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Minding the Helm: Marine Navigation and Piloting (1994)

Chapter: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

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10 Conclusions and Recommendations Maneuvering ships safely through narrow, shallow, and often congested channels is a challenging task for even the most skillful shiphandler. The marine operating environment is a complex, highly interdependent system. It encom- passes waterways, vessels, human operators, navigational aids, and a supporting infrastructure for pilotage, vessel and port management, policy and regulation, and professional development. When the system performs well, the regional and national economies, the vessels and their crews, populations near ports and wa- terways, and the natural environment all benefit. But over the past decade, the safety, effectiveness, and efficiency of navigation and piloting have become ma- jor concerns. Although by many measures safety has improved over the past several decades, in the eyes of the public, major shipping-disasters resulting in extensive pollution have brought into question the merchant mariners' profes- sional capabilities to operate safely. Clearly, major marine accidents deserve attention, particularly in terms of prevention or mitigation measures. Public attention has opened a window for reasonable and positive changes in the marine navigation and piloting system. System improvements need to be carefully crafted and implemented to avoid unintended side effects. A steady hand at the helm is needed to steer implemen- tation through the changes projected in Chapter 9. The following recommenda- tions are intended to help chart a well-informed, prudent course. The Committee on Advances in Navigation and Piloting accepts and endors- es the traditional concept that pilots are local experts in whom special trust and confidence are placed for the safe navigation of the vessels they serve. Those whom society officially recognizes as pilots have a long history of dedicated and 311

312 MINDING THE HELM expert service to uphold. By longstanding maritime tradition, they are held to high standards of professional competence and official accountability. This tra- dition should continue. The conclusions and recommendations expand on this fundamental view by prescribing a strategy for reducing operational and envi- ronmental risk and for improving safety performance, thereby enhancing public confidence in the marine navigation and piloting system and its pilotage compo- nent. Whether or not pilotage as practiced in the United Estates satisfies this fundamental view of the pilot is a central focus of this chapter. Recommenda- tions are numbered for convenience of reference; no priority order is implied. System organization, operation, and overall performance could be substan- tially improved to reduce operational risk by a more systematic accounting of interactions among system components. The marine navigation and piloting sys- tem is characterized by large disparities in its administration and standards of performance and by limitations in safety data that constrain intorrned oversight. The system is also characterized by considerable polarization over safety, eco- nomic, and jurisdictional issues that have prevented resolution of conflicts over marine pilotage and inhibited system-wide regulation of vessel traffic. Specific improvements can be made in system organization and integration, human sys- tems, marine pilotage, waterways management, navigation and piloting technol- ogy, and marine research and development, as described in following sections. MARINE NAVIGATION AND PILOTING: INTEGRATING THE SYSTEM The organizational structures within the marine navigation and piloting sys- tem range from a well-established hierarchy for decision making on a traditional ship's bridge to the more common, informal structure that prevails for system- wide decision making, including the organizational structure used for vessel traffic management. The loose nature of organizational structures contributes to lapses in human performance. These varying organizational structures, and the decision making that results from them, are proximate or contributing causes in many marine accidents. Little attention has been paid to marine navigation and piloting as a system; instead, previous assessments and investigations have focused principally on performance of specific vessels in specific circumstances. The systemic ele- ments navigation and piloting tasks, technology, human systems, governance, and the organizational environment in which they operate- have been assessed in varying degrees, but their interactions and relative importance in reducing operational and environmental risk are not well understood. Little organizational research has been conducted by the federal government and the marine industry that would improve the marine community's understanding of the system, its elements, and their interactions. This lack of understanding, together with the informal integration of the marine navigation and piloting system, inhibits re

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 313 auction in risk with respect to modern expectations for safety and environmental protection. Understanding Risk in the Marine Navigation and Piloting System Because of the interdependent nature of maritime navigation and piloting operations, these operations must be understood as a system. The understanding of risk in navigation and piloting can be improved by assessing system elements, their interactions, and their interactions with the environment in which they op- erate. Planning, management, administration, research activities, and recommen- dations for improvement must recognize the interdependence of system elements and take their interactions into account. RECOMMENDATION l: The Department of Transportation, in consulta- tion with the Department of Commerce and the Department of the Army, should sponsor a cooperative program of continuing risk assessment involv- ing the U.S. Coast Guard, Maritime Administration, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. The pro- gram should include development of a standard methodology for assessing risk and safety performance (at the vessel, individual mariner, fleet, port, and regional levels) in order to improve understanding of risk in navigation and piloting. This methodology should include standard methods for data collection and normalization of data across port, waterway, and river sys- tems. (See also recommendation 37.J RECOMMENDATION 2: The Department of Transportation, in consulta- tion with the Department of Commerce and Department of the Army, should undertake a cooperative, multidisciplinary research program involving the U.S. Coast Guard, Maritime Administration, National Oceanic and Atmo- spheric Administration, and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, in order to better understand risk relationships. The research program should investi- gate the interaction of the essential elements of a highly reliable, complete, and safe marine navigation and piloting system. This research should in- volve subject matter experts from the marine community. (See also recom- mendation 37.) Casualty Reports and Safety Records Although marine accident investigations by the National Transportation Safety Board, the Coast Guard, and state boards and commissions often provide valuable information about particular accidents, available safety data are inade- quate for valid statistical evaluation and comparisons of pilotage systems, even those covering the same routes. This is a longstanding problem in marine-safety

314 MINDING THE HELM analysis and should be corrected. An accepted methodology needs to be devel- oped for comparing safety records across pilot routes and piloting functions. RECOMMENDATION 3: The U.S. Coast Guard should review and im- prove its existing programs and capabilities for collecting and analyzing marine accident, incident, and near miss data; investigating groundings, collisions, and other marine accidents and incidents; and reporting these investigations and safety trends so that comprehensive safety-performance information becomes readily available. The U.S. Coast Guard should assign a high priority to data compatibility and sharing across existing and future marine safety data bases and should develop a sound methodology to enable comparison of safety data currently maintained in incompatible data bases. HUMAN SYSTEMS Professional Development Professional development programs for mariners and marine pilots need to be improved, and each individual's navigation and piloting knowledge and skills need to be periodically refreshed, upgraded, and confirmed. Professional weak- nesses and problems need to be identified and corrected before they become causal factors in marine accidents. After-the-fact official discipline, while an important tool, is only effective if it also leads to remedial action. Marine professional development programs are not generally assessed for their effectiveness. There is no official oversight in the development and valida- tion of practical skills in federal marine licensing for masters, mates, and pilots, except for radar observer certification. For state-licensed marine pilots, the de- velopment process varies among pilot systems but is primarily supervised by licensed pilots. There are no certification programs for navigation and piloting instructors or for marine licensing examiners to establish their professional and educational capabilities for guiding pilot development. Continuing professional development has not been guided by specific requirements or standards, not- withstanding growing efforts by some marine pilot organizations and shipping and towing companies to provide refresher and advanced training. The rapid evolution and introduction of advanced electronic navigation and piloting technology creates new knowledge and skill requirements, expanding the range of expertise required for effective operator performance. But the pro- fessional training base for mariners is not keeping pace with these changes. From a technical perspective, it is premature for U.S. training facilities to make major investments in advanced navigation aids until International Maritime Or- ganization (IMO) standards for Electronic Chart Display and Information Sys- tems (ECDIS) are finalized, other IMO equipment standards updated, and equip

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 315 ment is manufactured to them. Selective investment in advanced electronic chart- ing systems meeting the IMO's provisional ECDIS standards may, however, be appropriate and necessary to aid in familiarizing mariners with these new sys- tems. Near-term changes made in training facility resources will also need to be capable of incorporating revisions in IMO's Standards for Training, Certifica- tion, and Watchkeeping (STCW) when these revisions are finalized and imple- mented. Approaches to development of theoretical knowledge and entry-level navi- gation and piloting skills range from accredited undergraduate programs at mar- itime academies to on-thejob training in the shipping and towing industries, in ferry operation, and often in marine piloting. To build expert qualifications, marine pilots need a basic knowledge of nautical theory, practical navigation skills, local-area knowledge, broad-based shiphandling skills, and progressive advancement on routes and categories of ships. Shipboard responsibilities often do not allow masters and bridge teams to develop proficiency in piloting skills, shiphandling, and local knowledge. There are few checks and balances within the marine navigation and pilot- ing system, either human- or technology-based, for advance detection and cor- rection of problems in the professional competence or performance of mariners, including marine pilots. Few masters, mates, or pilots have been formally trained, such as through simulation exercises, to process information and make decisions in extreme situations that require spontaneous emergency shiphandling and com- munications. However, marine pilots may develop sufficient experience to react correctly through their apprenticeships and service. A consistent and thorough approach to professional development is needed. The core of a complete professional development program should involve: · training and performance standards for professional mariners; · accreditation of curricula and certification of instructors; · development and validation of professional knowledge (theoretical and applied) and practical skills; · development of special skills such as emergency decision making and shiphandling; · continuing professional development; and · periodic requalification. The committee's conclusions and recommendations concerning the profes- sional development of individuals piloting ships and towing vessels and barges are consolidated in the section entitled Marine Pilotage. Recommendations re- garding the professional development of mariners other than those piloting ves- sels involve economic, marine training, and education issues which were beyond the scope of this assessment. Training needs with respect to advances in technol- ogy are presented below.

316 MINDING THE HELM RECOMMENDATION 4: Training programs should be developed concur- rently with the voluntary or mandatory introduction of new navigation and piloting technologies. Bridge personnel should be trained in the use of these new technologies, and associated changes should be made in organizational relationships before the equipment is applied to operations; these efforts are essential to ensure the effective and prudent use of this equipment consis- tent with safety needs and requirements. Continuing training should be available thereafter, as necessary, to maintain mariner proficiency and to train new operators. To aid in the use of new navigation and piloting tech- nologies in pilotage waters, provisions should also be made to familiarize marine pilots with the capabilities and general use of these technologies. The U.S. Coast Guard should encourage the International Maritime Orga- nization to adopt standard training procedures for the use of new naviga- tion and piloting technology. (See also recommendations 7-8, 10-11, 15-18, 21, and 24.) Marine Simulation Decade-old marine simulation research expanded fundamental knowledge about human factors. But this information base is incomplete and did not fully verify how well training results transfer to actual operations. Meanwhile, train- ing needs have expanded because of the ongoing rapid evolution of navigation and piloting technology, ship's systems, and operating practices. The simulation research literature needs to be updated to reflect current conditions within the marine industry and piloting profession. However, there is a sufficient basis to believe that computer-based and manned-model simulations can, in varying de- grees · help individuals understand the limits of their knowledge and skills be- fore these factors become an issue in actual performance; · demonstrate ship maneuvering theory; and · assist in developing or refining basic, advanced, and emergency shiphan- dling and bridge team management skills. Marine simulation potentially can provide a general capability for validating skills and operational decisions without the risk that would be associated with similar efforts aboard real vessels. However, there are unresolved questions about: · the accuracy of simulations for vessel operations in shallow and confined waters, especially where there are small under-keel clearances; · how well simulation training experience transfers to actual operations; · cost-effectiveness;

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 317 · the basis for establishing the equivalency or relevance of marine simula- tion to sea service for licensing purposes; · the relative value of computer-based and married physical scale-model simulations for various functions. and operations; · validation of simulations; · accreditation of simulators and simulations; · training and certification of instructors; · evaluation of trainee performance; and · the high cost of the technology per individual trained (these costs could be especially burdensome if borne by individuals rather than operating compa- nies or licensing agencies, which is a major issue in the use of simulation in licensing). These issues, which are vital to improving the value of marine simulation in professional development, need to be resolved before simulation is broadly ap- plied in marine licensing or required for the licensing of marine pilots. Still, there is growing acceptance of marine simulation to selectively supplement, but not replace, more traditional means for the initial and continuing professional development of marine pilots. Simulations designed to improve shiphandling skills and to expose pilots to situations or vessels not routinely encountered can be especially useful if limitations in the simulation are clearly understood and conveyed to those trained. In this regard, marine pilots generally seem capable of making effective use of computer-based and manned-model simulations to re- fine generic and vessel-specific shiphandling skills. RECOMMENDATION 5: The U.S. Coast Guard and Maritime Adminis- trat~on should update and build on their earlier assessments of marine sim- ulation to determine the technology's capability and suitability for use in the initial training and qudlfflcation of pilots, in the continuing development of pilot skills in handling large vessels or complex operations, and for ma- rine licensing purposes. RECOMMENDATION 6: Marme pilot licensing authorities and marine pilot associations should encourage the selective use of marine simulation as one approach for meeting continuing professional development needs. MARINE PILOTAGE Debates over the safety performance of federally-licensed or state-l~censed pilots, especially over which of these categories of pilots has a better safety record, have generated considerable public attention but miss the mark. The pilotage services provided by independent state-licensed and federally-licensed pilots routinely exhibit professionalism and competence. The real issue is that

318 MINDING THE HELM the national structure of marine pilotage and its administration, both federal and state, do not consistently ensure the completeness of professional development and adequate safety performance. Measures need to be improved to ensure the completeness of professional qualification and to identify for correction any train- ing deficits and degradations in knowledge and skills that may occur after train- ing or receipt of a license prior to any performance-related weaknesses becom- ing causal factors in marine accidents. The conclusions and recommendations that follow are designed to preserve and build on the strengths of key features found in the existing marine pilotage systems. The division of pilotage responsi- bilities between federal and state pilotage authorities would continue to be the centerpiece of pilotage nationwide, with certain refinements to achieve systemic Improvements. Safety Performance The Committee on Advances in Navigation and Piloting found no statistical evidence that professional competence varies according to the methodology used to train independent marine pilots nor was any statistical evidence found that the performance of pilots varies by the level or type of maritime expertise acquired prior to entering the pilot profession. There is some anecdotal evidence from experts that differences in professional backgrounds can affect the time required for pilot candidates to adapt to various aspects of marine pilotage. While the length of time required to qualify as a pilot may vary as a result, comparable levels of professional skill can be achieved, provided that individual strengths and weaknesses are accommodated in professional development. It is difficult to determine whether system-wide problems exist in marine pilotage, primarily because there is no standardized method for normalizing and ranking casualty data to support such determinations. The existing casualty data do not completely reflect the overall nature of safety problems in any one port area. There is also a general lack of understanding of the complexity of the port, waterway, and river operating environments; the nature and variability of risk factors that are present; and vessel behavior in shallow water and confined, asymmetrical channels. Careful and statistically valid assessments of safety performance will be important and should reflect substantial differences in marine safety, risk, and exposure, even within the same port and waterway complex. The committee reviewed and assessed available studies and research that examined the safety records of pilots. This literature provided general background, but because of questions regarding the data utilized, how it was manipulated, and how measures of safety and performance were constructed, no sound inferences could be drawn. The committee found no empirical evidence that safety performance varied by licensing authority. Nor was there evidence proving any difference in naviga- tional safety between marine pilots and docking masters or between the pilotage

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 319 of ships and of towing industry vessels. This is not to say that studies supporting particular points of view on these subjects could not be found; on the contrary, the committee reviewed several studies on each subject (Appendix D). However, the committee found no statistically sound basis that would indicate differences in performance among the various categories of federally- and state-licensed mariners who are providing pilotage services. At the same time, the committee heard considerable anecdotal testimony from representatives of all segments of the marine community offering ample evidence of a loosely integrated system with opportunities for error and incomplete measures for error detection and correction. Pilotage Administration and System Standards Pilotage regimes in the United States exhibit large differences in their ad- ministration. Considerable professional attention is given to pilotage administra- tion in most systems to satisfy user needs, although performance guidelines and standards to meet official requirements are often informal. Depending on the vessel's flag and the trade in which it is engaged, it might be piloted by an individual holding a state license, a federal pilot's license, or a federal pilot's endorsement to a master or mate's license. In each of these situa- tions, the pilot is subject to different qualifications and to either federal or state authorities. For some intraport movements, there is no official pilotage require- ment for foreign trade vessels, although the Coast Guard has proposed rules to begin closing these pilotage gaps. Pilotage administration in the United States needs to be improved, with the objective of providing a consistent approach to ensuring marine safety and envi- ronmental protection. The core of an improved system would involve: lion; 1es; · professional standards for all aspects of piloting and pilotage administra · administration of standards through existing licensing/administrative bod . consolidation of pilotage administration at the port or regional level; and · accreditation of local programs. The recommendations that follow are related to features that the committee concludes are essential for a complete pilotage system (see Appendix E). Some of these features are already embedded in the professional development pro- grams or approaches used by most marine pilot and docking master associations and major U.S.-operating companies. Because the recommended systemic im- provements are based on the strengths found in many existing port-level pilotage systems, it is anticipated that such systems would be able to satisfy the guide- lines and standards that are envisioned by publishing existing processes and

320 MINDING THE HELM procedures and by implementing selective improvements in features that may not have previously received complete attention. RECOMMENDATION 7: Nationally accepted baseline standards and guidelines should be established without delay in the following critical areas for state and federal pilot development, licensing, and administration, and to enhance pilot proficiency: . PILOT TRAINING Standards should be developed for training both state-licensed and federally-li- censed pilots, including any individuals that may be authorized to act as pilots under local, state, or federal regulations. Professional development should be supervised by pilot instructors qualified for this purpose. Qualification criteria or programs for pilot instructors should also be established. Training for decision making in emergency conditions should be a required ele- ment of pilot training. Programs should be developed for continuing professional development and for periodic evaluation of all those who perform under pilot licenses, endorsements, or other off cial credentials. Adequate requirements for recency of service or training should be established as prerequisites for the exercise and renewal of pilot licenses, endorsements, or other official credentials. . QUALIFICATION Standards should be developed to qualify individuals to pilot particular types of vessels and routes. Professional competence of prospective pilots should be determined through an assessment program involving qualified assessors, and should be based on observed performance as well as examinations. Qualif cation programs for pilot assessors should also be established. · PILOTAGE BOARDS The provisions of state and local laws relating to pilotage boards should be re- viewed and strengthened, if necessary, as it relates to their staffs, proceedings, composi- tzon, and accountability. Members of pilot boards and commissions should be appointed by and account- able to state or local governing authorities. Membership should be balanced, with adequate representation of state pilot groups, vessel operators, others in the maritime industries, and the public. Boards should meet regularly and frequently. They should have adequate staff and other resources to administer pilotage and to conduct investigations. Their pro- ceedings should be recorded and open, and they should publish their reports. · INVESTIGATION OF CASUALTIES INVOLVING PILOT PERFORMANCE. Issues of pilot performance as contributing or causal factors in marine casualties and incidents should be investigated promptly and completely by pilot boards and other

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 321 responsible authorities following standards and procedures developed for this purpose to guide individual and systemic corrective measures. Investigations should be objec- t7ve, effective, and timely. The results should be made available in a public report. (See also recommendation 3.J · GAPS IN COVERAGE Standards of coverage are needed to ensure that all ships, regardless offlag, trade, or service, unless specifically exempted, are directed and controlled by an individual holding a valid state-issued marine pilot's license or a Federal First Class Pilot's Li- cense or Endorsement. The standards should be specifically designed to fill existing gaps in state and federal pilotage requirements to ensure that there is of ficial accountability for docking and moonng masters and for persons who direct in-port vessel movements. (See also recommendation 19.) Pilotage System Development and Oversight The following recommendations offer an approach for pilotage that the Com- mittee on Advances in Navigation and Piloting believes would enhance safety as well as the national-level credibility and accountability of local pilotage systems. The objective is to establish, for each port, a consolidated pilotage system that is subject to nationally acceptable and applicable standards and guidelines and which satisfies federal and state marine safety interests. At the same time, the recommendations are intended to preserve, enhance, and rely on strong local control of port-level pilotage systems. Under the supervisory and administrative umbrella of state authorities, pro- fessions in the United States generally have been allowed to regulate themselves to some degree. State regulation of pilotage for vessels in foreign trade generally follows this model. Another characteristic of state pilotage is a large measure of port-level control. The federal system, which has filled important needs for coast- wise vessels, has not ensured quality control for the professional development of federal pilots or docking masters, nor has it routinely monitored the provision of pilotage services, leaving this aspect of federal pilotage largely self-regulated. Port-region control is exercised by a regional Coast Guard official, but this offi- cial has little flexibility to modify pilot qualification requirements to address experience or skills necessitated by unique local operating conditions. The committee reached a consensus on the need for standards of the profes- sion, system accountability, and for a national commission to guide systemic improvements. There are, however, alternate views on the path to implement the national commission concept. One view is that safety performance in the marine community is substantially better than suggested by spectacular marine acci- dents, and that the piloting profession, leading shipping and towing companies, and unions are already responding vigorously and positively to public calls for improvements in the piloting performance of members and employees. This

322 MINDING THE HELM school of thought opines that professional standards and accreditation programs will result from such industry- and piloting profession-based initiatives to im- prove professional development and performance, that the necessary expertise is readily available within the marine community to guide these efforts, and that the existing federal and state pilotage systems would be adequate with certain improvements guided by an advisory commission. Another view is that more rigorous pilotage and system standards should be established and system ac- countability reinforced without delay by either a new federal entity, if it can be activated quickly, or if not, then by the Department of Transportation using existing departmental resources. The central view of the committee is that the guidance of systemic improvements needs to be elevated above local and region- al influences and be independent of existing regulatory bodies. It is believed that this can best be accomplished through the establishment of an independent, pro- fessionally credible national authority to develop and implement professional standards and an accreditation process that would both motivate and assist exist- ing federal and state pilotage administrators in refining and enhancing their pi- lotage systems while also promoting system accountability. Local organizations have demonstrated substantial capability to provide the expertise and interorganizational working relationships needed to guide marine traffic regulation at the port level. These organizations include, in some ports, officially chartered and informal advisory committees, composed of marine pi- lots, docking masters, shipping and towing industry interests, the public, and the Coast Guard. In several ports, voluntary vessel-traffic-management services ad- ministered by marine pilots implement agreements for this purpose among repre- sentatives of the local marine communities. To ensure a credible marine naviga- tion and piloting system, local efforts such as these should be expanded regionally and nationally to bring all interested and affected segments of the maritime community and the public together. In particular, there is a great need to moti- vate and sustain a spirit of cooperation in providing a more facile and effective approach to pilotage administration and, as discussed later, marine traffic regula- tion. A national interdisciplinary organization should be formed that has the necessary resources, professional expertise, and credibility to guide the entire system. Consultative relationships are needed at the port level to guide area- specific improvements according to national standards and guidelines. The Coast Guard should represent federal interests in national and port-level improvements to the marine navigation and piloting system because of the agen- cy's marine and environmental safety responsibilities and its national regulatory infrastructure. However, the Coast Guard will need to draw on the maritime community to augment the expertise needed to improve the marine navigation and piloting system with respect to Coast Guard missions and responsibilities. RECOMMENDATION 8: An independent national commission should be established to guide and assist pilotage and marine safety authorities in

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 323 implementing systemic improvements with respect to professional standards and accreditation programs for pilotage, navigation, and waterway safety. The duties of the commission would be to: · develop national standards and guidelines for marine pilotage and marine traf- pc regulation (see recommendation 74; · develop and administer procedures and criteria for the accreditation offederal, state, and local pilotage systems and marine traffic regulation systems in accordance with the commission's national standards and guidelines; · define, promote, and assist with the steps necessary to achieve a consolidated port-level system of pilotage; and · provide expert advice to marine pilotage authorities and the Coast Guard on matters of marine pilotage and marine traffic regulation. Action to establish a national commission could be initiated by the piloting profession. The exact nature and form of the commission would depend to a large extent on the results of the piloting profession's initiatives to improve professional development, piloting practices, and system accountability. The existing pilotage infrastructure should participate in the formation of the commission. But, for the broad credibility that would be needed to guide the pilotage system changes recommended in this report, the national commis- sion should have a charter from Congress. The American Pilots' Association and other professional organizations rep- resenting the professional interests of federally-licensed and state-licensed pilots should examine the feasibility of establishing accreditation processes and standards for pilot and docking master professional development pro- grams as a means of ensuring competence and proficiency and to improve public confidence in pilotage. To the degree that standards and accredita- tion processes developed by the piloting profession satisfy safety objectives, they could be adopted as national standards by the commission. Performance review of the national commission should be conducted peri- odically to determine that the commission is meeting goals and objectives established for it. A national commission concept has been suggested before for marine pilot- age, but never attempted for either marine pilotage or marine traffic regulation. In order for the concept to work, considerable implementation analysis beyond the scope of this report will be necessary to ensure that the integrity of pilotage services is not adversely affected and that the concerns of all the interested parties are addressed. In particular, goals and objectives, commission member- ship, leadership, accountability, administrative location, official status, subject

324 MINDING THE HELM matter expertise, and staff support will be important to success. Careful attention in each of these areas and effective, impartial performance by the commission will also be needed to establish concept and commission credibility with the federal and state governments, marine community, and the public. The commission should be expected by Congress, the federal and state gov- ernments, the marine community, and the public to progressively improve pro- fessional regulation of pilotage and marine traffic regulation in consultation and cooperation with the marine community and marine regulators, as envisioned in recommendations 7 through 19, 21, and 24. With respect to the commission's accreditation role, the committee envisions a concept similar to accreditation of college and university programs that are designed to prepare individuals for professional careers. The commission would oversee an accreditation process. Accreditation would be designed to ascertain that pilotage and marine traffic regulation systems conform to national standards and contain the features need- ed in sufficient measure to satisfy federal, state, local, piloting profession, and shipping and towing industry marine safety needs. Commission oversight re- sponsibility would also include periodic program review to renew the accredita- tion of each system and to identify needed improvements for pilotage authority action. In order to serve national interests in marine safety, commission member ship needs to be carefully composed to assure balance and fair treatment as well as sufficiency of subject matter expertise. The commission should be relatively small, about 5 to 7 members, in order to facilitate decision making. The commis- sion's membership should nevertheless be capable of effectively addressing the interests of the federal and state governments, the marine community (including shipping and towing industry companies, marine pilots, and port authorities), merchant mariners, and the public. Each individual selected to serve needs to be capable of impartial and credible service. The commission should be independent. It should be adequately staffed by individuals with professional expertise necessary to support commission respon- sibilities. The Congressional charter for the commission should make clear that neither federal nor state-level pilotage jurisdictions are preempted initially or upon implementation of a port-level system of pilotage for ships (recommenda- tions 10-12~. However, the roles and responsibilities of pilotage authorities would be refined as nationally acceptable and applicable standards and guidelines are developed and pilotage systems are accredited to them. National standards and guidelines must be sufficiently flexible to accom- modate substantial variations in the form of pilotage administration as well as pilot development programs and requirements needed to prepare and maintain individual capabilities for effective service in unique local operating environ- ments. Commission success in developing nationally accepted standards for ma- rine pilotage and marine traffic regulation would be necessary prior to proceed- ing with a consolidation of pilotage into single systems at the port level.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 325 RECOMMENDATION 9: Acting under the authority of the Federal Advi- sory Committee Act or other appropriate enabling authority, the Secretary of Transportation should convene in each port or port region a federal nav- igation and piloting safety advisory committee (or designate an existing ad- visory body where one exists). The local advisory bodies should provide expertise in support of pilotage administration and marine traffic regula- tion for that port. A federal advisory committee normally advises its sponsoring federal agen- cy. Given the cross-cutting nature of navigation, piloting, and marine traffic regulation interests and responsibilities, the potential exists for marine advisory committees to serve the marine community at large with the Coast Guard provid- ing a secretariat function in support of this objective. Duties of local advisory committees should include review for consistency with national standards of pilot development and licensing rules and related requirements applicable to each port. Advisory committees should propose mea- sures to fill arty gaps that may exist in official accountability of pilotage for their port or region. They should also advise on marine traffic regulation measures needed to improve order, predictability, and safety within their port or region. The advisory committees should be empowered to make recommendations to the marine community and to state and federal officials on means to achieve higher standards, their consistent application nationwide, and on filling gaps in water- ways management and pilotage. Membership on the local advisory committees should represent: port, pilot, and marine industry interests; local, state, and fed- eral government interests; and the public interest. Strengthening Pilotage Administration The distinction between foreign and coastwise trade in determining pilotage jurisdiction results in dual pilotage administration with varying requirements for pilot qualifications that apply to the same vessels over the same routes. Because of gaps in pilotage requirements, foreign-flag and U.S.-flag vessels in foreign trade can be moved without a licensed pilot aboard or can be piloted by a li- censed pilot who is not performing under the authority of a federal or state license or by a person who does not hold a pilot's license. The recommendations for a national commission, local advisory groups, and measures to improve offi- cial accountability (see recommendations 7 through 10, and 15 through l9' will, over time, result in a new synergism between state and federal interests that, in turn, will improve pilot development and performance. The coordination and consolidation that should result will enhance all aspects of marine pilot perfor- mance and will provide a common foundation of pilot knowledge, skills, and procedures needed to ensure a consistent and reliable operational first line of defense against individual substandard ships and crews.

326 MINDING THE HELM As a general rule, current state requirements governing the professional com- petence of pilots are higher and more complete than are federal pilotage require- ments when both regimes are compared with the features of a complete pilotage model (see Appendix EJ. It should be a national objective to consolidate ship pilotage under a single system in and for each port. Recommendations 7, 8, and 9 represent a consolidated approach and must be implemented at the same time as a group rather than singly; this is necessary to achieve the most effective remedy to needs in the marine navigation and piloting system. The same consolidated approach is represented with recommen- dations 10, 11, and 12, which also must be implemented all together. Finally, the order in which the recommendations are implemented is important: recommen- dations 10, 11, and 12 should be implemented only after recommendations 7, 8, and 9 have been implemented so as to ensure that the elements necessary for an effective single marine pilotage system in the United States (a national commis- sion, national standards and guidelines, and port-level pilotage authorities and advisory committees) are in place and functioning to expectations prior to imple mentat~on of a nationwide protege system. RECOMMENDATION 10: A single marine pilotage system should be es- tablished for each port and waterway system. The system should be guided by national standards designed to satisfy nationwide interests. The pilotage system should be accredited nationally but overseen locally by a nonfederal public organization with balanced membership representing state, pilot, marine industry, and public interests and with authority to shape pilotage rules to meet regional and local needs. In order to establish broad-based credibility, the following conditions must be met before pilotage in a port is consolidated into a single system: national standards (recommendation 7) need to be in place; national standards need to be met in the port (see recommendations 7 and 16J; and · the consolidated local program should be accredited under the authority and procedures of the national commission (recommendation 84. An own-ship pilotage option for U.S.-flag ships can be sustained for those masters and mates who qualify for this high level of trust and confidence. Ac- countability and official oversight can be effectively achieved for this option through the combined effects of U.S. flag-state authority, U.S. port-state control, and improvements recommended in this report to improve pilot professional development, performance, and accountability to pilotage authorities. RECOMMENDATION 11: Masters and mates of U.S.-flag ships, regardless of whether the ship is sailing in coastwise or foreign trade, should have the

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 327 opportunity to qualify for route-specific and vessel-specific pilotage creden- tials, federal or state, authorizing them to pilot the vessels on which they serve. (Under the port-level system of recommendation 10, these provisions would be administered on a port-specific basis by the local pilotage author ity.) (See recommendation 18.) RECOMMENDATION 12: The federal requirements for a First Class Pi- lot's License should be converted into a national process for entry-level certification, which should be a prerequisite for further pilot training. This national certification process should be administered by the U.S. Coast Guard. Pilotage in the Coastwise Towing Industry Although there is a scarcity of empirical data for assessing the safety of navigation and piloting, it appears that pilotage in the coastwise towing industry is generally safe and effective. (Pilotage conclusions and recommendations for the inland towing industry are outside the scope of the committee's assessment.) RECOMMENDATION 13: The U.S. Coast Guard should collect empirical data that are needed to assess the effectiveness and safety of navigation and piloting in general, with attention to improving the empirical data relevant to the pilotage of coastwise towing vessels. The U.S. Coast Guard should periodically use these data to evaluate program effectiveness. In the committee's judgment, the safety of the entire piloting system would be significantly enhanced by strengthening the practice and administration of piloting in the towing industry in the following ways: RECOMMENDATION 14: Pilotage in the coastwise towing industry should be considered a part of the fabric of the national port-level system, with qualification requirements guided by the standards and guidelines devel- oped by the national commission. (See recommendations 7 and 18.) Howev- er, official oversight of pilotage in the towing industry, including pilot li- censing, should remain under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Coast Guard. RECOMMENDATION 15: Administration of and standards for licensed masters, mates, and operators who "act as" pilots of coastwise barges should be strengthened as follows: · Consistent with the development of national standards for pilot training and performance, the U.S. Coast Guard should strengthen applicable licensing require- ments and standards for those who "act as" pilots. Requirements that should be

328 MINDING THE HELM strengthened include the amount and recency of experience in the actual handling and navigation of towing vessels and barges under varying conditions on specific routes. · The U.S. Coast Guard should establish adminisiratzve requirements to ensure, and provide evidence of, compliance with the requirements and standards. The Coast Guard should also periodically audit pilotage in the coastwise towing industry. · The American Waterways Operators and other professional organizations rep- resent~ng the professional interests of the towing industry should examine the feasibil- ity of establishing an industry-sponsored accredited training program as a means to ensure operator competence and to improve the credibility of professional development within the towing industry. Transition Issues The transition from the present pilotage system to a nationally consistent. port-level system characterized by local consolidation and administration will not be easy. The following recommendations address specific concerns that are certain to arise. RECOMMENDATION 16: All pilotage authorities should, pending devel- opment of national standards, examine pilotage under their jurisdiction and make improvements guided by the concepts advanced in recommendation 7. In particular, the U.S. Coast Guard should improve the quality of piloting conducted under the authority of a Federal First Class Pilot's License or Endorsement. Steps should be taken by all pilotage authorities to: · increase requirements for supervised training and development of professional skills; · validate professional competency and skill at the time of initial licensing and license renewal; and · periodically assess the performance of marine pilots, docking masters, and mooring masters. RECOMMENDATION 17: The Federal First Class Pilot's License, pending establishment of a single marine pilotage system (see recommendations 10 and 12), should be reserved for individuals who have demonstrated the sub- stantial knowledge and skills necessary to perform effectively as ind~epen- dent marine pilots for the categories of vessels and routes they may be called on to serve. Route extensions should be permitted through endorsements to the license. Independent federal marine pilots affiliated with existing feder- al pilot associations and docking masters affiliated with existing docking master associations that are not under state pilotage administration (see recommendation 19) should be consolidated into the port-level pilotage sys- tem as it is established, subject to guidelines established for this purpose by the national commission (see recommendations 7 and 84. Individuals affili

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 329 ated with any other organization of independent federal marine pilots or docking masters that might operate in the future before consolidation oc- curs should be assessed by the national commission to determine their legit- imacy. RECOMMENDATION 18: Except as provided for by recommendation 17, all other federal pilotage credentials for U.S.-flag vessels should be limited to endorsements on U.S. merchant marine licenses as masters, mates, or vessel operators. Endorsements should be specific to vessel type, size, and route. (See recommendation 11.) · Requirements for recency of navigation experience on both vessel and route should be reviewed and, if necessary, strengthened, to ensure sufficiency for the intend- ed service. This review should recognize expertise acquired through general maritime service as well as vessel- and route-specific experience. · The goal should be to establish license endorsements as a means to implement a program that would permit masters and mates of U.S.-flag ships to serve as pilots for their ships, provided that they maintain high standards of training, experience, and performance through service on the specific vessels and routes covered by their pilot- age credentials. · On establishment of the consolidated local pilotage system, the federal pilotage endorsement should serve as an entry-level requirements for obtaining a credential issued by the localpilotage authority for own-ship pilotage of U.S.-flag vessels. RECOMMENDATION 19: Steps should be taken immediately to close all gaps in the current system of pilotage administration so that all foreign trade vessels are piloted by individuals who are officially accountable to a pilotage licensing authority. Specific gaps that need to be closed involve: · docking, undocking, and mooring services in ports and waterways andfor off- shore platforms and buoy systems within existing pilotage jurisdictions where these services are not subject to official accountability through federal, state, or local pilot- age requirements; and · movements of vessels to, from, or within any port where official accountability is not established by federal, state, or local pilotage requirements. In the absence of state action to close these gaps in official accountability within a reasonable time (12 months) for vessels within state pilotage jurisdic- tion, the federal government should take direct action under existing authority. Where gaps in official accountability exist for pilotage provided to vessels in U.S. waters that are not subject to state jurisdiction (e.g., mooring a ship to offshore facilities outside of a state's seaward boundary), the federal government should take immediate action under its existing authorities or, where necessary, seek enabling legislation from Congress to permit establishment of official ac

330 MINDING THE HELM countability. Coast Guard action already in progress to close gaps in some pilot- age waters should continue. Ship masters and senior mates serving permanently aboard the same vessel or sister vessel on regular routes can under these select conditions potentially become more familiar with their vessel's behavior than a marine pilot, although the pilot would have more extensive local knowledge. Therefore, there should be provisions so that the master of a foreign-flag ship (or another suitably qualified ship's officer performing under the master's direct supervision) could perform docking evolutions in the immediate vicinity of the pier or berth, as long as the vessel is subject to a U.S. pilotage authority and a marine pilot accountable to that authority is present to provide advice on local conditions. (Docking by mas- ters of U.S.-flag ships is covered in recommendation 11.) WATERWAYS MANAGEMENT Just as comparing the safety performance of various pilot groups is not the core issue, neither is comparison of safety performance among ports. The real issue is that the national structure for waterways management does not guarantee consistent and adequate administration, marine traffic regulation, and safety per- formance. Management of U.S. ports and waterways is loosely integrated, with sub- stantial opportunity for operational problems to develop and go undetected until an accident occurs. At present, no one authority has comprehensive responsibili- ty to ensure that the marine navigation and piloting system works efficiently and effectively. National policy does not guide determination of what level of safety is acceptable, nor do consistent standards guide system administration or safety performance. Substantial variations among ports in the nature and level of exposure and in safety data collected have not been normalized using a standard methodology that accounts for all key exposure variables affecting operational risk. Therefore, the number of casualties, or casualty rates normalized for only one or two expo- sure variables, do not necessarily reveal whether a given port is any more or less safe than any other. Local tolerances for operational risk vary among ports and waterways and often are influenced by tradeoffs between safety and economic lo. . Decency. Foreign ships constitute about 90 percent of oceangoing ship traffic in U.S. waters. This is an important factor in view of evidence of inadequate attention to international construction and maintenance standards by some classification so- cieties, a perceived gradual erosion in the development and maintenance of pro- fessional qualifications involving some ships of some flag states, growing re- cruitment of crew members from nontraditional sources, and aging merchant fleets. Many channels that support coastal and international trade are obsolete rela

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 331 live to the size and maneuvering behavior of modern ships. Once a channel is built, it is rarely operated to conform to its designed capacity or formally evalu- ated to determine safe operating parameters that, if followed would permit safe passage by ships that exceed design criteria. To deal with these issues, increased attention should be devoted to perfor- mance monitoring; surveillance; enforcement of shipping laws; and management of waterways systems, including regulation of marine traffic. Also, improved coordination and cooperation is needed among state and federal regulators, mar- itime interests, and the affected public to provide the expertise and perspectives needed to balance safety and economic interests. Local advisory bodies should be established to achieve improved coordination. (See recommendation 9.) Enforcement of Shipping Laws and Regulations There are sufficient indications of substandard maintenance and manning practices on the ships of some flag-states to substantiate the need for strong U.S. action to redress vessel-specific substandard conditions and operating practices and to stimulate international corrective action through the International Mari- time Organization. The Coast Guard's enforcement of existing international stan- dards and national shipping laws and regulations is essential to the protection of U.S. navigable waters, ports, the public, and the environment. If international measures to rectify substandard operating practices prove ineffective or untime- ly, then unilateral imposition of additional national requirements may be neces- sary. Documentation of substandard conditions is essential as a basis for deter- mining whether additional equipment and manning, appropriately guided by technical and performance criteria, should be required as preconditions for oper- ating in U.S. waters. Legislation on the limited matters within the jurisdiction of U.S. coastal states directed to vessels in foreign trade could affect international negotiations and must be very carefully formulated and enacted to support national and inter- national interests, as well as the interests of the U.S. coastal states. Marine pilot- age requirements for foreign trade shipping, a state responsibility, need to meet high standards and be consistently applied (see recommendations 7 through 12 and 16 through 191. All these measures are essential to ensure that both federal and state marine and environmental safety interests are served and that marine pilots are adequately supported in their role as representatives of state and feder- al interests in ensuring safe navigation. RECOMMENDATION 20: The U.S. Coast Guard, in consultation and co- ordination with the U.S. Customs Service and other appropriate federal agencies, should continue and augment its efforts to identify substandard vessels, regardless of flag. The U.S. Coast Guard and other appropriate federal agencies should take whatever action is indicated to bring each ves

332 MINDING THE HELM set trading in U.S. waters into compliance with applicable international stan- dards and U.S. national requirements. · The U.S. Coast Guard should, in consultation with appropriate federal agen- cies and national and local advisory bodies (recommendations 9 and 24), establish procedures for reporting observed or suspected substandard conditions or inadequately manned vessels that pose unacceptable operating risks to marine, public, or environ- mental safety. Data based on these reports should be routinely assessed, and remedial actions considered, if trends toward substandard maintenance and manning persist or increase. · Provisions should be made to improve cooperation among U.S. coastal states and the federal government in reducing risks involving foreign-flag shipping. Management of Waterways Systems The loosely integrated management of U.S. waterways systems needs to be tightened in the face of regional and global economic competition and the safety and environmental concerns of the public and Congress. Centralized manage- ment by a single authority is not necessarily essential if components of the ma- rine navigation and piloting system can be effectively and systematically coordi- nated through cooperative working relationships, agreements, and consultation. The national airspace system is often referred to as an alternative model for the marine traffic regulation. The committee's comparison of air traffic control and marine traffic regulation found faults in this analogy because of significant differences between the two operating environments and the supporting institu- tions. There are, however, many features of the air traffic control model that could serve as long-term goals for an improved marine navigation and piloting system for ports or waterways and for approaches to pilot boarding areas. These include: . a system-wide operating concept; high-reliability systems; universal procedures and protocols; universal operating language; instantaneous precision navigation capability; adherence to pre-planned routes; availability of real-time environmental data; vigorous training requirements for pilots and controllers; professional controller staff; technology-based decision aids; and a near-miss reporting system. Most of these features would require widespread introduction of new operating procedures and highly advanced navigation technology, and are thus suited to

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 333 international implementation. Nevertheless, the organizational structure for real- time, interdependent decision making can be improved by implementing stan- dard operating procedures and communications protocols in each U.S. port area. Vessel traffic services (VTS) operated by the federal government and VTS sys- tems and VTS-like services, including information systems, operated by other entities should be expanded and improved to meet local safety, economic, and environmental protection needs. Where VTS systems or VTS-like services are installed, the International Maritime Organization's VTS guidelines should serve as the minimum operating standard and should be augmented In the United States by national standards applicable to both federal or nonfederal VTS and VTS-like operations. All VTS systems and VTS-like operations should be accredited to these standards, to facilitate their use by vessels in foreign trade. The Coast Guard's substantial traffic regulation authority, which enables time and space management and di- rection of actions by specific vessels, could be more widely applied than it is now, especially where Coast Guard-operated VTS systems have been estab- lished. Expansion and improvement of marine traffic regulation, including in- stallation of VTS systems, should be guided by consultations with national and local advisory bodies (see recommendations 9 and 21~. Professional deve]op- ment of VTS operators should be enhanced to ensure adequate preparation for functional duties. RECOMMENDATION 21: All VTS systems and VTS-like operations should be accredited to international and national operating and perfor- mance standards. Accreditation should be the responsibility of the national commission on pilotage, navigation, and waterway safety (recommendation 81. The commission, in consultation with the U.S. Coast Guard, should de- velop and promulgate national standards to guide interactions between VTS systems (and VTS-like services) and users and to guide improvements in services provided. Pending creation of the commission, interim measures should be promulgated by the U.S. Coast Guard in consultation with the Navigation Safety Advisory Committee. RECOMMENDATION 22: Government and privately operated VTS sys- tems and privately operated VTS-like services should be expanded and im- proved, as determined by safety, economic, and environmental protection needs, and as a means to improve the organizational structure for interde- pendent decision making in ports and waterways and to protect against navigational errors in these waters. The Department of Transportation should take steps to define, promote, and implement measures to achieve this objective. Where feasible, VTS and VTS-like services and electronic surveillance should extend seaward of pilot boarding areas to protect against navigational and operational errors when approaching pilot waters.

334 MINDING THE HELM RECOMMENDATION 23: The U.S. Coast Guard should operate VTS sys- tems where federal authorities employ these systems to govern or influence vessel movements or maneuvering. loins federal-private operation or cost sharing should also be considered for expanded VTS coverage, provided that suitable arrangements can be made for exercising federal authority where it is used in conducting VTS functions, such as in managing use of federal anchorages. All private operation of VTS-like services should be authorized by the Department of Transportation. RECOMMENDATION 24: The U.S. Coast Guard should establish or au- thorize a national training course that meets national criteria for local VTS instructors, and an entry-level course for VTS operators, to improve the quality and consistency of VTS systems and VTS-like operations, and to facilitate implementation of national VTS standards. Special Operational Considerations Access to channels by vessels that exceed channel design parameters and special operating criteria guiding their transit should be decided by port safety authorities based on consideration of operational risk, in consultation with af- fected and interested parties, marine pilots, and local advisory bodies (recom- mendation 91. Use of marine simulation should be considered when resolving uncertainties about the safety of such transits or for building a consensus con . . . . . cern~ng special operating criteria. RECOMMENDATION 25: When operations are proposed that present sig- nificant operational, environmental, or public health risk, they should be analyzed objectively to ensure that they can be performed safely. Special operational criteria should be set if needed to achieve levels of safety equiv- alent to that of routine vessel transits. These determinations should involve the U.S. Coast Guard, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and local advisory bodies. (See recommendation 9.) NAVIGATION AND PILOTING TECHNOLOGY Technology, along with training programs (recommendations 4 through 6, and recommendation 24) and organizational changes (recommendations 8 through 10, and 21 through 23), can be applied to mitigate human error and reduce operational risk in marine navigation and piloting. Emerging electronic, real-time positioning and charting technologies can offer several significant ben- efits: they can add precision to navigation, improve the clarity of information provided for decision making, allow the user additional time to consider infor

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 335 mation and alternatives, and may improve decision making and the safety of navigation and piloting overall. The emerging technologies require a shift from traditional human-intensive methods of navigation and piloting to new approaches incorporating both human and electronic elements, with the human assisted by the technology. However, the full prospective benefits of the new technologies, especially ECDIS, will not be gained in the near term unless measures are taken to: · provide technical and operating standards for the new technologies; . develop organizational strategies for introducing new technology, includ- ing user training and changes in operating practices designed to enhance the technology's contribution to safety (see also recommendation 41; and · update laws, regulations, and policies that are based on the use of tradi- tional methods and older technologies as standard practice. The introduction of new technology may result in incompatibility among systems that combine old and new technology. Thus, the development and pro- liferation of new technology must be handled carefully; requirements may be warranted for modular or compatible development and retrofit of existing ves- sels, and they may need to be addressed. Policies and procedures based on older systems and traditional navigation and piloting practices also will need to be modified to facilitate the introduction of new technology without compromising the levels of safety and accountability inherent in existing practice. The real-time, position-keeping benefits of advanced electronic navigation systems can be obtained through near-term installation of emerging and innova- tive electronic charting and precision navigation systems even though technical and operating standards need to be developed and implemented, legal issues resolved, and institutional impediments to their use removed. A concerted effort by vessel owners and operators and strong encouragement by marine safety au- thorities will probably be needed to accelerate the rapid introduction of advanced navigation technologies so that experience can be gained and mariner trust and confidence built in system capabilities through prudent use. Otherwise, it is like- ly that the integration of new technologies into routine operations and the poten- tial benefits they offer to improve operational safety will proceed at a less rapid pace. RECOMMENDATION 26: The U.S. Coast Guard should strongly encour- age the development and updating of international technical and perfor- mance criteria for advanced navigation systems with the objective of pro- viding a solid foundation for the systematic introduction of advanced navigation technologies and as a benchmark for national technical and per- formance criteria.

336 MINDING THE HELM RECOMMENDATION 27: The U.S. Coast Guard and Maritime Adminis- tration should continue research directed at developing technical and oper- ating standards for new technologies. Research and development for ad- vanced marine navigation and piloting technology should be funded to a much greater extent than it is now. Furthermore, to obtain the maximum return on this investment, the U.S. Coast Guard, Maritime Administration, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers should jointly develop research and development prior- ities based on risk assessments. RECOMMENDATION 28: Laws and regulations addressing operational requirements for navigation and piloting technology should be based on performance objectives rather than equip~nent-based criteria so that effec- tive use (and maximum benefit) of advanced navigation technologies and innovative research and development are not inadvertently constrained. The U.S. Coast Guard, Maritime Administration, National Oceanic and Atmo- spheric Administration, and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers should review existing laws, regulations, and policies to identify impediments to the devel- opment and introduction of promising navigation and piloting technologies. These agencies should recommend to Congress any changes to enabling leg- islation that may be indicated, and they should modify policies and regula- tions under their jurisdictions to the extent necessary. RECOMMENDATION 29: The following steps should be taken to acceler- ate the introduction of advanced navigation technologies into marine opera- tions: t · The introduction of advanced technology should occur as soon as practical, consistent with the development of a supporting infrastructure that permits its effective use. Training should be provided concurrently with the introduction of the technology (See also recommendation 4.) · Owners and operators of oceangoing vessels trading to U.S. ports, U.S. coast- wise vessels, any other vessel subject to federal or state pilotage requirements should take the initiative to install electronic charting and precision navigation devices that are suitable for their applications andfor navigation safety of their vessels. Owners and operators of inland towing vessels that operate in pilot waters should make a concerted effort to install equal or equivalent navigation devices as practical for each vessel's conf gyration and operation. · Mariners and pilots aboard vessels with new technologies should take the ini- tiatzve to become familiar with these technologies and to learn how to use system capa- bilities. These technologies should be used carefully in conjunction with traditional navigation methods to ascertain the new technology's suitability and reliability for application in pilotage waters. · The U.S. Coast Guard should encourage the introduction,field evaluation, and use of advanced navigation technologies by owners, operators, and mariners through

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 337 International Maritime Organization, national and local Department of Transporta- t~on-chartered advisory committees, and other media to which the agency has access (See also recommendation 9.J Traditional Aids to Navigation Mariners continue to rely heavily on traditional short-range aids to naviga- tion, especially buoys and ranges. These traditional aids often lose their benefit when most needed, that is, during heavy sea conditions and low visibility. Con- tinued efforts by the Coast Guard to improve the visibility of these aids are having positive effects, as are Coast Guard initiatives to advance the develop- ment and use of the Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS). But little effort is being made to develop improved voice radio communications capabili- ties, electronic data links, or electronic ranges such as localizer beams. Navigational information needs are not satisfied by existing waterways man- agement systems, including VTS systems. The reasons include inefficient com- munications and the uncertainty of VTS users about VTS operator capabilities, especially where operators lack merchant marine or pilot licenses and provide maneuvering guidance. To meet information needs, locally operated navigation systems will appear in some locations that will likely include the use of interac- tive, portable communications, navigation, and surveillance systems (PCNS). When mature, these systems have the potential to provide essential information on navigation and instantaneous position data for direct interpretation by marine pilots regardless of the equipment installed aboard a vessel, with or without secondary safety oversight by shore-based personnel. RECOMMENDATION 30: The U.S. Coast Guard should maintain, and when appropriate, enhance existing short-range aids to navigation that will support evolving technologies as well as traditional navigation technologies. In particular, the U.S. Coast Guard should continue efforts to improve visi- bility and electronic acquisition of buoys during adverse sea and weather conditions. The U.S. Coast Guard should also examine the feasibility of electronic ranges and distance-measuring equipment for specialized local use, which could be in the form of a local Differential Global Positioning System. Navigation Systems The Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS), when combined with ECDIS and when fully operational, will provide a substantial technological ca- pability for enhancing operational safety. Such a system will provide nearly instantaneous, accurate positioning information; steering guidance; and automat- ic hazard warnings. This technology has the potential to provide a more accurate and reliable automatic radar plotting aid function if it is integrated into periodic

338 MINDING THE HELM broadcasts (automated dependent surveillance) of individual vessel position and velocity. An electronic charting system is the central feature of emerging onboard navigation systems. The effective use of electronic charting systems for real- time precision navigation depends on the completion and proper operation of DGPS. Completion of DGPS and development of a long-term commitment to maintain and operate it are critical to obtaining the potential benefits. Immediate and long-term measures must be taken by the Department of Defense and the Department of Transportation (through the Coast Guard) to achieve this objec- tive. Electronic charting systems, consisting of at least an electronic chart and real-time position data, and which meet legal requirements for navigation, will be the next type of navigation technology that has the potential to achieve uni- versal commercial use, following the example of radar and very high frequency radio. The capability to obtain instantaneous precision positioning information and display it on an electronic chart without loss of geographic detail due to weather and sea conditions, will constitute a great advance in navigation systems and will significantly improve navigational safety. RECOMMENDATION 31: The Department of Defense should fully estab- lish the Global Positioning System at the earliest opportunity, and the De- partment of Transportation, through the U.S. Coast Guard, should acceler- ate establishment of Differential Global Positioning System for marine navigation in U.S. navigable waters and the seaward approaches. The De- partment of Defense and the Department of Transportation should develop a plan and make a long-term commitment for the continued maintenance and operation of these systems. Modern hydrographic data coverage is inadequate for much of the nation's coastal waters. Mariners are notified of critical corrections to charts through weekly Coast Guard publications; required changes to charts aboard ship are done manually, if at all. New editions of charts with these corrections are not published by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration until a sub- stantial number of critical corrections are accumulated. Publication of updated charts is constrained by a substantial backlog of reported but unsubstantiated discrepancies, and there are no operational risk analyses to guide prioritization of discrepancy correction. The result is chart data that are substantially less precise than what is technologically achievable. Legal issues concerning the electronic charting data and the legal standing of electronic charting systems are unresolved. RECOMMENDATION 32: The National Ocean Survey of the National Oce- anic and Atmospheric Administration should conduct modern and updated

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 339 surveys of all U.S. ports, waterways, and port approaches. Specifically, the Department of Commerce should obtain and allocate the necessary resourc- es to assure the timely collection of hydrographic data that are essential to enhancing the effectiveness of passage planning and the safety of vessel op- erations. RECOMMENDATION 33: The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Admin- istration should accelerate digitization of hydrographic and topographic data essential for producing nautical charts electronically. The agency also should lead an effort to resolve the legal status of electronic charts, includ- ing those provided by other vendors using agency-digitized hydrographic data. The Department of Commerce should obtain and allocate the neces- sary resources to facilitate the introduction and use of electronic charting systems. The integrated bridge concept may have potential to reduce operational risk through the consolidation of navigation, steering, planning, and communications functions at one workstation (as is done in aviation). Effective and reliable use of integrated bridge systems (IBS) has been demonstrated under very select condi- tions on set routes where repeat transits are frequent and piloting is accom- plished by permanently assigned mariners with expert piloting skills. These sys- tems have not yet been proven effective for universal use in piloting although locally specific successes have been reported. Pilot uncertainty about the maneu- vering behavior of unfamiliar ships and the pilot's general lack of familiarity with integrated bridge technology means that vessel- and route-specific valida- tion will be necessary to establish IBS reliability for even regular routes. How an independent marine pilot would interact with IBS is not certain; full use of system capabilities seems to require either integration of independent marine pilots into the bridge team, a nontraditional role, or redefined working relation- ships between the pilot and the individual operating the IBS. Physical data rele- vant to maneuvering that are needed to support decision aids in integrated sys- tems are limited. Real-time tide, current, and weather information is not available except in very select locations. Tide and current prediction tables, often derived from surveys conducted decades ago, need to be updated in the near term. The integrated ship control system (ISCS) may provide a means to reduce crew size and reduce human error in the performance of some navigational tasks. Piloting expert systems and other decision aids may be needed to enhance or facilitate operator use of automated systems. As hands-on experience is reduced through automation, additional professional training may be required to prepare vessel operators to determine when integrated systems are not performing within tolerances and to build skills for taking corrective action. While ISCS may be satisfactory for at-sea operations, reduction of bridge team size because of ISCS installation would reduce the onboard resources for traditional navigation meth

340 MINDING THE HELM oafs, including hand steering. These traditional methods may be needed at times, especially during operating conditions for which use of rudder angles to control the vessel is more effective than for steering courses. Because it is difficult to obtain international standardization of navigation and communications systems, local electronic navigation systems may be need- ed to extend the benefit of DGPS positioning accuracy to the piloting of all ships in U.S. waters. A PCNS system may be needed for use aboard unequipped ves- sels that are required to have this capability. The PCNS also might be used as a primary navigational aid in lieu of, or to supplement, ship's equipment. For implementation of such a system as well as installed electronic charting systems · DGPS coverage will need to be fully operational; · electronic chart data bases will be needed for waters where portable sys- tems are used; . and chart updating and electronic chart correction capabilities will be needed; · the legal status of electronic charts will need to be resolved. RECOMMENDATION 34: The U.S. Coast Guard and the Maritime Ad- ministration should leverage earlier and existing research and should em- pirically evaluate the impact of advanced electronic positioning systems, automated steering systems, and integrated bridge and ship-control systems (including artificial intelligence and neural networks) on: · the safety of piloting and navigation; . the future; the future. the practice of piloting, particularly by ship's pilots and bridge watch teams of · use of traditional aids to navigation; and · organizational forms and practices that may be required for safe navigation in RECOMMENDATION 35: The Maritime Administration and the U.S. Coast Guard should encourage the development and enhancement of inte- grated navigation systems (including portable and hand-held units3. The U.S. Coast Guard, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers should examine and encourage develop- ment of real-time environmental data systems as well as chart-updating and correction systems. Communications Effective exchange of information between vessels and with shore-based navigational support units is essential to navigation safety. Voice communica

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 341 lion is especially important for passing important and perishable information. However, use of voice communication · is inefficient for passing general navigational information; · introduces the potential for additional human error in acquiring, screen ~ . . . . . . sing, and interpreting navigational information; ~ can result in information overload of bridge teams and pilots; · can interfere with onboard actions to resolve "close quarters" and "in extremis" situations; and · is prone to interference from unauthorized or inappropriate use. VTS operations use voice radio communications intensively. The amount of information transmitted to a vessel represents a shore-based operator's estimate of that vessel's information needs. Reliance on overheard transmissions and gen- eral traffic broadcasts to provide a complete traffic picture leaves the acquisition of information to chance and introduces opportunities for human error. Adverse operating conditions, which increase the use of voice radio, further stress the capability for effective information exchange. Electronic data links and installed or portable communications systems inte- grated with electronic charts and DGPS positioning capabilities are feasible; prototypes are being introduced in marine navigation. Although not mature tech- nologies, these systems can potentially be used to provide substantially more data instantaneously to bridge teams and pilots than is now possible; moreover, it will be in a form that permits onboard interpretation. There are no technical or operating standards for marine data transmission systems, and changes to operat- ing practices would necessitate special training in system use (see recommenda- tion 43. The utility of electronic systems for information transfer and interpreta- tion has not been demonstrated in maneuvering situations that require the pilot's constant attention or where br~dge-team support is minimal. Improvements are needed in communications to enhance essenha1 voice communications and to provide a more efficient and effective means for dissem- inating essential operational information. RECOMMENDATION 36: The U.S. Coast Guard, in coordination with the Maritime Administration, the Federal Communications Commission, Na- tional Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Army Corps of Engineers, and the Radio Technical Commission for Maritime Services, should assess electronic data links as a primary means for transmitting and receiving information needed for safe and efficient navigation and piloting of com- mercial vessels. In particular, measures to reduce dependency on voice ra- dio communications in VTS operations should be assessed. The U.S. Coast Guard and Federal Communications Commission should also investigate and assess alleged unauthorized use of bridge-to-bridge voice radio frequen- cies and take such enforcement action as may be indicated.

342 MINDING THE HELM MARINE NAVIGATION AND PILOTING RESEARCH NEEDS The extensive and rapid changes occurring in ship and navigation technolo- gies, manning and operating practices, and the nation's status as a port state and flag state, have created substantial uncertainties about the performance of virtu- ally all marine transportation systems. The limited research literature that is available focuses primarily on ships and technology. Coast Guard-sponsored research and development programs supporting the application of advanced elec- tronic navigation aids, while not addressing all application issues, are generally keeping pace with the development of these technologies. Past recommendations to improve safety data have had little effect except to motivate Coast Guard efforts to make its existing marine data bases compatible and to improve data collection on human systems. Available research on human systems and safety performance is often based on data that were not designed to answer questions about human performance. Also, the pioneering work in hu- man systems sponsored by the Mantime Administration and the Coast Guard has become dated, because of the absence of dedicated, continuing research to iden- tify trends and assess their effects and implications. These problems have coin- cided with the privatization of operations at the Mantime Administration's Com- puter Aided Operations Research Facility, a change in the facility's focus from fundamental to applied research and training, the closing of the National Man- time Research Center, and severe reductions in the Mantime Administration's research funds. Organizational research pertaining to marine transportation is virtually nonexistent. The Coast Guard's establishment of a human systems re- search staff is an important step in addressing the human dimension in marine accidents. Marine safety and economic efficiency would benefit from the program of dedicated fundamental research identified in Chapter 8. Research needs are sub- stantial and cross the missions of the Coast Guard, Mantime Administration, National Oceanic and Atmosphenc Administration, Army Corps of Engineers, and the National Transportation Safety Board. Therefore, a comprehensive co- operative research program is indicated. The Department of Transportation is an appropriate choice to coordinate the cooperative research program in marine transportation. RECOMMENDATION 37: The Department of Transportation, in consul- tation with the Department of Commerce and the Department of the Army, should establish a comprehensive, cooperative research program focusing on navigation safety and piloting. The program should be led by a Depart- ment of Transportation agency designated by the Secretary of Transporta- tion and should include participation by the U.S. Coast Guard, Maritime Administration, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and National Transportation Safety Board. The

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 343 program should be designed to address the existing, substantial research needs in marine-systems safety, waterways management, navigation and pi- loting technology, port-state versus flag-state policy, navigation and piloting practices, and human systems. Research sponsored by the Department of Defense, especially the U.S. Navy, should be examined for relevance; insofar as practical, lessons from this research should be leveraged into the Depart- ment of Transportation cooperative research program. Research needs should be prioritized in each area according to their prospective contribu- tion to marine safety and economic efficiency. Congress should authorize the research program and appropriate funding for its execution.

APPENDIXES

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Minding the Helm: Marine Navigation and Piloting Get This Book
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Large ships transporting hazardous cargoes, notorious marine accidents, and damage to marine ecosystems from tanker spills have heightened public concern for the safe navigation of ships.

This new volume offers a complete, highly readable assessment of marine navigation and piloting. It addresses the application of new technology to reduce the probability of accidents, controversies over the effectiveness of waterways management and marine pilotage, and navigational decisionmaking. The book also explores the way pilots of ships and tugs are trained, licensed, and held accountable.

Minding the Helm approaches navigational safety from the perspectives of risk assessment and the integration of human, technological, and organizational systems. Air and marine traffic regulation methods are compared, including the use of vessel traffic services.

With a store of current information and examples, this document will be indispensable to federal and state pilotage and licensing authorities and marine traffic regulators, the Coast Guard, pilot associations, and the shipping and towing industries. It will also interest individuals involved in waterway design, marine education, and the marine environment.

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