal and provincial scientists, often in cooperation with private
companies. A good example of this teamwork is the development of the
commercial culture of Irish moss (Chondrus crispus) in Nova Scotia, based
on collaboration between the National Research Council of Canada and
Acadia Seaplants Ltd. (Isaacs, 19901.
During the 1990 World Aquaculture Society meeting in Halifax, Nova
Scotia, the Minister of Fisheries and Oceans announced a government com-
mitment to development of a world-class aquaculture industry in Canada in
the 1990s. Implementation of this long-term strategy will be achieved by
the support of science and technology, provision of an inspection system,
assistance with market and commercial analysis, as well as advocacy and
dialogue to promote sustained growth and development.
Shellfish
Two species of oysters are cultivated commercially: the Pacific or Japa-
nese oyster (Crassotrea gigasJ and the American or Virginia oyster Crassotrea
virginica. A third species, the European (or Belon) oyster Ostrea edulis is
under development in Nova Scotia. Oysters are produced by three methods
in British Columbia: intertidal bottom culture, near-bottom culture, and
off-bottom culture. Three years may be required to grow a marketable
oyster on the bottom, but this can be cut to two years off-bottom. Suspen-
sion culture will produce more than 25 times the yield per unit area than can
be obtained with bottom culture (Aiken, 19901. An estimated 3,900 metric
tons of oysters were produced in British Columbia in 1989 (Price Waterhouse
Management Consultants, 1990~.
Mussel (Mytilus edulisJ culture in Atlantic Canada has expanded consider-
ably in the past 10 years, and in 1989 the five Atlantic provinces produced
3,137 tons of mussels valued at $5,520,000 (Muise, 1990~. Cultivation de-
veloped in eastern Canada utilizes suspension technology (a long line sys-
tem) to produce a premium quality product. Other shellfish considered for
commercial culture in Canada are Manila clams (Venerupis japonica J;
several species of scallops, including Argopecten irradians and Patino-
pecten yessoensis; and the pinto abalone (Haliotis kamchathanaJ (Aiken,
1990~.
OCR for page 222
222
Finfish
APPENDIX A
Finfish aquaculture registered a rapid growth in British Columbia: in 1976-
1977 there were 5 farms licensed for marine trout and salmon, 51 freshwater
trout sites, 2 carp sites, and 1 site licensed for carp and trout. In 1988, there
were a total of 212 marine finfish sites and 149 freshwater trout sites (Price
Waterhouse Management Consultants, 19901.
Rainbow trout has been reared since the l950s in freshwater systems
such as tanks, ponds, and raceways. Production increased by 10 percent
yearly from 1976 to 1986 (when 100.8 metric tons of freshwater trout were
sold commercially) (Price Waterhouse Management Consultants, 19901. More
recently, rainbow trout has been raised in marine net-pen systems and sold
commercially as "salmon trout."
Salmon
The British Columbia salmon farming industry has grown from 4 com-
mercial farms in 1981 to 135 operating farm sites in 1989 and an estimated
120 sites in 1990 (Price Waterhouse Management Consultants, 1990~. In
1989 the industry produced 12,385 metric tons of salmon with a landed
value of Can $82.1 million (Egan and Kenney, 1990~. Until 1986, coho
(Oncorhynchus kisutch) was the dominant species cultivated (comprising 76
percent of the total farmed production that year), and the industry was
dependent on government supplies of eyed eggs.
Since then, the industry has become self-sufficient in chinook salmon
(Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) brood stock supply, and production of this
species is now dominant (73 percent of the 1989 production), a shift attrib-
uted to early maturation and size problems related to coho production
(Egan and Kenney, 19901. Atlantic salmon was first cultivated commer-
cially in net pens in 1986 and has since increased to 8 percent of the total
1989 production. Its share is expected to increase further in the future, due
to good growth and the higher price commanded in relation to the Pacific
species (Egan and Kenney, 19901.
The salmon farming industry in eastern Canada is concentrated in the Bay
of Fundy in New Brunswick, where approximately 49 salmon farms are
currently operating. Together these farms have a combined estimated capacity
of 8,500 metric tons (Price Waterhouse Management Consultants, 1990~.
Latin America
The major aquaculture product in Latin America is shrimp. Shrimp farmers
in the Western Hemisphere accounted for 11 percent of world production,
or 61,000 metric tons in 1989. Ecuador produced 65 percent; countries
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REVIEW OF WORLD AQUACULTURE
223
producing about 5 percent each are Mexico, Honduras, Peru, and Colombia;
Guatemala, Panama, and Brazil produced slightly less. Much of the pro-
duction in the Western Hemisphere comes from extensive farms, but the
trend is toward developing semi-intensive farming. Penaeus vannamei ac-
counts for 92 percent of the production of farm-raised shrimp, which relies
on wild shrimp for the production of seed stock. Disease represents the
biggest obstacle to the future of shrimp farming in the Western Hemisphere.
In the spring of 1990, Ecuador's $300 million a year industry was near
collapse as a weather-induced disease epidemic struck its ponds and hatch-
eries (Rosenberry, 1990~. It is not clear what the ultimate result of this
epidemic will be, but production in mid-1990 had already been reduced by
40 percent; many of the ponds are not in operation, and no restocking is
planned because of disease and reductions in seed stock availability.
Despite proximity to the U.S. market, the development of aquaculture in
Latin American countries is slowed by government intervention, corruption,
regulations, and permitting delays (often of one or two years) "all the
products of monumental bureaucracies" (Rosenberry, 19901. Recent changes
in the political and economic environments in many of these countries (e.g.,
Mexico, Venezuela, Brazil, and Peru) are viewed as encouraging to the
prospects for development of the shrimp farming industry.
INTERNATIONAL TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS
Issues of Concern
Issues faced by other countries include:
· pollution of coastal waters (particularly in Asia),
· shortage of coastal areas for expansion in Japan and many parts of the
world.
· shrimp disease in Ecuador and Taiwan, and
· lack of governmental policies or institutional support for mariculture
development.
Environmental impacts of aquaculture include:
· self-pollution through toxic and organic waste discharges;
· buildup of suspended solids;
· reduction in oxygen levels and introduction or augmentation of disease;
· habitat impairment and loss of natural resources;
· risks associated with transfers and introduction of exotics (of particu-
lar concern in Europe and the United States); and
· competitive use of resources, including land, water, and plant and
animal resources.
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224
APPENDIX A
Biological issues relate to biological and chemical unknowns in the areas
of captive breeding, larval rearing, feed production for each life stage and
appropriate to specific culture systems, and engineering problems in recir-
culating, closed or semiclosed, high-intensity culture systems.
Socioeconomic issues involve regulatory and administrative constraints,
inadequacy of information and advice to investors, product marketing, and
market saturation, to name but a few.
Culture systems and practices have been used to overcome constraints to
marine aquaculture in other countries. Following is a summary discussion
of these issues and their applicability to similar problems in the United
States:
· Waste is being reduced by the development of methods to utilize prop-
erly the diets offered, to remove suspended solids efficiently, to incorporate
water treatment and water reuse systems, and to collect waste for use as
fertilizer.
· User conflicts over coastal resources are reduced by moving fish
farms out into deeper water or to land-based facilities, or by zoning and
clustering farms in selected sites.
· Member countries of the International Council on Exploration of the
Seas (ICES) have adopted a Code of Practice to Reduce the Risks of Ad-
verse Effects Arising From Introduction of Nonindigenous Marine
Species.
· Attempts to circumvent disease and contamination of aquaculture prod-
ucts are carried out by individual countries. They include requiring health
certificates for imports, as in North Sea countries for imported mussels;
monitoring for toxic dinoflagellates and toxicity testing in Japan; requiring
deputation of bivalves at specified centers in Spain; and maintaining strict
quality standards with regular inspection in the Netherlands. Regulations
generally pertain only to mollusks; they have been instigated in response to
actual or potential health risks associated with eating these products.
· Research on controlled spawning to reduce aquaculture's dependence
on wild seed, along with the development of larval rearing technology, is
given priority in Japan, Norway, and many other countries.
· There has been some development toward improved feed quality to
increase food conversion and to decrease waste (i.e., phosphorus).
· Some examples of solutions to socioeconomic constraints are the de-
velopment of planned marketing strategies to promote future growth, gov-
ernment regulations that are conducive to growth in Canada (Price Water-
house, 1990), and self-imposed restraints on 1989 salmon production in
Norway in the face of a world market excess (Folsom and McFetters, 19901.
In the latter case, the farming industry, through the Norwegian Fish Farm-
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REVIEW OF WORLD AQUACULTURE
225
ers' Sales Organization (NFFSO), is taking strong action to shore up
prices. The NFFSO plans to borrow $200 million to finance the purchase
and freezing of 20,000~0,000 tons of salmon to keep it off the fresh fish
market.
EXAMPLES OF AQUACULTURE POLICY
IN OTHER NATIONS
Several nations have been successful in developing strong aquaculture
enterprises that make significant contributions to the national economy.
Although such experiences are not directly exportable to the United States
because of different social, cultural, demographic, and economic condi-
tions, they may suggest some fruitful avenues for U.S. action. Examples of
nations that are most similar to the United States in culture and political
organization are discussed below in order to maximize the potential ap-
plicability of any lessons that can be learned.
Canada
Status
Canada has a long aquaculture history dating back to turn-of-the-century
oyster farms. Both the federal government and university structures have
supported and encouraged expansion and development.
The British Columbia oyster industry began around the turn of the cen-
tury and has been growing at a steady pace ever since. Clam aquaculture
(primarily the Manila clam) is in the development stage, fueled by strong
markets. Present efforts are targeting pseudofarming, which involves col-
lecting wild spat and raising them on tidal flats under more optimal condi-
tions. Mussel and scallop aquaculture research is also being spurred by
strong markets but is hampered by culture problems.
Regulations
The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries administers the aquaculture
lease program, which includes permits, licenses, and reviews. Aquaculture
product licenses and permits include the aquaculture license from the Min-
istry of Agriculture and Fisheries, a municipal business license, a municipal
sewage disposal permit, and a waste management permit. In addition, a shell-
fish transport permit is required. Site requirements include a federal water
lot lease if operating on federal land and an occupation lease from the
Ministry of Crown Lands. In addition, there may be local zoning ordi-
nances.
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226
Status
APPENDIX A
Norway
Of the many nations engaged in cold water fish farming, Norway is
recognized as a leader in aquaculture development and production. Norwe-
gian production of farmed salmon has risen from 4,000 tons in 1979 to
150,000 tons in 1990 (the 1990 figure represents a 25 percent increase
compared to 1989~. More than 90 percent of this production is exported. In
fact, aquaculture is Norway's fastest growing industry, with an average
annual growth rate of 47 percent from 1980 to 1986. This remarkable
growth is attributable to good water quality; low but ideal sea temperature
owing to the Gulf Stream; sheltered, ice-free sites behind a myriad of coastal
islands; innovative technology; and the development of new markets. Cur-
rently, about 750 fish farms in Norway provide direct employment to 6,OOO
people, with another 9,000 jobs provided indirectly through educational
services, research, and public administration. Although salmon aquaculture
dominates Norwegian fish farming production, other cultivated species in-
clude trout, arctic char, oysters, and mussels. Currently, research is also
directed at attempts to farm halibut, Atlantic cod, and ocean wolffish (Tilseth,
1990~.
Legislation
Fish farming in Norway is regulated under the Fish Farming Act of 1985.
The objective of the act is to ensure a balanced development of the industry
and to make it profitable and viable. The act applies to both freshwater and
saltwater aquaculture, and includes the handling and feeding of fish and
shellfish, as well as the geographic allocation of new farms. Under the act,
anyone wishing to enter the industry must first receive a license from the
government, and since 1977 the government has limited the number of
licenses issued. Norway restricts the number of fish farmers because of a
desire to adapt production to market demand through balanced de-
velopment. The limitation also is associated with the capacity of the nation's
veterinary and extension services. The demand for licenses is strong, as was
demonstrated in 1986 when 2,500 applicants competed for 150 new licenses.
The number of hatchery and smelt operations, however, is not limited, and
licenses for cultivating shellfish or other species of fish are granted more
liberally. Norway also must consider the fact that aquaculture is growing
rapidly in such places as British Columbia and Chile.
Internally, the outlook, although promising, will be hampered by the
regulations described earlier that prevent Norwegian fish farmers from ex-
ploiting economy of scale in production and in the benefits of horizontal
and vertical integration. An issue of increasing concern has to do with
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227
salmon escapes from fish farms. In 1989, 20 percent of the fish caught by
fishers had escaped from fish farms. This situation has led to increasing
concern about fish from farms breeding with and contaminating wild
stocks. The Salmon Act of 1985 makes it illegal to move wild stocks from
river to river.
Implications for the United States
The Norwegian experience in aquaculture illustrates what can be ex-
pected with the combined support of formal statutory guidance, intense
research, and financial assistance. Of course, the strict regulatory model
adopted by Norway may not be appropriate for the United States, but the
Norwegian investment in research is consistent with the U.S. approach to
agricultural research. In comparing the fish farming experiences of Norway
and Canada, government financial assistance seems to be the common fac-
tor in assessing the success of aquaculture in these countries. The Norwe-
gian experience also indicates that aquaculture growth needs to be balanced
with market demand and that, like other commodities (at least in the short
run), aquaculture growth has its limits.
The United Kingdom
Status
Aquaculture grew rapidly in the United Kingdom during the 1980s, with
total production increasing from 7,000 tons in 1980 to 45,000 tons in 1989.
Most of this output has come from salmon and trout production, which
amounted to 18,000 and 16,000 tons, respectively, in 1988. (Scotland is the
second largest salmon producer in the world after Norway.) The combined
wholesale value of the 1988 aquaculture output was 100 million pounds,
compared with the total value of all fish and shellfish landings by U.K.
vessels of 400 million pounds. The industry provides employment for about
5,000 people and at least a similar number in downstream industries. Fish
farming has been especially important in the highlands and western islands
of Scotland because the industry provides employment in many isolated and
economically depressed areas. Currently, 244 salmon farming businesses
are registered in Scotland operating at 459 sites. There are also about 400
sites for raising trout. Other species farmed in the United Kingdom include
oysters, clams, and scallops.
Legislation
Responsibility for aquaculture development in the United Kingdom rests
primarily with the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, and the
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228
APPENDIX A
other territorial fisheries departments for Wales, Scotland, and Northern
Ireland. Aquaculture legislative controls are directed toward the establish-
ment and operation of fish and shellfish farms, including disease and
movement controls, planning, water abstraction and discharge, and naviga-
tion.
The primary responsibility of the fisheries departments is stipulated un-
der the Diseases of Fish Acts (1937 and 1983) and the Sea Fisheries (Shell-
fish) Act (19671. These laws are directed at preventing the introduction and
spread of pests and diseased fish. All fish and shellfish operations in the
United Kingdom are required to register with the appropriate fisheries de-
partment and to maintain records of fish movements. The Sea Fisheries
(Shellfish) Act of 1967 also grants the exclusive right to cultivate oysters,
mussels, cockles, clams, scallops, and queen conch in designated waters.
Activities associated with the release of nonnative fish and shellfish into the
wild, the use of pesticides, and the licensing of medicines are regulated
under the Wildlife and Countryside Act of 1981, the Control of Pesticides
Regulations of 1968, and the Medicines Act of 1968, respectively.
Planning
Aquaculture planning control rests with both local planning authorities
and central government. Fish farms have to comply with the provisions of
the Town and Country Planning Act, 1971, and the Town and Country
Planning Act (Scotland), 1972. Also in accordance with EC Directive 85/
337/EEC, environmental assessments must be undertaken for salmon rear-
ing developments that are judged likely to have significant environmental
effects. Effluent discharges from fish farms are controlled under the Water
Act of 1989. Fish farmers are required to obtain consent to discharge their
wastewater and to observe the standards set by the appropriate national
river authority (river purification authorities in Scotland). The act also ex-
tends the need to obtain a water abstraction license for certain farms in
England and Wales. In Scotland, water abstraction for fish farming is based
principally on a common law right of riparian owners to use water in rivers
and streams.
Marine-based fish farms are almost without formal planning control pro-
cedures, but their operations normally require the consent of, and a lease
from, the Crown Estate Commissioners (CEC). The role of the CEC in
planning and approving marine-based aquaculture projects is under review
by the Agriculture Committee of the House of Commons.
Marine fish farms must obtain navigation consents from the Department
of Transport to ensure that cages and other anchored equipment do not
interfere with navigation of vessels. Under the Shetland County Council
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229
Act and the Orkney Council Act, both of 1974, the Shetland and Orkney
Islands councils have jurisdiction over the waters surrounding the islands
and are responsible for issuing work licenses, which are necessary for es-
tablishing fish farms.
Financial Assistance
Financial assistance for fish farming in the United Kingdom is available
from several sources. The first is the regional selective assistance program
operated by the Industry Department under the Industrial Development Act of
1982. A second source is government agencies such as the Highlands and
Islands Development Board, the Scottish Development Agency, the Welsh
Development Agency, and the Council for Small Industries in Rural Areas.
The EC also provides aid for the establishment, extension, and modernization
of fish farms. Since 1978 the EC has assisted 125 projects in the United King-
dom at a total cost of 10 million pounds (mostly for salmon farms). To
qualify for EC aid a project must also be in receipt of national assistance of at
least 10 percent of the eligible costs. The EC has also given assistance to capi-
tal investments concerned with the processing and marketing of farmed fish,
including processing, packaging, freezing, chilling, and storage facilities. In
addition, national assistance has been made available directly for promotional
and marketing initiatives by contributions to such bodies as the Scottish
Salmon Farmers' Marketing Board and the British Trout Association and,
indirectly, through Food From Britain and the Sea Fish Industry Authority.
Outlook
The outlook for aquaculture in the United Kingdom is dependent on the
availability of suitable sites and growing conditions, the costs of fish meal,
competition from other countries, disease, environmental considerations,
and judgments as to the benefits of aquaculture compared to tourism and
other coastal uses. Future growth also varies by species. Farmed salmon
production could increase by more than 50,000 tons by the mid-1990s, with
most of this expansion coming from existing farms or those already
planned. With increasing pressure on coastal siting, offshore salmon farm-
ing is likely to develop. Trout production is also expected to increase,
perhaps reaching 25,000 tons by the mid-199Os, but further growth is likely
to be limited by the availability of adequate freshwater supplies. Mollusk
production is expected to increase significantly. There are about 10,000
hectares of productive ground in estuaries and inlets. These lands could
produce 15 tons of oysters, 30-50 tons of mussels, or 10-25 tons of clams
a year.
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230
Implications for the United States
APPENDIX A
Aquaculture development in the United Kingdom offers interesting in-
sights, including both similarities and differences with the U.S. aquaculture
experience. Despite the lack of formal statutory guidance in the United
Kingdom for the development of aquaculture, this sector has developed into
a significant industry. Domestic factors in the United Kingdom responsible
for this growth include financial support, favorable growing conditions (i.e.,
water quality, temperature), and minimum resistance from other coastal us-
ers. The inherent international factor (i.e., international capital and eco-
nomic competition) of the European environment has also had an important
role in furthering the U.K. aquaculture industry. Continued expansion of
the industry, however, faces challenges in siting, planning, and public ac-
ceptance. Yet, despite these difficulties, aquaculture in the United King-
dom has gained a more recognized status as a legitimate coastal area enter-
prise than it currently enjoys in the United States.
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Representative terms from entire chapter:
metric tons
