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Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1993. Global Dimensions of Intellectual Property Rights in Science and Technology. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2054.
×

Index

A

Academic research

bilateral science and technology agreements and, 199

commercialization of inventions, 74

in developing countries, 199-200

dissemination of results, 6, 9, 16

university views on IPR, 189, 190, 208-213

Adaptation of IPR to new technologies

biotechnology, 15, 19, 257-262, 266

case law processes, 270-271

computer programs, 250, 253-254, 255, 262-266

copyright law, 250, 264, 266

doctrinal issues in, 270-273, 281-282

evaluation of, 270-281

existing paradigms, 250-251

flexibility in, 190

fundamental issues, 249

implications of, 196-197, 281-283, 371

innovation rates and, 281

integrated information networks, 267-269

international dimension, 251-252, 260-262

patent law, 250

policy analysis needs, 253, 255, 259

reform processes, 253

rights-enforcing process, 275-281

rights-granting process, 273-281

semiconductor chips, 250, 255

small business, 252

sui generis approaches, 251, 271-272, 371

Adler, Reid, 327

Aerospace industry, sales losses due to weak IPR, 132

Agency for International Development (U.S.), 216

Alloys, 124, 125 n.11, 171

American Law Institute, 31

American Research and Development, 219

American Society for Composers, Authors, and Publishers, 278

American Superconductor, 217

Amgen, 320, 323, 325

AMP, Inc., 345

Andean Community countries, 84

Anell, Lars, 176

Animal rights, 260

Antidumping policy, 371

Antitrust policies, 16, 276, 343

Apple Computer Corp., 198, 289, 293 n.24

Arab Society for the Protection of Industrial Property, 185

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1993. Global Dimensions of Intellectual Property Rights in Science and Technology. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2054.
×

Argentinian IPR, 73

agricultural research, 78

demand for, 78

international cooperation, 86

and joint ventures with U.S. firms, 114, 117

and licensing of technology by U.S. firms, 120

patent law, 84, 126

pharmaceutical protection, 327

plant breeders' rights, 96

ranking of, 69, 122, 123

and sales losses of U.S. industries, 133

and technology transfer to wholly owned subsidiaries, 118

Armstrong, James E., III, 152, 155-158, 184, 186, 402-403

Armstrong, John A., 190, 192-207, 212, 213, 217, 241, 371, 373, 403-404

Artificial intelligence, 15, 181, 263

Associacion Nacional de la Industria de Programas para Computadoras, 233, 234, 235

AT&T, 191, 213, 232, 236-240, 243, 340, 341, 345-347, 377-378

Audiotapes, copying, 10, 160-161

Australia, 91

Author's rights law, 235

B

Bangladesh, 361

Barbaro, Daniele, 51

Barton, John, 251, 253, 256-283, 353, 404

Belarus, 73

Bell, Alexander Graham, 340

Bell Laboratories, 237, 340, 346, 348, 358, 377

Bement, Arden L., Jr., 388-390, 404-405

Biochips, 15, 204

Biotechnology

adaptation of IPR to, 15, 19, 257-262, 266

agricultural, 259, 279 n.74

bacterium that produces ethanol from sugar, 77-78

border restrictions, 277

breadth of protection, 276-277

capital raised through public offerings, 322

case law, 254, 257 n.3, 258 nn.5 & 6, 260, 270, 271, 320, 323, 324

case study, 319-328

cloning of proteins, 257-258

commercialization role of IPRs, 254, 319-321, 325

defined, 257

delayed ripening of fruits, flowers, and vegetables, 102 n.13

delays in patents, 324

deposit of cultures, 9

in developing countries, 77-78, 95-96, 101-103

effects of protection, 103

exclusion under TRIPS, 177

experimental use exemption, 261

foreign investments in, 101

history of, 319-323

human, 259

international policy issues, 166, 258, 260-262, 270, 276-277, 323-324, 326-327

licensing of products, 102

litigation, 279

market value of stocks, 320, 322

oil-digesting organism, 320

patents, 6, 9, 92, 96, 102, 147, 163, 171, 194-195, 244, 254, 270, 271, 274-275, 278, 279, 281, 319-320, 323, 351

pharmaceuticals, 260, 275, 321, 324-325, 327

piracy of, 77

plant breeders' rights, 10, 95-96

policy analysis needs, 259

process claims, 323

recombinant DNA technique, 6

relevant forms of intellectual property, 9

role of small firms in, 252, 326, 328

sales, 321

scope of claims, 324

solutions to IPR issues, 259-262

special issues, 257-259

sui generis protection, 261, 270, 283

trade barriers, 282

trade secrets protection, 194-195

transgenic animals, 92

transgenic plants, 101, 102

U.S. pressure on developing countries for IPR, 183-184

U.S. research, 201

venture capital disbursements, 320-321

Borrus, Michael, 358, 373-377, 405

"Brain drain," 71

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1993. Global Dimensions of Intellectual Property Rights in Science and Technology. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2054.
×

Brazilian IPR

biotechnology protection, 183-184

copyright for software, 72, 171, 240

demand for, 77-78

exclusions from patent protection, 77-78, 124-125, 171-172

and foreign direct investment, 99 n.9, 114, 116, 117

free riding, 76

internal research in, 73, 136

international cooperation, 86

and joint ventures with U.S. firms, 114, 116, 117

and licensing of technology by U.S. firms, 119, 120

negotiating position in GATT, 354

patent law, 84, 171-172

pharmaceutical protection, 327

plant breeding, 101-103

prevention of technology losses in, 73-74

ranking of, 69, 93, 99 n.9, 123, 136, 140

reforms, 84, 125 n.11, 171-173

research stature and, 83

and sales losses of U.S. industries, 133

sui generis legislation, 314

and technology transfer to wholly owned subsidiaries, 118

trade secrets protection, 78, 172

Bridges, Bill, 348

Brunelleschi, 46

Building materials industry, sales losses due to weak IPR, 132

Bush, Vannevar, 214

Business Software Association of the United States, 236

C

Calvin, Melvin, 156

Cameras, miniature color video, 340

Camcorders, 340

Canada, 91

effects of TRIPS on, 177

multinational firms' R&D expenditures in, 137

semiconductor protection, 336

Carnegie Commission, 199

Case law on adaptation of IPR to new technologies, 270-271

Allen and Hanbury's v. Generics UK (U.K.), 159

Allen decision (U.S.), 260 n.9

Allen-Myland, Inc. v. IBM Corp., 269 n.41

Amgen, Inc. v. Chugai Pharmaceutical Co., 258 n.6, 270, 277 n.69

Apple Computer, Inc. v. Franklin Computer Corp., 264 n.25

Atari Games Corp. v. Nintendo of America, Inc., 309

Baker v. Selden, 298, 305

BBC v. Commission of the European Communities, 159-160

Bergy, 257 n.3

on biotechnology protection, 254, 257 n.3, 258 nn.5 & 6, 260, 277 n.69, 320, 323

Broder Software, Inc. v. Unison World, Inc., 264 n.27

Cable/Home Comm. Co. v. Network Prod., Inc., 268

Certain Recombinant Erythropoietin decision, 277 n.69

Computer Associates International, Inc. v. Altai, Inc., 297, 306 n.63, 312 n.75

on computer software protection, 264 nn.25-28, 268-269, 270-271, 292, 296-299, 305-307, 309, 310

on copyright misuses, 276

Dawson Chemical v. Rohm and Haas Co., 276 n.67

Diamond v. Chakrabarty, 9, 254, 257 n.3, 260, 320

Diamond v. Diehr, 265, 292, 295, 309

Digidyne v. Data General, 269 n.41

Durden decison, 323, 324

E.F. Johnson Co. v. Uniden Corp., 292

Feist Publications, Inc. v. Rural Telephone Co., Inc., 269, 305, 307 n.66

on fair use, 291, 305

on free movement of goods and IPR, 159-160, 282

Gottschalk v. Benson, 265, 287 n.10, 288 n.11, 309, 310

Graham v. John Deere Co., 305

Grams decision, 265 n.31

Harper and Row Publishers, Inc. v. Nation Enterprises, 291 n.19

Hibberd decision, 260 n.9

Hubco Data Products Corp. v. Management Assistance Corp., 292

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1993. Global Dimensions of Intellectual Property Rights in Science and Technology. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2054.
×

Iwahashi decision, 265 n.31

Lasercomb America, Inc. v. Reynolds, 276

Lewis Galoob Toys, Inc. v. Nintendo of America, Inc., 268, 316 n.86

Loctite Corp. v. Ultraseal, Ltd., 276 n.67

Lotus Development Corp. v. Borland Int'l, Inc., 300

Lotus Development Corp. v. Paperback Software Int'l, 264, 297, 300, 315, 331 n.8

Mackay Radio & Telegraph Co. v. Radio Corp., 265 n.33

Moore v. Regents of the University of California, 258 n.5

Parker v. Flook, 265, 309

on pharmaceutical protection, 258 n.6

Plains Cotton Cooperative Assn. v. Goodpasture Computer Service, Inc., 264 n.28, 297

Scripps Clinic and Research Foundation v. Genentech, 258 n.6, 324

on semiconductor protection, 331 n.8

Texas Instruments, Inc., v. United States International Trade Commission, 278 n.73

United States v. Automobile Manufacturers Assn., Inc., 278 n.72

United States v. IBM, 269 n.41

United States v. Manufacturers Aircraft Assn., Inc., 278 n.72

Vault Corp. v. Quaid Software Ltd., 268, 291 n.18

Volvo v. Veng, 159

Warner Brothers v. Christiansen, 159

West Publishing Co. v. Mead Data Central, Inc., 269

Whelan v. Jaslow, 264 n.26, 296-299, 303-304, 314

White-Smith Music Co. v. Apollo, 286

Cathode-ray tubes, 340

Censorship, 52, 53

Cetus, 320, 326

Chakrabarty, Ananda, 320

Charge coupled devices, 340

Chemical industry, 20

attitudes of U.S. firms about foreign direct investment, 112-113, 116, 115, 117, 118, 121, 131, 139

joint ventures by country, 117

licensing of technology in developing countries, 119, 120

sales and R&D expenditures of firms, 115

sales losses due to weak IPR, 132, 133

technology transfer to wholly owned subsidiaries, 118, 119

Chemicals

imitation of, 126

innovation rates, 134

patentability of, 92, 96, 124, 125, 126, 136, 163, 171, 206, 279, 369

Chilean IPR, 84

and economic development, 236

and joint ventures with U.S. firms, 114, 117, 216

and licensing of technology by U.S. firms, 119, 120

ranking of, 122, 123

and technology transfer to wholly owned-subsidiaries, 118

Chinese IPR

biotechnology protection, 327

computer program protection, 314

ranking of, 93

reforms, 72, 84

Chiron, 320, 326

Clones, 11

Cohen-Boyer patent, 6, 9

Coherent Radiation, 348-349

Colombian IPR, 73

biotechnology protection, 77

copyright protection for software, 72

demand for, 77

Commission of the European Communities,

Green Paper on Copyright, 159

Competitive advantage, basis for, 202

Competitive market systems

failures, 25-28

resource allocation problems, 24

Competitive strategy

of electronics firm, 228-232

IPR and, 189-190, 221-240, 243-245

of pharmaceutical firm, 221-228, 244

of software firm, 232-236

of telecommunications firm, 236-240

Computer industry

economic losses due to inadequate IPR protection, 12, 132

importance of IPR to, 192, 194

piracy in, 233

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1993. Global Dimensions of Intellectual Property Rights in Science and Technology. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2054.
×

Computer-produced works, 181

Computer software/programs

1950s and early 1960s, 284-285

1960s (mid) and 1970s, 285-288

1980s, 288-293

adaptation of IPR to, 15, 19, 253-254, 262-266

advanced systems, 335

algorithms and computational procedures, 280, 287, 288, 289, 299, 300, 302-303, 309, 312, 314, 317

applications, 54, 264

artificial intelligence, 15, 181, 263

Berne Convention protocol on, 181

bundling with hardware, 284

case law on, 264 nn.25-28, 268-269, 270-271, 275-276, 291 nn.18 & 19, 292, 296-299, 303, 314

case study on, 284-318

closed systems, 268-269

competitive strategies, 232-236, 239

controversies, 295, 296-299, 301-304

The Coordinator, 234

copying of, 10, 76, 236, 262, 270-271, 295

copyright protection, 7, 8, 54, 72, 125, 166, 171-172, 176, 177, 191, 196, 209, 217, 239, 240, 250, 252, 262-264, 270, 275, 282-283, 285-286, 289, 294, 295, 299-300, 304-309

cross licensing, 280, 292

customized, 196

DAC Easy, 234

data structures for, 303-304

decompilation as infringement, 262, 265, 266, 291-292, 299-300, 310, 312

digital media, 315-316

dimensions of protection, 262

Executive, 234

future challenges in protection of, 314-318

historical overview, 284-293

hypertext navigation systems, 317

interface protection, 266, 269, 280, 289, 295, 296, 299, 300, 312, 352-353

international perspectives on, 15, 92, 251-252, 264, 282-283, 309-314, 317-318

latent semantic indexing algorithms, 317

litigation, 280, 290

logic, 312

networks, 267-269, 280, 316-317, 353

for open systems, 263, 268-269

for parallel processing, 263

patent protection, 6, 7, 8, 50, 147, 196, 240, 243, 250, 265, 280, 282, 286-288, 290, 292, 295, 301-304, 309-310, 317

personal computer and, 288-289

piracy of, 233-234

processing flows, 314

protection of, 294-309

registration of, 235

relational data bases, 54;

see also Integrated information networks

rental rights, 177

research and development, 293

reverse engineering of, 314

shrink-wrap licensing, 291, 292

solutions to IPR problems, 263-266

source codes, 286, 290, 295

special issues, 262-263

spreadsheets, 54

sui generis protection, 8, 240, 266, 282, 312, 313

trade secret protection, 196, 236, 239, 284-285, 286, 288, 290, 291-292, 295, 300

Translate, 234

translation from one programming language to another, 295

U.S. legal approaches (current) to protection, 294-308

videogame graphics, 295, 313

vulnerability to infringement, 7, 10

X-Windows, 209, 217

Whelan v. Jaslow. 296-299

written in clean rooms, 262, 263

see also Information technologies

Confidentiality agreements, 74

Constitution (U.S.), property rights, 22, 304

Copying of products, 7, 10

attitudes on, 236

computer software, 270-271, 290

economics of, 37, 51

effects on innovation, 19

"fair use" doctrine, 30, 291 n.19, 315

and infant industries, 81-82

private, for individual consumption, 11 n.5

public domain, 51

technological advances in, 37, 47, 51, 56, 160

unauthorized, 37

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1993. Global Dimensions of Intellectual Property Rights in Science and Technology. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2054.
×

Copyrights/copyrighting

adaptation to new technologies, 23, 250- 251

breadth of protection, 8, 30, 42, 53-54, 161, 264

and censorship, 52, 53

common pool problems, 33-34, 35-36

for compilations of data, 177

for computer software, 8, 54, 72, 125, 166, 171-172, 176, 177, 196, 240, 252, 262-264, 270-271, 275, 282, 285-287, 289, 294, 299-300, 304-309

consent decree, 269 n.41

defined, 30

distinction from patents, 7, 30, 49, 54

economics of, 37, 51

enforcement practices, 91-92

exclusions, 298-299, 304-305

historical background, 51-54

infringement of, 250, 291-292, 296-297, 316-317

international code on, 15

international conventions, 20

and knowledge production, 42

leniency in infringement proceedings, 42

levy on blank recording tapes, 160-161

misuse of, 276

modified approach, 282, 304-309

piracy, 11, 52

priority in awards of, 33

purpose of, 250, 286

reforms, 56, 171

registration process, 285

royalty collection and distribution, 278

term of protection, 30, 49, 53, 91, 264, 285, 313, 332

trade negotiations related to, 176-177

traditionalist compared to protectionist view, 299-300

weak protection of, 124

for works written by others, 51-52

Corning Glass Works, 211, 217-219, 242, 340

Corporations

family-owned companies, 211

publicly traded companies, 212

Standard and Poor 500, 211-212

threats to, 378

see also Multinational companies;

Small businesses

Council of Ten in Venice, 52

Council on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights, 178

Counterfeiting, 11, 123

Court of Justice of the European Communities, 159

Cross-licensing, 55, 102, 119, 152, 191, 219

benefits of, 228

in computer industry, 369-370

and information exchange, 237

and litigation, 278-280

patent protection and, 369-370

in semiconductor industry, 369-370

and working requirements, 242

Crumpe, Robert, 48

Cunningham, Mark, 212

D

Data bases

originality source in, 269 n.42

protection of information in, 181, 267-269, 282-283

David, Paul A., 19-61, 147, 151, 155, 156, 184, 186, 189, 376, 371, 405-406

Davis, Randall, 262, 306

Developing countries

academic research, 199-200

advantages of stronger IPRs to, 367-368

attitudes about IPR, 110, 153, 170, 200

biotechnology protection in, 95-96

"brain drain" from, 71

exclusion of products and processes from protection, 92

expropriation of intellectual property, 4-5, 10-11, 19-20

government role in research, 199

incentives for IPR in, 215, 363

intellectual property rights in, 73-74, 110, 200, 215

licensing in, 100, 111

natural comparative advantage, 366, 367

optimal levels of IPR protection, 104-105

piracy by, 360

protection strategies of businesses in, 73-74

R&D intensities, 362-365

relevance of India's IPR system for, 165-166

research needs on IPR protection, 135-139

research opportunities in, 82-83, 200-201

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1993. Global Dimensions of Intellectual Property Rights in Science and Technology. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2054.
×

role of IPRs in, 357, 360-368

technological change in, 135-137

technology as a development driver, 206

technology capacity by type of economy, 361-362, 364-365

technology development in, 72

technology losses to competitors in, 73-74

transitional period for adherence to TRIPS, 178

turnkey technology purchases, 367-368

types of economies, 361-362

use of own IPRs, 366

venture capital availability in, 74

weak IPR systems in, 66, 73-75, 76-78, 116

see also Poor countries; and individual countries

Digital audio recording, 7

Digital Equipment Corp., 293 n.24

DNA, 319

Dunkel, Arthur, 80, 176, 336

DuPont, 211

Dynamic random access memory chips, 330, 333

E

Economic growth

innovation rates and, 135, 193-194

IPR protection and, 5, 12, 66, 67, 87, 152, 172, 189

technological development, 165

Economic policies and issues

analysis needs, 253

competing interests, 3-4, 353

expropriation of intellectual property through, 4-5, 19-20

free riding, 76

and innovation, 298

interaction of IPR issues with, 16, 20-24, 73, 184

losses due to inadequate IPR protection, 4-5, 10, 131-133, 138, 140, 233-234

and patent system changes, 109

R&D costs, 6

in technology development, 209-212

U.S. sales and profits, 131-133

Economic theory of regulation, 92 n.5

Edward II, 45

Electron tube repeater technology, 340

Electronics industry, 12, 20

attitudes of U.S. firms about foreign direct investment, 112-113, 115, 117, 118, 121

cross licensing in, 278

importance of IPR to, 192

innovation rates and IPR, 134

joint ventures by country, 117

multinational firm's competitive strategy, 228-232

product and process life cycles in, 214, 373-374

sales and R&D expenditures of firms, 115

sales losses due to weak IPR, 132

technology transfer to wholly owned subsidiaries, 118

Elizabeth I, 48

Elzevir family, 52

Enforcement of IPR

adapted for new technologies, 249, 275-281

informal approaches, 213, 278-281

judicial, 275-278

levels of, 98

loopholes in TRIPS, 371

mechanisms, 249

mediation, 213

national differences in, 91-92

trade policy and, 178, 360-361

England

copyrights, 53

patents, 45, 46, 47-48

Stationers' Company, 53

Statute of Monopolies, 48

Tudor dynasty, 47-48, 53

Entertainment industry, 12, 123

sales losses due to weak IPR, 132

Environmental Quality Corporation, 217

Estonia, 73

Ethyl, 211

Europe/European Community

biotechnology protection, 9, 163, 253, 261-262,270, 271, 282

computer program protection, 240, 268-269, 282, 310, 311-313

congruence of IPR systems, 70, 86, 152

copyright laws, 159, 160, 161

foreign direct investments by, 147, 226-227

IPR approach, 158-162

Maastricht Treaty, 159

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1993. Global Dimensions of Intellectual Property Rights in Science and Technology. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2054.
×

patent system, 86, 91, 92 n.4, 160, 161, 226, 281 n.77

pharmaceutical patents, 226

plant breeders' rights, 96, 282

policy analysis process, 253

reciprocity provisions, 272

semiconductor protection, 282

sui generis protection, 261-262, 270

trade retaliation measures, 382

trade secrets, 161

trademark laws, 159, 160, 161

European

Committee for Interoperable Systems, 312 n.75

Directive on the Protection of Computer Programs, 311, 353

Economic Community Treaty, 159

Patent Convention, 9, 261

Evaluation of IPR protection, 25

age of technology and, 131, 140, 240

accuracy of estimates, 133

comparison of measures for, 119-121

data use for cost-benefit analyses, 147

disaggregated statistical analysis, 128-130

identification of doctrinal issues, 270-273

interindustry variation in foreign direct investment, factors responsible

for, 125-126, 369

ITC findings, 122-124

limitations of data, 369-370

measures compared, 112-121

rankings of countries, 69, 93, 99 n.9, 122, 123, 140

statistical analysis based on country data, 127-128

Evenson, Robert E., 136, 357, 360-368, 406-407

Exports

losses to infringing products, 12, 132

of technologies by developing countries, 363

F

Fair use doctrine, 30, 291 n.19, 315, 316

False advertising, 125

FAX machines, 340

Fiber-optics, 345, 378

Final Soft, 234

Finland, 216

Food industry

attitudes of U.S. firms about foreign direct investment, 112-113, 115, 116, 119, 120, 121, 139

joint ventures by country, 117

licensing of technology in developing countries, 119, 120

sales and R&D expenditures of firms, 115

sales losses due to weak IPR, 132

technology transfer to wholly owned subsidiaries, 118, 119

Foodstuffs, patentability of, 92, 124, 125, 126, 153, 163, 165, 185

Foreign direct investment

age of technology and, 131, 140

attitudes of U.S. firms on, 114-119, 147

in biotechnology, 101, 226-227

in component-manufacturing facilities, 112-114, 130-131

composition of, 130-131, 140

corporate taxation level and, 127-128

disincentives for, 111-112, 205-206

driving forces in, 370-371

export/import ratio and, 127-128

GDP attributable to wholesale and retail trade, transport, and communication and, 127-128

GDP, per capita, and, 127-128

importance of, 193

industry-specific attitudes, 112-114, 139

joint ventures, 114-116, 140

national executive's frequency of change and, 127-128

non-IPR factors affecting, 127-128, 226, 227

protection of intellectual property rights and, 99 n.9, 100, 110, 111-114, 130- 131, 139-140, 215, 240, 370-372

in R&D facilities, 112-114, 131, 139

in rudimentary production and assembly facilities, 112-114, 130-131

sales and R&D expenditures of firms and, 115, 130-131

in sales and distribution outlets, 112-114, 139

technology transfer via, 111-114

types of, 112-114

unauthorized use of intellectual property and, 131-133

urbanization and, 127-128

in wholly owned subsidiaries, 116, 118- 119, 184

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1993. Global Dimensions of Intellectual Property Rights in Science and Technology. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2054.
×

Forest products industry, sales losses due to weak IPR, 132

France

computer program protection, 311

copyrights, 52, 311

FACET program, 216

patent system, 50

Free riding, 72

benefits of, 76, 87, 334

exclusionary rules as, 92

and innovation, 76, 97, 104

research needs on, 75

U.S. trade retaliation for, 183, 184

welfare implications in North-South context, 103-105

Frischtak, Claudio R., 89-106, 407

Furland, Richard, 139

Fusion Systems, 219

G

Genentech Inc., 258 n.4, 320

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, 162, 175

and developing country use of IPRs, 357, 360

Director General, 176

IPR issues in, 310

pressures on developing countries from, 368

special and differential treatment, 80-81

suitability as forum for uniformity, 185-186

see also Uruguay Round

General Electric, 320

Genes, patentability, 253, 258, 281

Genetic engineering

patentability of methods, 10

see also Biotechnology

Genetic sequences, patentability, 16, 253, 257, 258-259, 327

Genetics Institute, 320

Genetics Systems, 320

Germany

computer software protection, 311

copyright law, 351

multinational firms' R&D expenditures in, 137

patents, 86, 158, 351

ranking of IPR system, 69

semiconductor protection, 336

Goldberg, Morton David, 251, 252, 254, 329-338, 407-408

Gordon, Eugene I., 252, 254, 339-350, 408

Gorlin, Jacques, 153, 175-182, 186, 371, 408-409

Gray market goods, 12

Great Britain, see England; United Kingdom

Griliches, Zvi, 372

Group of Seven, Economic Summit, 5

Guilds, 52, 53

H

Harris, Bryan, 152, 158-162, 184, 409-410

Health policies

drug approval delays, 16

interaction of IPR issues with, 16

Hersey, John, 263, 273, 290

Hewlett Packard, 137 n.24

Hills, Carla, 176

Hitachi, 346

Hong Kong IPR

and joint ventures with U.S. firms, 114, 117

and licensing of technology by U.S. firms, 120

ranking of, 123, 140

and technology transfer to wholly owned subsidiaries, 118

Hughes Aircraft Company, 340, 348

Human Genome Project, 258-259, 261

I

IBM Corp., 192, 198, 211, 213, 237, 293 n.24, 312, 341

Imitation, 34

costs of, 82, 134

economic compared to legal, 75

in packaging of products, 125

Immunex, 320

Imports/importation

infringing, 12, 132, 323

franchise contracts, 48, 50, 51

of technologies by developing countries, 363

as working a patent, 167, 177

Indian IPR

burden of proof, 163

characteristics, 152, 162-164

compulsory licensing, 125, 164, 165

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1993. Global Dimensions of Intellectual Property Rights in Science and Technology. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2054.
×

exclusions from patentability, 124, 163, 165

and joint ventures with U.S. firms, 114, 116, 117, 215, 216

and licensing of technology by U.S. firms, 119, 120

negotiating position in GATT, 354

patents, 125

pharmaceutical protection, 327

ranking of, 93, 123, 140

rationale, 164-165

reforms, 84

relevance for developing countries, 165-166

rights conferred, 163

technology transfer to wholly owned subsidiaries in, 116, 118

term of protection, 164

Uruguay Round negotiations, 166

Indonesian IPR

and joint ventures with U.S. firms, 114, 117

and licensing of technology by U.S. firms, 119, 120

ranking of, 123

and technology transfer to wholly owned subsidiaries, 118

Industrial and farm equipment industry, 12, 124

sales losses due to weak IPR, 132

Industrial Biotechnology Association, 260, 327

Industrial designs, 171, 251, 306, 307, 311

Industrial Property Institute (Mexico), 171

Infant industries, 81-82

Information technologies

importance to R&D, 198

protection by U.S., 20

and strengthening of IPR, 184

Infringement of IPR

analysis of losses due to, 11-12

antitrust violation for misuse of, 276 n.67

in biotechnology, 259

burden of proof, 163, 167, 171, 179

causes, 10-11

copyright, 250, 291-292, 316-317

decompilation of computer programs as, 250, 262, 265, 266, 291-292

definition of, 11

economic losses due to, 10, 11-12, 131-133

indirect effects of, 12

industries affected, 10, 12

international, 10-12

level of, 10

for network software, 268

''paper trail" as a defense, 337-338

patent breadth and, 38

penalties for, 171

for pharmaceuticals, 184

rationale for leniency in proceedings, 42

survey time for patents and, 232

trademarks, 125

and U.S. sales and profits, 131-133

U.S. trade retaliation for, 184

Innovation

barriers to, 78

dissemination of, 24

and economic growth, 5, 135, 193-194

incentives of IPR laws, 253

incremental, 72, 83, 152, 201, 218, 241, 307, 351

nonpatentable, noncopyrightable, 351

patents and, 114

public subsidy for, 377

Innovation rates

adaptation of IPR to new technologies and, 281

in developed countries, 137-139

in developing countries, 363

free riding and, 76

indigenous, in developing countries, 110

IPR protection and, 5, 67, 87, 93, 97, 105, 133-139, 140-141, 189, 194

plant variety protection and, 271

Integrated circuits, 92

Integrated information networks

adaptation of IPR to, 268-269

case law on, 271

data base protection, 181

future challenges in protection of, 316-317

special issues, 267-268

Intellectual property, defined, 108, 132

Intellectual property law

applicability to new technologies, 19, 43, 50, 70

constitutional protections, 22

economic policy and, 19-21

evolution of, 21-24, 151, 193

historical background, 43-54, 190

"panda's thumb" analogy, 22

reforms, 23

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1993. Global Dimensions of Intellectual Property Rights in Science and Technology. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2054.
×

Intellectual property rights (IPR)

and competitive strategy, 243-245

effectiveness of, 241-243

flexibility in, 203-204, 241

forums for reform, 353

globalization of, 204-206

history in the West, 43-54

hybrid approaches, 304-309

ignorance about, 72-74

international importance of issues, 5

justice and equity issues, 20

key issues, 339

misuse doctrines, 281

natural, 50

purpose of, 151, 361

studies of, 71-75

and trade policy, 65

valuation of, 161

Western cultural view of, 354

Intellectual property rights regimes

dimensions, 168 n.1

investment and trade effects of changes in, 358, 368-372

see also Copyrights/copyrighting; International IPR regimes; National IPR regimes; Patents/patenting

Intermetallic compounds, 124, 125 n.11

International conventions

Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works, 20, 171, 176, 181, 196, 240, 264, 360

Budapest Treaty on the International Recognition of the Deposit of Micro-organisms for the Purpose of Patent Procedure, 9 n.2

effectiveness in developing countries, 363

extent of protection offered by, 4

Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property, 20, 90 n.2, 170, 196, 230, 360

Patent Cooperation Treaty, 86

Patent Law Harmonization Treaty, 179-180

for protection of new plant varieties, 102

reciprocity provisions, 272

trade secret protection in, 177-178

Trademark Law Harmonization Treaty, 180-181

Universal Copyright Convention, 264

Washington Chip Treaty, 177, 203 n.3, 335, 352, 353

International Intellectual Property Alliance, 169 n.2

International IPR regimes

barriers to achieving, 13-14, 15

characteristics, 14

dispute resolution, 359

enforcement mechanism, 366

importance of, 65-66

national interest of U.S. and, 12

and trade, 15-16, 20

International Trade Commission (U.S.), 12

enforcement of border restrictions, 277

country rankings of IPR protection, 122-123

study of economic effects of weak IPR, 131-132, 133, 140

International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants, 10

Inventions, 7

biological and medical, 9

"breakthrough," 39, 42

collective process, 55

common pool problem, 33-34

complementary, 55

cost-reducing process, 36

defined, 46, 48

disclosure and dissemination, 108, 109

disincentives for, 13, 38, 67

and economic growth, 363

importation of, 48-49

indicators, 365

monopoly franchises and, 55

natural rights claims to, 20, 26, 50, 57

open economies and, 206-207

and patent protection, 108, 217-218, 220

per inventor, 363

second-generation, 42

simultaneous, 220

Israel, joint ventures, 215

Italy

copyrights, 51, 52

patents, 46-47

J

James I, 48

Japan

biotechnology research, 254, 327

electronic filing of applications, 156-157

expropriation of intellectual property, 5, 219

foreign direct investments by, 147

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1993. Global Dimensions of Intellectual Property Rights in Science and Technology. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2054.
×

free riding by, 75-76

grace period for research publication, 9 n.3

litigation for patent infringement, 232

mechanisms of technology development in, 375

threat to U.S. business from, 378

Japanese IPR

biotechnology protection, 327

for computer program protection, 313-314

copyright protection, 160, 161

and joint ventures with U.S. firms, 114, 116, 117

levy on blank recording tapes, 160-161

licensing of technology, 76, 313

and licensing of technology by U.S. firms, 120

origin of, 184-185

patent system, 55, 86, 136, 139, 152, 155-158, 226, 327

pharmaceutical patents, 226

ranking of, 123, 140

reciprocity provisions, 272

reforms, 136

semiconductor protection, 336

sui generis chip protection, 203

and technology development. 148

and technology transfer to wholly owned subsidiaries, 116, 118

Jaslow Dental Laboratories, 296

Jefferson, Thomas, 26, 28, 50, 230

Joint ventures, 65, 80, 111, 114-116, 121

large corporations and small indigenous firms, 197-198

Modern Marshall Plan, 215-216

weakness of IPR and. 140

K

Keefauver, William L., 191, 236-240, 410

Kempe, John, 45

Know-how

capacity of firms and economies to cycle, 375

as intellectual property, 161, 299, 307

Knowledge, scientific and technological

advantages and disadvantages, 42

codified, 26-27

as a commodity, 25-26

cumulative and interactive nature of, 28

dissemination of, 32-33

economic analysis of production of, 32-36, 41-42

flows, 205

model of interdependent diffusion and learning, 40-41

piracy as a barrier to, 205

"public good" nature of, 24, 27-28, 110

and R&D economics, 26-27

role in economic life, 193

spillover problems, 41, 44

trade-offs in production of, 32-36

Knowledge-intensive products, exports of, 169

Korean IPR

and joint ventures with U.S. firms, 114, 117

and licensing of technology by U.S. firms, 120

patents, 171

plant breeders' rights, 96

ranking of, 93, 123

reforms, 72, 124, 136, 139, 170, 171

and sales losses of U.S. industries, 133

and technology transfer to wholly owned subsidiaries, 118

trade secrets law, 171

L

Labuda, Ed, 348

Lasers, 340, 346, 348

Latin America

working requirements for patents, 91

see also individual countries

Law, see Case law; Intellectual property law; Legislation

League for Programming Freedom, 303

Lee, Jeong, 131

Legislation

Act of Queen Anne (British), 53, 54

Biotechnology Patent Protection Act of 1991, 277 n.69

Copyright Act (1790), 50

Copyright Act of 1957 (India), 162

Copyright Act of 1976 (U.S.), 8, 264, 266 n.37, 285 n.1, 294, 332

Copyright Act of 1987 (Singapore), 171

Drug Price Competition and Patent Term

Restoration Act of 1984 (U.S.), 260 n.12

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1993. Global Dimensions of Intellectual Property Rights in Science and Technology. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2054.
×

Fair Trade Law (Taiwan), 171

first copyright law, 53

Design Act of 1911 (India), 162

first patent law, 47

Law for the Development and Protection of Industrial Property (Mexico), 170

Ley Federal de Derechos de Autor, 235

Omnibus Trade and Competitiveness Act (1988) (U.S.), 170, 175

Orphan Drug Act of 1983 (U.S.), 260, 324

Patent Act (1791), 50

Patent Act (Korea), 171

Patent Law (Taiwan), 171

Patents Act of 1970 (India), 162-165

Plant Patent Act of 1930 (U.S.), 260 n.9

Plant Variety Protection Act of 1970 (U.S.), 260 n.9, 271

retaliatory, for weak IPR protection, 99

Semiconductor Chip Protection Act of 1984 (U.S.), 8, 252, 254, 272, 329, 331, 334, 335, 338, 352

Software Law of 1987 (Brazil), 171

South Carolina Act for the Encouragement of Arts and Sciences, 49

Statute of Monopolies (British), 48, 53

Super 301, 99, 170, 175

Tariff Act of 1930 (U.S.), 277 n.68

Trade and Merchandise Marks Act of 1958 (India), 162

U.S. Copyright Act, 30

U.S. Patent Act, 29, 177

License contract fee, 346

Licensing of technology, 110, 119

by academic researchers, 74, 190

automatic "licenses of right," 163

biotechnology products and processes, 102

breach of agreement, 292

compulsory, 91, 98, 125, 153, 164, 165, 167, 177, 313

computer programs, 291, 292, 294, 295

consent decrees, 243

country income and, 105

disincentives in developing countries, 100, 111

full-cost basis, 105

logic of, 165

lump-sum, 237

quality considerations, 116

restrictive access licensing agreements, 315-316

royalty rates, 125, 163, 190

shrink-wrap, 291, 292, 294

weak IPR protection and, 119, 120, 140

see also Cross licensing

Literary works, 7

Litigation

agreement on arbitration, 346-347

breadth of protection and, 281

cross licensing and, 278-280

current state of, 230-231

economics of, 275-276, 280-281, 347, 349, 353

expert studies and, 280

invalidation claims. 125

on proprietary information, 342-344. 345-347

on reverse engineering, 335

second generation, 290

strategic, 276

sui generis laws and, 242, 280

threats to small businesses, 252, 254, 276, 343-344, 345-347, 353

see also Case law

Lucky, Robert W., 358-359, 377-380, 384-385, 386, 387, 410-411

LYTEL, 345-347

M

Machinery industries

attitudes of U.S. firms about foreign direct investment, 112-113, 115, 118. 121, 131

innovation rates and IPR, 134

joint ventures by country, 117

sales and R&D expenditures of firms, 115

technology transfer to wholly owned subsidiaries, 118

Machlup, Fritz, 43

Malaysia, copyright law, 171

Mansfield, Edwin, 107-145, 240, 369, 370, 411

Manufacturing processes, patentability of, 92

Marks of origin, 125

Mars Corporation, 160

Marshall Plan, 214-215

Marx, Karl, 25

Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 208, 213, 262

Maurer, Bob, 219

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1993. Global Dimensions of Intellectual Property Rights in Science and Technology. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2054.
×

McKinney, George W., III, 190, 217-220, 411-412

McPherson, Isaac, 26

Mechanical technologies, 95

Medina Mora Icaza, Antonio, 190-191, 232-236, 412

Menell, Peter, 297-298

Merck & Co., 324

Merrifield, Bruce, 157, 190, 214-216, 412- 413

Metals industry attitudes of U.S. firms about foreign direct investment, 112-113, 115, 116, 118-121, 126

innovation rates and IPR, 134

joint ventures by country, 117

licensing of technology in developing countries, 119, 120

sales and R&D expenditures of firms, 115

sales losses due to weak IPR, 132

technology transfer to wholly owned subsidiaries, 118, 119

Mexican IPR system, 73

copyright law, 171, 191, 235

enforcement powers, 171

foreign direct investment and, 99 n.9, 114, 117, 136

free riding, 76

Industrial Property Institute, 171

industrial property law, 235-236

and joint ventures with U.S. firms, 114, 117

Law for the Development and Protection of Industrial Property, 170

and licensing of technology by U.S. firms, 120

patent law reforms, 72, 84, 170-171

ranking of, 69, 84, 93, 99 n.9, 122, 123

and sales losses of U.S. industries, 133

and software industry, 191, 232-236

and technology transfer to wholly owned subsidiaries, 118

trade secrets, 171, 236

trademarks and industrial designs, 171

Microorganisms

deposit of cultures, 9, 223

patentability, 171, 260

Mitsubishi, 219

Monopoly

bilateral contracts with other innovators, 39

deadweight burden of, 34-35, 36

franchise, 40-41, 53, 55

publicly regulated private, 27

temporary, 41

trade, 47

Mossinghoff, Gerald, 157

Motor vehicle and motor vehicle parts industries, 12

innovation rates and IPR, 134

sales losses due to weak IPR, 132

Motorola, 211

Mowery, David C., 358, 368-372, 386, 413-414

Multinational companies

alliances with small firms in developing countries, 200-201

competitive strategy, IPR and, 221-240

dominance of markets, 81

electronics firm, 228-232

hostility from developing countries, 119

pharmaceutical firm, 221-228

software firm, 232-236

telecommunications firm, 236-240

N

National Agricultural Chemicals Association (U.S.), 133, 140

National Commission on New Technological Uses of Copyrighted Works, 263, 271, 273, 285 n.2, 289, 290, 297-298

National Institutes of Health, 16, 258. 327

National IPR regimes

administrative bureaucracy, 85

advantages and disadvantages of, 66-67, 93-97

closed-economy trade-offs, 94

congruent systems, 70, 90, 201, 204, 206;

see also Uniform intellectual property system

copyright protection, 91-92

cost reduction opportunities, 85

determinants of success, 194

differentiation of, 91-98, 100-101

enforcement levels, 91-92, 98

evaluation of, see Evaluation of IPR protection

evolution of, 193

foreign invention protection, 109

global welfare perspective, 103-105

importance of, 99, 193

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1993. Global Dimensions of Intellectual Property Rights in Science and Technology. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2054.
×

judicial system and, 85

minimum standards for, 90-91

national interests and, 89-91, 146

open-economy considerations, 98-103

patent office, 85

patenting, specifics of, 97-98

pressure from trade and investment partners for, 99, 148, 201

production capabilities and, 95

ranking of, 69-70, 93

reforms in, 72, 170-173

research capabilities and, 95

retaliatory actions for weaknesses in, 170

theory of capture and, 92

trends in evolution of, 170

see also individual countries

National Science Foundation, 214

Natural rights of inventors, 20, 26, 50, 57, 151

Nayyar, Deepak, 162-168, 414

NEC, 228-232, 237, 375

Netherlands, copyrights, 52

Newly industrializing countries (NICs), 357

defined, 169

enforcement of IPR, 170

exports of knowledge-intensive products, 169

foreign direct investments by, 147

free riding by, 183

imitation and expropriation of intellectual property, 14

IPR systems status in, 168-174

piracy by, 169

policy questions, 14-15

reforms in IPR, 99, 153, 169, 170-173, 183-184

trade policy, 366

U.S. trade retaliation against, 183-184

use of own IPRs, 366

see also individual countries

Nigerian IPR

and joint ventures with U.S. firms, 114, 116, 117

and licensing of technology by U.S. firms, 119, 120

ranking of, 122, 123, 140

and technology transfer to wholly owned subsidiaries, 116, 118

North American Free Trade Agreement, 86, 235, 236, 374

O

Office equipment industry, 134

Optical glass, 124

Optical waveguides, patent dispute, 219, 242

Optoelectronics

adaptation of IPR to, 254

applications, 339-340, 341, 350

AT&T v. LYTEL, 345-347

components, 341

evolution of, 340

patents, 254, 344-345, 348-349

potential of, 341

principles of, 340-341

proprietary information, 254, 342-344, 345-348, 349

recommendations, 347-348, 349

Spectra Physics v. Coherent Radiation, 348-349

TAT-8 cable, 340, 346

Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, 100, 111, 362

P

Pacific Intellectual Property Association, 157

Paraguay, 86

Patent Law Harmonization Treaty, 179-180

Patents/patenting, 27

adaptation to new technologies, 250-251, 270

advantages and disadvantages, 32, 43, 147, 156

application content and format standards, 179

bilateral monopoly contracts with other innovators, 39

breadth of protection, 4, 91, 161, 163, 180, 265, 287

"breakthrough," 39

claims drafting, 202, 218, 242

common pool problems, 33-34, 35-36

community, 160

competitive bidding scheme for, 39

consent decrees, 243

cost of filing, 218, 344

creation of U.S. system, 48-50

compulsory licensing, 91, 98, 125, 153, 164, 167, 171, 177

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1993. Global Dimensions of Intellectual Property Rights in Science and Technology. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2054.
×

deadweight burden of monopoly, 34-35, 36

defensive policy, 228, 243, 344

deficiencies in law, 28

defined, 44, 155

design, 29, 46

disclosure provisions, 45, 46, 179

distinction from copyrights, 7, 30, 49, 54

Doctrine of equivalents, 157-158

economic development and, 109

economics of, 275-276

electronic filing of applications, 156-157

English language specifications in, 179, 180

as entrepreneurial assets, 191

for evolutionary minor developments, 219

examination process, 180, 243

exchange of licenses among firms, 55-56

exclusionary rules, 77-78, 91, 124-125, 163, 167, 170-172

experimental use exemption, 261

extension of application period, 219

"first to invent" compared to "first to file," 152, 157, 179, 180, 218, 281 n.77, 281

"first to publish" as a basis for, 218

flooding, 327

of genetic sequences, 16, 327

globalization of, 219, 239

historical background, 43, 44-50

"imitation," 368

import, 47, 48-49

increase in number of, 256

index of conformity to minimum standards, 122

and information infrastructure of the future, 317

infringement of, 11, 38, 163

and innovation, 114, 133-135, 140-141

interindustry differences in effects of, 369

international cooperation on, 15, 20, 260-261;

see also International conventions

interpretation of claims, 158, 179

invalidation claims, 125

"inventing around," 42, 55

and investment in R&D, 108

laws, 47, 84, 86, 90 n.2

licensing of, 161

litigation, 230-232, 270, 271, 275-276, 344, 348-349

and marketing strategy, 224-227, 236-238

of microorganisms, 171, 260

misuse doctrines, 243-244, 276

model law, 90 n.2

monopolies, 244

as nontariff trade barrier, 155

number of applications, 274

offensive, 344

originality, novelty, and nonobviousness tests, 30, 46, 202, 243, 250, 351

overlap with copyright protection, 250

peripheral, 228, 229

petty, 351

previous publication or disclosure and, 9, 16

priority in awards of, 33

process of obtaining, 344

process versus product, 134, 163, 165, 179, 254

progeny of patented life form included under, 253, 259, 261

prospect theory approach to, 38-39, 55

publication of applications, 179

publication prior to, 281 n.77

races/racing, 33-34, 35, 39, 55

rationale for, 45, 49, 108-109, 164-165, 221-222, 339

on recombinant DNA technique, 6

reforms, 48, 72, 84, 171-173

retroactive "pipeline," 174, 178

revenue generation by, 85

simultaneous invention and, 220

social costs of, 108-109

specifics of, 97-98, 103

suitability for new technologies, 23

and technological advances, 41-42, 55

and technology transfer, 44, 45-47, 48, 49, 55, 226

term of protection, 4, 29, 45, 47, 91, 97, 125, 153, 164, 167, 171, 172, 177, 179, 180, 224, 260 n. 12, 287

trade negotiations related to, 177

and unproductive competition, 38-39

uniformity in, 97-98, 104-105

utility/petty, 85-86, 95

welfare implications in North-South context, 103-105

working requirements, 91, 98, 125, 153, 167, 177, 242-243

see also specific technologies

Patronage system, 29, 32-33

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1993. Global Dimensions of Intellectual Property Rights in Science and Technology. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2054.
×

Penrose, Edith, 109

Petri, Franciscus, 46

Petroleum refining industry

innovation rates and IPR, 134

sales losses due to weak IPR, 132

Pharmaceutical industry, 99-100

expenditures on R&D, 325

multinational firm's competitive strategy, 221-228, 244

protection of U.S. innovation, 20

R&D costs, 6, 324, 325

sales losses due to weak IPR, 132

see also Chemical industry

Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association

country rankings for IPR protection, 122

estimates of sales losses due to weak IPR, 133, 140

list of problem countries, 169 n.3

Pharmaceuticals

biotechnology-derived, 260, 276, 321, 323

case law on IPR protection, 258 n.6

cephalosporins, 373

compulsory licensing, 125, 177

costs of imitation, 82

country-of-origin property rights, 185

drugs for tropical diseases, 96-97, 138-139

economic losses due to inadequate IPR protection, 12, 82, 138-139

erythropoietin, 258 n.6, 323, 325-326

exclusivity, 260

free riding by developing countries, 76

imitation costs, 134, 222

importance of IPR for, 190

infringement of, 184

innovation rates, 134

introduction of, 225

life cycle, 222, 373

marketing strategy, 224-227

patentability of, 92, 96-97, 124, 125, 126, 153, 163, 172, 190, 206, 209, 223, 279, 369

registration protection, 224

secrecy for production processes, 224-225

term of protection, 260 n.12

tissue plasminogen activase, 258 n.6

trademark protection, 224

transitional period for adherence to TRIPS, 178

Philippines, IPR

compulsory licensing, 125

and joint ventures with U.S. firms, 114, 117

and licensing of technology by U.S. firms, 120

patents, 125

ranking of, 122, 123

and technology transfer to wholly owned subsidiaries, 118

Phillips, 237

Photographic goods industry, 12

Photolithography, 330

Photophone, 340

Piracy, 5, 11, 52

competence and, 363

of computer software. 233

corporate, 233

by developing countries, 360

increases in, 189

industrial, 233

by newly industrializing countries, 169

and research and development, 205

sales losses due to, 233-234

Plant breeders' rights, 10, 84, 96, 103 n.15, 282, 367

Plant-breeding research, 166

Plant varieties

certificate of protection, 271

legislation, 260 n.9

patents, 171, 185, 261

Polanyi, Michael, 28

Policy issues, 12

defining, 261

interaction of other policies, 16

trade, 15-16

trade-offs, 13-16

vision of an international regime, 14-15

Poor countries

production capabilities and IPR, 93

special and differential treatment, 80-81

Predatory hiring, 74, 78, 136, 343, 345

Preston, John T., 190, 208-213, 217, 414

Price elasticity of demand, and length of patent protection, 36, 97

Primo Braga, Carlos Alberto, 153, 168-174, 183-184, 370, 415-416

Printing trade and technology, 47, 51, 56

sales losses due to weak IPR, 132

Procurement system, 29, 32, 33-34

Property

defined, 31

system, 29;

see also Intellectual property system

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1993. Global Dimensions of Intellectual Property Rights in Science and Technology. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2054.
×

Proprietary information, 201

litigation, 342-343

protection for optoelectronics, 254, 342-344, 345-348

publication of research results and, 345-346

purpose of, 339

recommendations, 347-348

required for marketing approval, 178

Protection of intellectual property

advantages, 3, 6, 13, 23, 38

with "black boxes," 131 n.19

breadth of, 37-42

criteria for determining adequacy of, 124-125

in developing countries, 135-139

disadvantages, 3, 5, 13, 23, 38

double, 10

economic approaches to, 24-42

economic losses from inadequacies in, 4-5, 10, 11-12

effectiveness of, 4

and foreign direct investment, 111-114, 130-131, 139-140, 215

historical background, 47-48

industrialized versus developing countries, 110

and innovation, 5, 67, 87, 93, 97, 105, 133-139

international, 4

and joint ventures, 114-116, 140

length of, 8, 36-37

and licensing of technology, 55, 119, 120

national, 4, 102;

see also National IPR regimes

optimal levels from a global welfare perspective, 104-105

policy objectives of, 24-25, 164-165

product life cycles and, 6

production capabilities and, 95

R&D costs and, 6

reasons for inadequacies in some countries, 124-125

reform processes, 282

research capabilities and, 95, 109

research needs on, 135-139

resistance to reforms, 84

segmentation of technology and, 74

and technology transfer, 87, 111-112, 116-119

trade-offs in, 4, 55

see also Copyrights; Intellectual property law; Patents

Protectionism, 5

Public good

knowledge as, 24

properties of, 27

solutions to problem of, 29

Putnam, Henry Haven, 52

R

Radar, 340

Rathmann, George, 244, 254, 319-328, 416

RCA David Sarnoff Labs, 340

Recombinant DNA technique, 6

Regimes, Intellectual property rights regimes; see International IPR regimes

Registration protection, 224, 235

Research and development

benefits of growth in, 207

capabilities and IPR protection, 93-95, 109

common pool problem, 33-34, 39

cooperative, 189, 197-198, 200-201

defense procurement procedures and, 199

federal government expenditures, 214

foreign direct investment in facilities for, 112-114, 131, 137, 139

funding for, 79-80, 101-102, 194, 199, 377-378

globalization of, 198-199

government role in, 197, 199

intensities in developing countries, 362-365

lack of legal protection and, 73

litigation and, 276

opportunities in developing countries, 82-83

patent protection and investment in, 108, 227, 274

piracy as a barrier to, 205

private sector intensities, 362-363, 365

proliferation and globalization trends, 197-201, 207

public sector intensities, 362, 364, 366-367

resource allocation to, 39

risks, 197

stature of programs as a product of IPR protection, 83

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1993. Global Dimensions of Intellectual Property Rights in Science and Technology. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2054.
×

and technological knowledge, 26-27

uniform international IPR and, 79, 83

Research needs on IPR, 391-393

adaptation to new technologies, 393

costs and benefits of modifying patent systems, 136-137

cultural traditions and practices, 391

economic effects on developing countries, 392

data deficiencies and developing country conformance to IPRs, 392

effects of stronger protection, 133-139, 392-393

effects of weak protection, 71, 73-75, 393

"first to invent" compared to "first to file," 393

free riding, 75

indigenous technological innovation in developing countries, 392-393

methodological difficulties, 71-73, 75-76

multinational firms' R&D expenditures in developing countries, 137

patent protection and R&D expenditures in developing countries, 135-136

piracy effects, 392

sui generis approaches, 393

trade retaliation effects, 392

uniform compared to differentiated systems, 392

Research parks

cooperation among firms in, 136

funding problems in developing countries, 74

Resource allocation

in developing countries, 76-77

and enforcement levels, 98

inefficiencies in, 33-34, 39

protection of intellectual property and, 43

to R&D, 39

weak IPR systems and, 77

Reverse engineering, 76

of computer codes, 262, 265, 314

costs of, 334, 337

of high-intensity ultraviolet lamp, 219

and lawsuits, 335

"paper trail," 334, 337-338

royalty rates and, 34

of seed hybrids, 101 n.12

of semiconductor chips, 19, 268, 272, 332, 334, 335, 352

Rubber products industry

innovation rates and IPR, 134

sales losses due to weak IPR, 132

Rules of origin, 371

Russia, 73

S

Salinas de Gortari, Carlos, 235

Samuelson, Pamela, 234, 250, 252, 253-254, 284-318, 416

Scientific and technological advances

and effectiveness of IPR, 241-243

incremental refinement trends, 201-203

protection of, 6, 9

regional asymmetries in cost of and access to, 358, 373-377

trends in, 189, 190, 195-196, 207, 358-359, 377-380

Scientific goods industry, 12

innovation rates and IPR, 134

sales losses due to weak IPR, 132

Secrecy, costs of, 35

Semiconductor chips

adaptation of IPR to, 15

age of technology, 240

case law, 331

case study, 329-338

compulsory licensing of, 177

and computer software protection, 288-289

copyright protection, 331, 331

defining the technology, 332-333

fabrication process, 330

history of, 329-332

innocent infringer provisions, 177, 336

internationalizing protection, 335-337, 352

layout designs, 177

legislation, 8, 252, 254, 272, 329, 331, 334-336, 352

lump-sum licensing, 237

mask works, 331, 332, 333, 352

patentability of, 6, 8, 84, 124, 177, 279

protection of, 92, 250, 334-337

reverse engineering of, 272, 332, 334, 335, 352

scope and limitations of protection, 177, 334-335

sui generis protection of, 8, 203-204, 252, 254, 272, 282, 309, 332, 333, 335, 352

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1993. Global Dimensions of Intellectual Property Rights in Science and Technology. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2054.
×

term of protection, 177, 332

trade negotiations related to, 177, 336

Semiconductor laser diodes, 346

Sherwood, Robert, 68-88, 111, 136, 416-417

Siemens, 198, 237

Singapore, IPR

copyright law, 171

and joint ventures with U.S. firms, 114, 117

and licensing of technology by U.S. firms, 120

ranking of, 123, 140

and R&D investments in, 137 n.24

reforms, 72, 171

and technology transfer to wholly owned subsidiaries, 116, 118

Skolnikoff, Eugene B., 359, 380-383, 386, 417

Small businesses

advantages of stronger IPRs to, 371

biotechnology firms, 275-276, 328

and economic stability in developing countries, 215-216

innovation rates, 280 n.75, 283

litigation threats to, 252, 254, 275-276, 353

patents as assets, 369

protection of, 281

software industry, 234, 302

Small Business Innovation Research program, 218

Smith, Adam, 71

Soft Tec, 234

Software, see Computer programs/software

Software Action Group for Europe, 312 n.75

Southeast Asia

working requirements for patents, 91

see also individual countries

Soviet Union (former), trade secret law, 84

Spain, IPR

computer software protection, 235

and joint ventures with U.S. firms, 114, 116, 117

and licensing of technology by U.S. firms, 120

ranking of, 123, 140

and technology transfer to wholly owned subsidiaries, 116, 118

Spectra Physics, 348-349

Squibb Corporation, 139

Stallman, Richard, 303

Stamm, Otto, 190, 221-228, 243, 417-418

Statutes, see Legislation

Subsidies, 27, 29, 32

Sui generis protection, 193

adaptation to new technologies, 251, 255, 272-273, 282

advantages of, 212-213, 251, 283

of biotechnology, 261, 270, 283

of computer software, 8, 240, 308-309, 312, 313

defined, 251

disadvantages of, 195-196, 198, 203-204, 251, 254, 351-352

evaluation of, 272-273, 351-352

international perspectives on, 252, 353

and litigation, 242

of semiconductor chips, 8, 203-204, 252, 254, 272, 282, 309, 332, 333, 335, 352

term of, 8

Sumitomo, 219, 242

Superconductors, patentability, 217

Switzerland, 82, 311

T

Taiwanese IPR

copyrights, 171

and joint ventures with U.S. firms, 114, 117

and licensing of technology by U.S. firms, 120

patent exclusions, 125

patents, 171

ranking of, 93, 122, 123

and R&D investments in, 137 n.24, 139

reforms, 72, 125, 136, 139, 170, 171

and sales losses of U.S. industries, 133

and technology transfer to wholly owned subsidiaries, 118

trade secrets, 171

Taxes, 27

Technological development

capacity, by type of economy, 361-362, 364-365

in developing countries, 135-137

and economic growth, 165

free riding and, 76

geographic clustering of capabilities and players, 374-376

IPR protection and, 135-137, 147, 165

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1993. Global Dimensions of Intellectual Property Rights in Science and Technology. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2054.
×

sovereignty and, 359

trends in, 358-359, 377-380

see also Scientific and technological advances

Technologies

adaptation of, 93

age of, 131, 140, 240

cost and availability issues, 3, 218-219, 358, 373-377

economic incentives for innovation, 12

diffusion of, 40, 75, 78-79, 98, 152, 165

emerging, 7-10, 15

flows, 205

investment scenarios for developing, 209-212

licensing of, 119

product life cycles, 6, 19, 214, 373-374

segmentation of, 74, 78

trends in, 6-7, 135-137

turnkey, 367-368

see also Adaptation of IPR to new technologies; Innovation; Scientific and technological advances

Technology transfer, 194

and codified knowledge, 26-27

compulsory licensing and, 153

educational costs in fees for, 229-230

encouragement of, 45-47

via foreign direct investment, 111-114, 131-133, 140

franchises, 47, 50

joint research and, 80

patents and, 44, 45-47, 48, 49, 55, 226, 228

research on, 72-73

royalty arrangements for, 228, 230

to subsidiaries, 116-119

unauthorized use of intellectual property and, 131-133

uniform international IPR regime and, 55, 56, 79, 87, 167-168

Telecommunications, competitive strategy of multinational firm, 236-240

Texas Instruments, 279

Textiles and apparel, 12

importance of patent protection, 369

innovation rates and IPR, 134

sales losses due to weak IPR, 132

Thailand, IPR

and joint ventures with U.S. firms, 114, 116, 117

and licensing of technology by U.S. firms, 119, 120

patent exclusions, 124

ranking of, 122, 123, 140

and technology transfer to wholly owned subsidiaries, 116, 118

U.S. pressures on, 314

Trade

border restrictions on infringing products, 277

free trade agreements, 86

IPR as an issue of, 15-16, 20, 65, 310

monopolistic, 47

retaliation pressures, 99, 100, 153, 170, 183

see also Exports; Imports

Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS)

compulsory licensing under, 153, 167

computer program protection, 206

copyright and related rights, 176-177

dispute settlement under, 177, 372

Dunkel draft, 152-153, 185-186, 239- 240, 371

enforcement of IPR, 153, 178, 371

exclusions under, 177, 206

and foreign direct investment, 370

implications for developing countries, 167-168, 170

India's position on, 162, 167-168

investment and trade effects of. 358, 368-372

key issues, 153, 167, 176-178

negotiations related to, 153, 175, 176-178

objectives, 175, 186

patents, 153, 167, 177

and reforms of IPR regimes, 172

semiconductor layout designs, 177, 336

status of, 173-174, 176

suitability as forum for uniformity. 185-186

trade secrets, 177-178

transitional period before required adherence to, 153, 178

Trade Related Investment Measures, 371

Trade secret protection, 27, 96, 166

application to process technology, 203

for computer programs, 196, 236, 239, 284-285, 290, 291-292, 294, 295

cost reduction opportunities, 85

defined, 31

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1993. Global Dimensions of Intellectual Property Rights in Science and Technology. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2054.
×

in developing countries, 74

employer versus inventor benefits, 32

enforcement of, 92

form and function, 30

as intellectual property, 30-31

law, 9, 22, 23, 31, 32, 33, 36, 84, 171

mechanism of, 202-203

misappropriation, 11, 291-292

offshore ventures and, 239

reforms, 84, 171, 172

and resource allocation inefficiencies, 33

role of, 36

technology-information agreements, 238

trade negotiations related to, 177, 236

uniform international IPR regime and, 56

Trademarks, 15, 20

breadth of protection, 161, 305

competitive strategy, 238, 239

pan-European system, 160

for pharmaceuticals, 224

reforms in developing countries, 125, 171

weak protection in developing countries, 124

Transgenic animals and plants, 92, 101, 102, 177, 259

Transistors, 237, 333

Transoceanic underwater communicationcable, 340

Transportation equipment industries

attitudes of U.S. firms about foreign direct investment, 112-113, 115, 117, 118, 121, 126, 139

joint ventures by country, 117

sales and R&D expenditures of firms, 115

technology transfer to wholly owned subsidiaries, 118, 119

Tudor, Mary, 53

U

Uenohara, Michiyuki, 190, 228-232, 243, 418

Ultraviolet lamps, high-intensity, 219

Unauthorized use of intellectual property

see also Copying; Free riding

Uniform intellectual property system

''adequate and effective protection" standard, 186

barriers to achieving, 20, 54-57, 66, 89-90, 147-148, 151, 166, 251

benefits for nations and global economy, 66, 68, 71-80, 87, 147, 160, 192-193, 206

characteristics, 68-71

computer network for linking patent offices, 86

constitution-like framework for, 186

demand for, 76-78

determinants of success, 152

diffusion of benefits, 78-79

disadvantages of, 80-83, 87, 166

and dominance of markets, 81-82

economic issues, 66, 82-83

ethical trade-offs, 81

examination of applications by transnational offices, 86

findings from interviews, 73-75

free-riding, 75-76

incentives for, 104-105

installation of, 85-87

and international competitiveness, 83

in open economies, 100-101

pressure for, 66, 153

research on, 71-75

research stature and, 83

size of country and, 104

special and differential treatment for poor countries, 80-81

trade-offs between technological progress and technology diffusion, 55

training of administrative staff, 86

and transfer of technology, 55, 56

trends toward, 84-85

TRIPS as a forum for, 185-186

U.S. interests in, 376

Union for the Protection of New Varieties, 261, 282

United Kingdom

biotechnology protection, 258

multinational firms' R&D expenditures in, 137

semiconductor protection, 336

United States

Articles of Confederation, 49

biotechnology research in, 201, 254

conflicts with developing countries, 317-318

defense procurement procedures, 199

effects of stronger IPR on, 372

federal government views on IPR, 190, 214-216

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1993. Global Dimensions of Intellectual Property Rights in Science and Technology. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2054.
×

Food and Drug Administration, 260, 325

foreign direct investment attitudes of businesses, 112-114

grace period for research publication, 9 n.3

industrial design protection, 306, 307

industry views on IPR, 217-220

interindustry variation in effects of IPR, 369

levy on blank recording tapes, 160-161

mechanisms of technology development in, 375

national interests, 12, 21

opposition to Washington Chip Treaty, 203 n.3

pharmaceutical patents, 226

plant breeders' rights, 96, 271

policy analysis process, 253

post-war technology policy, 372

ranking of IPR system, 69

retaliatory actions for weak IPRs, 170, 172, 183, 186, 371, 372

semiconductor protection, 250-251, 252, 306

software protection approaches in, 250-252, 294-308

Special 301 provisions, 175

state differences in protection of trade secrets, 70

sui generis protection, 203-204, 271, 308

trade law reforms, 199

trade relations, 87

see also U.S. entries

UNIX, 240

Uruguay, 82, 86

Uruguay Round

barriers to agreement on IPRs, 251-252, 357, 360

concerns about, 162

importance of, 239

India's IPR regime and, 162, 166-168

IPR discussions, 5, 15-16, 66, 80, 86-87, 99, 148, 153

semiconductor chip protection, 352

see also Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights

U.S. Chamber of Commerce Intellectual Property Task Force, 122

U.S. Copyright Office

"rule of doubt," 285-286

source code deposit requirements, 286, 290

U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, 4, 249

Commissioner of Patents, 157

complaints about, 302

efficiency of, 281, 328, 349

examination standard, 349

number of applications processed, 274

policy analysis process, 253

training of administrative staff, 86

U.S. patent system

advantages of, 201

biotechnology patents, 77-78, 226, 253, 257, 259-260, 276-277, 327-328, 367

burden of proof on infringement, 163

changes in, 23, 156

compulsory licensing, 163

computer program patents, 7, 8, 201, 234, 243, 252, 286-288, 292, 301-302, 308-309

creation of, 48-50

delay in issuance of patents, 254, 258, 274-275, 324

effect of Patent Law Harmonization Treaty on, 179-180

effect of TRIPS on, 177

exclusionary rules, 91, 163

"first to invent" standard, 152, 157

origin of, 184-185

term of protection, 327

U.S. Trade Representative, 176

Utility models, 251, 366

V

Vagelos, P. Roy, 324-325

Venezuelan IPR, 73, 85

and joint ventures with U.S. firms, 114, 117

and licensing of technology by U.S. firms, 120

patent exclusions, 126

ranking of, 122, 123

and technology transfer to wholly owned subsidiaries, 118

Venter, Craig, 258

Venture capital, availability in developing countries, 74

Videotapes, copying, 10, 160-161

Virginia Company, 48

von Speyer, Johann, 46-47, 51

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1993. Global Dimensions of Intellectual Property Rights in Science and Technology. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2054.
×

W

Washington, George, 49, 50

Western Electric Company of Illinois, 228

Westwood, Albert R.C., 401-402

Whelan Associates, 296

World Bank, 71, 72, 85, 216

World Intellectual Property Organization, 66, 162, 167, 175

Berne Convention protocol, 181

biotechnology study, 260-261, 270

Committee of Experts, 180-181, 260 n.14, 273

discussions, 153, 179-182

dispute settlement between states, 181-182

functions of, 15, 16

model patent law, 90 n.2

objectives, 175

Patent Law Harmonization Treaty, 179-180

reform processes, 282

review of patent differences, 91 n.3

study group on harmonization, 157-158

Trademark Law Harmonization Treaty, 180-181

training of administrative staff, 86

Washington Chip Treaty, 203 n.3, 335-336

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1993. Global Dimensions of Intellectual Property Rights in Science and Technology. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2054.
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Global Dimensions of Intellectual Property Rights in Science and Technology Get This Book
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As technological developments multiply around the globe—even as the patenting of human genes comes under serious discussion—nations, companies, and researchers find themselves in conflict over intellectual property rights (IPRs). Now, an international group of experts presents the first multidisciplinary look at IPRs in an age of explosive growth in science and technology.

This thought-provoking volume offers an update on current international IPR negotiations and includes case studies on software, computer chips, optoelectronics, and biotechnology—areas characterized by high development cost and easy reproducibility. The volume covers these and other issues:

  • Modern economic theory as a basis for approaching international IPRs.
  • U.S. intellectual property practices versus those in Japan, India, the European Community, and the developing and newly industrializing countries.
  • Trends in science and technology and how they affect IPRs.
  • Pros and cons of a uniform international IPRs regime versus a system reflecting national differences.
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