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9
Cooperation with the United States
Since 197S, Chinese scientific leaders and adminis~ors have increasingly
focused on cooperation with developed counties, particularly the United States,
as a means to raise China's modest level of research and development In
biotechnology. Contacts within developed countries occur Trough a varied of
channels, including government agencies, private foundations, educational
institutions, and commercial concerns. Major activities include information and
technology transfer, s~port of Chinese research through grants and contracts,
joint research projects, Joint commercial ventures, Mining programs in China,
and perhaps most important, study abroad. In China, cooperative activities are
coordinated by active international cooperation deponents within CAS, NSFC,
SSTC, SEDC, and the Ministries of Agriculture and of Public Health. The
sections below, while not all-inclusive, indicate Be range of Sino-American
cooperative activities.
GOVERNMENT-SUPPORTED PROGRAMS
The CSCPRC, Sponsored by NAS and with facial support from NSF, and
CAS have organized a joint 3-year program (19X7-1989) of minicollrses and a
symposium auned at inducing Chinese scientists to the new Enviers of basic
biological and biotechnology reach. To date, three combined laboratory and
lecture Courses have been held at the Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and
one at Me Beijing Institute of Microbiology. The Em, organized by Robert
Ho~tz (Massachuseus Institute of Technology), focused on the genetics and
molecular biology of Caenorhabditis elegans. During He past decade, this
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chinese students
COOPERATION W17H THE UNITED STATES
69
simple nematode has proven ~ be an exceptionally useful experiment organism
for fundamental studies of early development, behavior, and neurobiology. The
main purpose of He course was to expose young Chinese sciences to the genetic
manipulations that make this organism well suited for answering basic biological
questions. The course was the first introduction to this important organism for
most of the attending Chinese students and researchers. The second course,
organized by Dean ~ Homer (National institutes of Heals In, focus on
gene cloning and expression in yeast and mammalian cells. The laboratory
portion of the workshop offered instruction in several techniques, such as cDNA
cloning and site~ected mutagenesis, which }save wide applicability in many
areas of biotechnology. Perhaps more importantly, the lecture portion focused on
He most Went advances in understanding He regulation of eukaryotic gene
transcription during environmental adaptation and development The third course,
organized by Mike Boon (NeoRx Corporation), focused on He more applied
topic of immunotoxins. ~ramry exercises demons~ed sta~of-~e-artme~ods
for antibody and tom punf~cadon, chemical coupling, and immlmotoxin delivery.
Lectures ranged from introductory material on basic immunology to He most
recent results of animal and clinical Dials. The fourth course, organized by
Thomas Osbom (IJniversity of Wisconsin), was on plant molecular genetics and
was held at the Beijing Institute of Microbiology in May 1989.
The above minicourses lasted for 2 to 3 weeks and were taught by up to five
visiting instructors, including university professors and assistant professors, NIH
scientists, industrial scientists, postdoctoral fellows, and in one case, a Chinese
scientist studying in He United Sees. Laboratory exercises were limited to
between 10 and 25 people, whereas lectures were amended by larger numbers of
intended Chinese scientists. Dowry space andlarge equipment were provided
by Be Chinese, while reagents and most laboratory supplies were brought in from
the United States.
~ genial, He Chinese participants were enthusiastic, eager to learn, and
hardworking. They were excellent in the laboratory, picking up new techniques
win ease, and in most cases, Hey had a good working knowledge of modern
elemental methods. In congest, the students' basic knowledge, particularly in
genetics, was not always so song. In some cases, they could do a Southern blot
but were unable to predict the outcome of a single Mendelian cross. Others could
transform yeast cells win high efficiency, but were incapable of distinguishing
between a czs- and a trans-acting mutation. Thus, while the students knew many
of the facts of modern molecular biology, they had less sense of how to design
experiments to test these hypotheses or develop new ones. Perhaps the main
benefit of the minicourses, in particular the lecture portions, was in emphasizing
the importance of He expenmental method and broad wining in science. This
message apt to be wannly accepted by the participating scientists.
An oblige aun of Be joint CSCPRC
70
BIOTECHNOLOGY IN CHINA
Spring Harbor, New York, in which Chinese scientists would gradually take over
the teaching responsibilities. The Chinese support this idea, and the Shanghai
Imitate of Biochemistry has set aside apace for a dedi~l Gaining laboratory.
However, at He present early stage of this cooperative program, it is clear Hat
atonal American participation and funding will be required to achieve this
aim.
Tne CSCPRC also has a~'niniste~ the V=ting Scholar Exchange Progr~un.
This program has provided funding for sham (1- to 3-month) visits of American
scholars to China and of Chinese scholars to He United States. The main focus in
He sciences has been on He establishment of collaborative research projects,
Specially in areas in which work in China and/or win Chinese scientists can
make a unique contn~udon. The program has been especially useful in allowing
AmeAcan-~ained Chinese scientists to continue Heir contacts with He West and
update Heir bmining. The program has been supporting 15 American and 10
Cheese scholars each year' typically including two biologists. As has been an
important program that bridges Be gap between cradle study abroad and visits
by senior scientists and administrators. It is regrettable Hat this progr~un will be
termin n 1990.
The N1H, which is the main supporter of biologic research in He United
States, engages in several cooperative activities win China While He general
agreements between NIH and CAS, and NIH and CAPM, are largely inoperative,
contract research programs are support within several N1H institutes. The
National Cancer Institute is engaged in epidemiological studies of throat and
stomach cancer in China, clinical Dials of traditional herbal medicines, and an
analysis of to relationship between vitamins End cancer. The National Institute
of Allergy and Infectious Diseases supports research on hepadds and several
parasitic diseases, while the National Hem, Lung, and Blood Stile is involved
in a study on He relationship between diet and spoke. Although it is not widely
known, investigamr-initiated NIH grants are open to scientists of all nationalities
on a competitive basis; the National Instate of Allergy and Infectious Diseases
elects to fund at least one independent research project in China in 1989. The
NIH, through the slogan International Center, is also an unportant training center
for Chinese scientists. There are currently 125 Chinese scientists at He main NIH
campus.
PRIVATE FOUNDATIONS AND ACADEMIC INSTITUTIONS
The Rockefeller Foundation, which has long historical ties with China, is the
most visible of He private American foundations supp~ing research and raining
of Chinese scientists. It provides fact research grants in two major areas:
population condor (including basic studies of reproduction) and agriculture
(particularly improvement of rice strains). Between 1979 and 198S, the
COOPERATION W177] THE UN17ED STATES
71
foundation's medical sciences department e~nded $2.1 million on 34 research
grants, of which 10 dealt with basic studies of Me molecular and cellular biology
of reproduction, e.g., studies of plasminogen activators in early embryos and
cloning of sperm surface protein genes. In addition to research grants, the
Rockefeller Foundation provides Biotechnology Camer Fellowships to young
scientists (many of whom have mained abroad) in China and other developing
countries.
These Rockefeller Foundation programs have had a major impact on Chinese
biotechnology. While average grants are small, typically $30,000, they are very
effective because they are provided in U.S. dollars, which can be spent outside
China without We usual encumbrances of the procurement system. An addition,
We fellowship program allows investigators to work abroad on a regular basis,
providing a key incentive for students to mt~ to China Furthermore, virtually
every high caliber scientist that was met during Be 1-month evaluation Hip had
been helped, one way or another, by Be Rockefeller Foundation. Finally, most of
Be foundation-suppor~d research projects, except those at Be Beijing Institute of
Developmental Biology, are clearly above average.
Several other private foundations support Sino-American biotechnology
cooperation, mosey through small grants for travel and study abroad. Recently,
He Fudan Foundation has unveiled preliminary plans to establish the Thomas H.
Morgan Science Center at Fudan University's Instate of Genetics at a projected
cost of several million dollars (see Chapter 8~.
Many Chinese educational and research institutes have established formal or
informal ties with Am~i~n universities. For example, Fudan University has lies
win Harvard, Princeton, and Yade Universities and win He University of M=land,
while Nanjing University has an association win Johns Hopkins University. Id
certain instances, attempts have been made to establish joint research projects
such as He breeding of improved pig smains (Beijing Institute of Developmental
Biology with Norm Carolina State University) and the development of anti-liver
cancer immuno~x~ns (Shanghai Instance of Cell Biology with Sanford University).
However, such ties lag behind Dose established by over counties, and notably,
no American university conducts a regular research or paining program in China
such as He Max Planck Inshtute's program at the Shanghai hnshtute of Cell
Biology. We major contribution of American universities lies in Paining Chinese
students abroad, a topic discussed below.
STUDENTS ABROAD: HOW MANY WILL RETURN?
According ~ a recent study by Leo Orleans, Chinese Students u' America:
Policies, Issues and Numbers (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1988),
some 56,000 Chinese students and scholars visited He United Sates between
1979 and 1987. About 60 percent of these were officially sponsored by He
~2
BIOTECHNOLOGY IN CHINA
Chinese government 0-1 visa smms), while 40 percent were students privately
supported by friends or funnily (F-1 visa status). At Me beginning of 1988, it was
estimated that there were 36,000 victors from China in the United States: 21,000
studying or wowing wig J-1 I, 7,000 holding F-1 student Kansas, and 8,000
who managed to remain in the United States either with or without a different lope
of visa Based on figures Mom 1985, 17 percent of We Chinese visitors were
supported by Me Chinese government; 9 percent by personal funds; and 64
percent by U.S. universities, foundations, corporations, and govenunent programs.
Between 1979 and l98S, Mere was a severe decline in Me proportion of students
and scholars supported by Me Chinese government (from 54 percentin 1979 to 17
percent in l9BS) and a corresponding increase in support Prom American sources,
particularly universities Atom 18 to 57 percent). Total expenditures by American
sources in l9SS were in excess of $80 million, and it is likely that today Me figure
is greater than $100 million. Although no statistics are available on Me number of
Chinese visitors wowing ~if~cally on biotechnology, it is Emma that 11 to
17 percent are involved in Me combined fields of life sciences, heals sciences,
and agricrilt~e and Mat 7 percent of undergraduate plus graduate students are
studying biology or biochemistry. From these figures, together with casual
observations of graduate student populations at several American universities and
medical schools, it can be estimated that about 1,000 to 3,000 Chinese students
and scientists are currently Raining in biotechnology and related fields in the
United States.
Clearly, this Amble pool of students and scientists abroad presents China wig
an important opportunity to accelerate Ethnological development. But how many
of Me students will actually return? And will those that do return be able to use
their new training? Although breakdowns by field of study are not available,
overall figures compiled by Orleans on the return of students and scholars to
China between 1978 and 1988 are revealing. It is estimated Cat within this period
approximately 12,500 J-1 visa holders and 7,000 F-1 visa holders returned to
China These 19~500 returnees represent approximately one-~rd of Me total sent
to Me United States, including Me majority of all officially Sponsored students
and scholars. Moreover, of Me 36,000 visitors currency in Me United States, only
20 Rent have overstayed Weir originally planed visit. Since more than half of
all student and scholar that have been sent to the United States are still here, it is
mo early to predict what the overall return late will be; but judging from Me fast
few years, it will undoubtedly be high enough to have a significant impact on
China's science and technology development.
Despite these encouraging return Dues, Chinese leaders have recently introduced
several new measures to try and increase Me Faction of students and scholars that
In to China These include the following steps:
1. Students are no longer officially sponsored for undergraduate study, only
for graduate study and postdoctoral research.
COOPERATION WITH TlIE UNITED STATES
73
2. Students who have obtained Heir undergraduate or masters degree in China
must remain an Me country for 2 to 3 years before going abroad for a Ph.D. degree.
3. Visas for spouses and children are no longer routinely granted.
(representatives of the Chinese Embassy in Washington, D.C. deny changing this
policy, but numerous Chinese colleagues assert Cat it has been changed.)
4. Wow units are being held increasingly responsible for selecting and ensuring
He return of students and scholars abroad Even when a student or scholar Is
clearly emigrant, he or she is still counted as occupying a work position in China.
Financial penalties are levied on the funnily andior guarantor of students or
scholars that fail ~ return within the allotted time. Since these penalties are
decided by each work or administrative unit, they may vary considerably. One
example cited to us was 100 yuan per month (about He average salary for a
Chinese scientist) for the first 6 months; after that, 400 yuan per month.
5. Several Chinese universities and research institutes are Wing to establish
programs in which graduate students do their course work in China and go abroad
only for their dissertation work (typically, 2 years).
Wile He indecent of these measures is clear, Heir ultimate effectiveness remains
to be tested. The general impression is that Here has been a tangible alteration in
Be mood of Chinese students in He Unified States since the "antibourgeois
democracy" movement of lme 1986 and early 1987. Students who fully intended
to In to Chum are now talking a "wait and see" attitude; recipients of an
undergraduate degree are staying on for graduate studies; and Ph.D. recipients are
staying on for postdoctoral work. These "lingerers" are waiting for Free assurances:
(1) Hat China will not return to an outright and-intellectual campaign of the sort
Hat has occurred so regularly since 1949, (2) that once Hey return Hey will have
the opportunity to go abroad again to continue high-level Gaining or collaborative
research, and (3) that they will be provided with an appropriate environment and
sufficient funding to continue doing science in Chow Measures Hat help to
assure students and scholars abroad on these points will undoubtedly have a
positive impact.
The most commonly discusses] solution to the brain-drain problem, namely,
the improvement of waking and living conditions in China, is unfortunately the
most difficult to achieve. To Heir credit, certain Chinese universities and research
instates have offered considerable incentives for scientists ~ return from abroad.
These include immediate promotion to professor, ample laboratory space,
permission to go abroad on a regular basis, and virmally guaranteed research
support ~ addition, while scientists are abroad Hey can apply for He relatively
small research grants provided by NSFC. By offering such incentives, a small
number of universities (e.g., Peking University) and institutes (e.g., Shanghai
Institute of Biochemistry and Beijing Inshtute of Virology) have managed to
attract truly topnotch researchers Pained abroad The inch use of such
incentives could have a major impact on China's biotechnology development
74
BIO~HNOLOGYIN CHINA
COMMERCIAL ENTERPRISES
Given China's preoccupation with applied research, it is not surprising that
special emphasis and hopes are placed on ties with U.S. corporations. Four types
of commercial activities are under way or planned in Chunk (1) sponsored
(contract) research, (2) joint ventures, (3) wholly owned subsidiaries, and (4)
technology transfer. Although He demils of many of these commercial agreements
are not publicly available, a few examples will suffice to indicate the range of
ongoing activities. One of the most active U.S. companies In China is the
Monsanto Company, which curmndy support over 50 research projects at various
Chinese institutions. Most of these are conDact research programs Mat take
advantage of Me special slcills of Chinese scientists, e.g., plant tissue culture
methods. In the Ron of joint ventures, the formation of the SinmAmerican
Biotechnology Company by Promega Corporation has been especially useful in
giving Chinew scientists access to biotechnology reagents (see Chapter S). Several
major U.S. pharmaceutical funs operate joint vendee factories in China Over
projects at venous stages of negotiation include Be genetic engineering of soy~s,
BV vaccines, and cancer detection kits.
Despite these encouraging signs, and despite the fact that a large number of
U.S. biotechnology, chemical, and pharmaceutical funs have made overtures to
Chink the overall level of Sino-American cooperation in commercial biotechnology
remans low. The ~ complaints on the American side are the weakness of the
Chinese patent system (see Chapter 5) and Be fact Mat many Chinese have died
to obtain new technology for free, often by playing one company against another
and by offering preferential marlcet entry. On the over hand, the number of
marketable, profile products available from biotechnology is still low. Perhaps
the Chinese are wise ~ save their money, and at the same time build their own
technological expertise, und1 the potential of biotechnology becomes a realibr.
