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OCR for page R1
Marine
Aquaculture
Opportunities for Growth
Committee on Assessment of Technology and Opportunities for
Marine Aquaculture in the United States
Marine Board
Commission on Engineering and Technical Systems
National Research Council
NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS
Washington, D.C. 1992
OCR for page R2
NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS · 2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W. · Washington, D.C. 20418
NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National
Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the
National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the panel responsible for
the report were chosen for their special competencies and with regard for appropriate balance.
This report has been reviewed by a group other than the authors according to procedures approved by a
Report Review Committee consisting of members of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Acad-
emy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine.
The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished
scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technol-
ogy and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress
in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and
technical matters. Dr. Frank Press is president of the National Academy of Sciences.
The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National
Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its adminis-
tration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility
for advising the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering
programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior
achievements of engineers. Dr. Robert M. White is president of the National Academy of Engineering.
The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the
services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to
the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the National Academy of
Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initiative,
to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Kenneth I. Shine is president of the Institute
of Medicine.
The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate
the broad community of science and technology with the Academy's purposes of furthering knowledge and
advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the Acad-
emy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and
the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific
and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of
Medicine. Dr. Frank Press and Dr. Robert M. White are chairman and vice-chairman, respectively, of the
National Research Council.
The program described in this report was supported by the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration under Cooperative Agreement No. 14-35-0001-30475
between the Minerals Management Service of the U.S. Department of the Interior and the National Academy
of Sciences.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
National Research Council (U.S.). Committee on Assessment of
Technology and Opportunities for Marine Aquaculture in the United
States.
Marine aquaculture: opportunities for growth: report of the
Committee on Assessment of Technology and Opportunities for Marine
Aquaculture in the United States, Marine Board, Commission on
Engineering and Technical Systems, National Research Council.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 0-309-04675-0: $24.95
1. Mariculture—United States. 2. Mariculture—Government policy—
United States. I. Title.
SH 1 38.N38 1992
338.3'71'0973—dc20
This book is printed with soy ink on acid-free recycled stock. ~`
Copyright (it) 1992 by the National Academy of Sciences
S-512
Printed in the United States of America
92-7308
CIP
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COMMITTEE ON ASSESSMENT OF TECHNOLOGY AND
OPPORTUNITIES FOR MARINE AQUACULTURE
IN THE UNITED STATES
ROBERT B. FRIDLEY, NAE, Chairman, University of California, Davis
JAMES L. ANDERSON, University of Rhode Island, Kingston
JORDAN N. BRADFORD, Bradford Seafood, Inc., Pass Christian,
Mississippi
BILIANA CICIN-SAIN, University of Delaware, Newark
PAMELA HARDT-ENGLISH, Pharmaceutical and Food Specialists,
San Jose, California
BILL L. MARRIOTT, R&D Consultant, Las Cruces, New Mexico (to
March 1990)
G. JOAN MOLT, The University of Texas at Austin, Port Aransas
JAMES E. LANNAN, JR., Oregon State University, Newport (to August 1990)
RONALD D. MAYO, J. M. Montgomery, Consulting Engineers, Bellevue,
Washington
PETER G. PIERCE, Ocean Products, Inc., Portland, Maine (to January 1990)
KENNETH J. ROBERTS, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge
JOHN H. RYTHER, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (ret.), Woods
Hole, Massachusetts
PAUL A. SANDIFER, South Carolina Wildlife and Marine Resources
Department, Charleston
EVELYN S. SAWYER, Sea Run Holdings, Inc., Kennebunkport, Maine
R. ONEAL SMITHERMAN, Auburn University, Alabama (to March 1990)
Liaison Representatives
MERYL BROUSSARD, U.S. Department of Agriculture (since July 1991)
BEN DRUCKER, National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA (to September
1990)
JAMES P. McVEY, Sea Grant College Program, NOAA (to December 1990)
JAMES MEEHAN, National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA (since
September 1990)
JOAN R. MITCHELL, National Science Foundation
JOHN G. NICKUM, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (from January 1991)
R. ONEAL SMITHERMAN, U.S. Department of Agriculture (to July 1991)
ROBERT E. STEVENS, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Staff
Susan Garbini, Staff Officer (since July 1990)
Paul M. Scholz (Staff Officer to August 1990), Consultant
Delphine D. Glaze, Project Assistant
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MARINE BOARD
BRIAN J. WATT, Chairman, Joy Industries, Inc.
JERRY R. SCHUBEL, Vice-Chairman, State University of New York at
Stony Brook
ROBERT G. BEA, NAE, University of California at Berkeley
JAMES M. BROADUS, III, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
WILLIAM M. EICHBAUM, World Wildlife Fund
LARRY L. GENTRY, Lockheed Advanced Marine Systems
ROBERT T. HUDSPETH, Oregon State University
MARCUS J. JOHNSON, Sea-Land Service, Inc.
ROBERT KNECHT, University of Delaware
BERNARD LE MEHAUTE, NAE, University of Miami
HENRY S. MARCUS, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
J. BRADFORD MOONEY, NAE, Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution
PAUL A. SANDIFER, South Carolina Wildlife and Marine Resources
Department
STEPHEN F. SCHMIDT, American President Lines
PETER R. TATRO, Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory
GEORGE P. VANCE, Mobil Research and Development Corporation
DON WALSH, International Maritime, Inc.
JUDITH S. WEIS, Rutgers University
Stab
CHARLES A. BOOKMAN, Director
DONALD W. PERKINS, Associate Director
SUSAN GARBINI, Project Officer
ALEXANDER B. STAVOVY, Project Officer
WAYNE YOUNG, Project Officer
DORIS C. HOLMES, Staff Associate
AURORE BLECK, Administrative Assistant
DELPHINE D. GLAZE, Administrative Secretary
GLORIA B. GREEN, Project Assistant
CARLA D. MOORE, Project Assistant
IV
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Preface
BACKGROUND
Marine aquaculture the farming of marine finfish, shellfish, crustaceans,
and seaweed, as well as ocean ranching of anadromous fish—is a rapidly
growing industry in many parts of the world. In some countries, such as
Norway and Japan, that have invested in technology development and appli-
cations, the marine aquaculture industries represent a substantial sector of
the economy. In many developing countries, aquaculture plays an impor-
tant role in rural development projects and as a commercial enterprise for
export markets.
The culture of marine organisms is projected to increase as new tech-
nologies are developed that improve the economic feasibility of these op-
erations, as better understanding of the biology and ecology of target spe-
cies is obtained, and as harvests of wild fish stocks level off or decline.
Demand for fish, shellfish, and marine plant products is increasing rapidly
in the United States. Domestic per capita consumption is anticipated to
continue to grow at about 3 percent per year. Alternatives for meeting in-
creasing demand include more imports, development of nontraditional fish-
ery resources, and expansion of domestic marine aquaculture operations.
Another area of significant potential for marine and freshwater aquaculture
is an expanded public role in mitigation for loss of habitat or for restoring
threatened or overfished wild stocks.
v
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Vl
PREFACE
SCOPE OF THE STUDY
The National Research Council (NRC) convened a committee under its
Marine Board to assess technology and opportunities for marine aquaculture
in the United States. Biographies of committee members appear in Appen-
dix E. The committee was asked to define the national interest in marine
aquaculture; to assess the state of practice; and to identify opportunities,
establish requirements, and recommend strategies for the appropriate ad-
vancement of marine aquaculture in the United States.
The membership of the committee included expertise in aquacultural en-
gineering, aquacultural production, civil engineering, sanitary engineering,
fisheries biology, fisheries management, economics, and ocean and coastal
policy. Three individuals from private sector marine aquaculture operations
served on the committee. Care was taken to ensure a balance of experience
in different regions, with different species, and with different aquaculture
technologies. The committee was assisted by liaison representatives from
federal agencies with related programs or missions: the U.S. Department of
Agriculture, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service, and the National Science Foundation. The prin-
ciple guiding the committee, consistent with NRC policy, was not to ex-
clude any information, however biased, that might accompany input vital to
the study, but to seek balance and fair treatment.
The primary objective of the study was to identify and appraise opportu-
nities for technology development that can optimize cost-effectiveness and
productivity, mitigate environmental constraints, or resolve institutional and
policy issues that present obstacles to the advancement of marine aquacul-
ture in the United States. Such an approach does not imply that all problems
are susceptible to technological solutions. It seeks only to identify those that
might be and to describe possible technological solutions. The committee
reviewed national, state, and local policies that regulate or otherwise affect
marine aquaculture to determine changes that might be appropriate.
STUDY METHOD
The committee obtained information for the assessment through several
approaches. First, it held.regional meetings at which members heard formal
presentations by practitioners of marine aquaculture business and research
activities and those with policy or management oversight. In these work-
shops, the engineering state of practice of various regional and species-
specific marine aquaculture systems was described, along with the eco-
nomic and institutional factors. These investigations consisted of presentations
by invited guests from the West Coast, the Northeast, the South Atlantic,
and the Gulf regions on issues specific to these areas. Participants included
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PREFACE
. .
V11
representatives from industry and government, as well as from institutions
conducting relevant research in each region. A second approach to gather-
ing information was through participation of committee members at na-
tional meetings of aquaculture organizations. Working groups were con-
vened by the committee, and individuals with specific expertise were invited
from around the world to focus on specific technologies and issues of impor-
tance to the study. Participants in these sessions are listed in Appendix F.
Individual committee members prepared substantial review papers on all
the major areas of information addressed in the study. A bibliography of
reference material used in these preliminary papers is included at the end of
this report. Additional information on specific topics was solicited by the
committee from environmental and conservation organizations, and organi-
zations representing traditional fisheries industries. Representatives of the
major government agencies with responsibilities for oversight of marine
aquaculture also participated in the committee's deliberations.
ORGANIZATION OF THE REPORT
The final report represents a synthesis of information gathered by the
committee, aimed at focusing this wide-ranging material into an examina-
tion of the present status of marine aquaculture in the United States and the
major obstacles to its emergence as a successful industry. The report is not
intended as a comprehensive survey, although overviews of world (Appen-
dix A) and U.S. (Appendix B) aquaculture are presented in the appendixes.
Appendix C is an authored paper examining the sociocultural aspects of
U.S. marine aquaculture.
Chapter 1 introduces the major issues to be addressed in the report.
Chapter 2 reviews the status of world and U.S. aquaculture, with an empha-
sis on marine aquaculture and comparisons between world and U.S. produc-
tion and with a focus on the economic contribution. Chapter 3 presents an
overview of the federal and state policy framework in which marine aqua-
culture has operated over the past 15 years, and addresses continuing and
newly emerging problems that constrain the growth of this industry in the
United States, including conflicts among various users, coastal management
issues, and the role of state and local governments. Environmental issues
are examined separately in Chapter 4. Chapters 5 and 6 provide a detailed
examination of the scientific, technical, and educational base that is needed
to build a successful marine aquaculture industry, both for resolving envi-
ronmental problems and for achieving economic feasibility. The major
conclusions and recommendations that follow from the findings of this in-
vestigation are presented in Chapter 7. An Executive Summary provides a
synopsis of the report. An extensive bibliography of reference material on
the subject matter is also included.
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. ~ ~
Vllt
PREFACE
This report is intended to serve as a guide to federal and state govern-
ment agencies and the private sector in making decisions about appropriate
policy, regulatory, and economic actions that are needed to improve the
prospects for success of the U.S. marine aquaculture industry. It is hoped
that the report will also serve as an educational document for the public, the
media, and those who are involved in any aspects of marine aquaculture.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The committee appreciates greatly the valuable input and insight that
was provided by participants in two of its regional meetings and in two
committee meetings that were convened at gatherings of inteMationa1 tech-
nical societies. Participants in these sessions are listed in Appendix F.
The committee chair wishes to extend a particular thanks to Professor
Raul Piedrahita of the Agricultural Engineering Department at the Univer-
sity of California, Davis for significant and valued input, particularly to
Chapter 5. Special thanks are due to Lucy Garcia, principal staff assistant
for the Aquaculture and Fisheries Program, University of California, Davis,
for exceptional support and liaison activities on behalf of the committee
chair during the conduct of this study. The committee also wishes to thank
Jean-Pierre Ple, doctoral student in the College of Marine Studies at the
University of Delaware, for his assistance in the preparation of Appendix A
(Review of World Aquaculture) and Appendix C (Federal Marine Aquacul-
ture Policy). The rewards for committee service are not great; however, the
rewards of working with and getting to know a group of knowledgable and
dedicated people who are willing to voluntarily support and provide input to
such a committee are very much worthwhile.
Finally, the committee wishes to acknowledge the valuable input of re-
viewers who did an exceptionally good job of providing specific sugges-
tions and corrections, of the liaisons from federal agencies who provided
extensive information about the public sector's efforts, and of Marine Board
staff, whose support was invaluable.
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Contents
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
1 INTRODUCTION
World/U.S. Aquaculture Production, 10
The National Interest in Marine Aquaculture, 10
Problems and Constraints, 14
References, 19
2 STATUS OF AQUACULTURE
An Overview of Aquaculture and Fisheries Worldwide, 20
Status of U.S. Marine Aquaculture, 23
Marine Fisheries Enhancement, 49
Economic Issues, 56
Notes, 59
References, 60
3 POLICY ISSUES
The Federal Government and Marine Aquaculture, 64
Fisheries Enhancement Concerns and Policy Issues, 77
The States and Marine Aquaculture, 79
Management Framework for Marine Aquaculture, 84
Summary of Policy Issues and Options, 87
Conclusion, 89
References, 90
fix
1
9
20
64
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x
4 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
Environmental Impacts of Marine Aquaculture, 92
Environmental Requirements of Marine Aquaculture, 108
Resolving Environmental Problems, 109
References, 110
5 ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH
Role of Science and Technology in Addressing
Major Constraints, 116
Interdisciplinary Systems Design, 118
Other Research and Engineering Opportunities, 144
Summary, 150
Note, 151
References, 151
6 INFORMATION EXCHANGE, TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER,
AND EDUCATION
Overview, 158
Information Exchange, 161
Technology Transfer, 163
Education, 165
Marine Aquaculture Technology Centers, 166
Summary, 168
References, 168
7 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Conclusions, 169
Recommendations, 171
Conclusion, 177
BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDIXES
A Review of World Aquaculture
B Freshwater Aquaculture in the United States
C Federal Marine Aquaculture Policy
D Sociocultural Aspects of Domestic Marine Aquaculture
by Shirley J. Fiske and Jean-Pierre Ple
E Committee Biographies
F Participants in Special Sessions
INDEX
CONTENTS
92
116
158
169
178
206
232
241
253
269
274
277
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Marine
Aquaculture
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