National Academies Press: OpenBook

Biotechnology in China (1989)

Chapter: 9. Cooperation with the United States

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Suggested Citation:"9. Cooperation with the United States." National Academy of Sciences. 1989. Biotechnology in China. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2074.
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Page 68
Suggested Citation:"9. Cooperation with the United States." National Academy of Sciences. 1989. Biotechnology in China. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2074.
×
Page 69
Suggested Citation:"9. Cooperation with the United States." National Academy of Sciences. 1989. Biotechnology in China. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2074.
×
Page 70
Suggested Citation:"9. Cooperation with the United States." National Academy of Sciences. 1989. Biotechnology in China. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2074.
×
Page 71
Suggested Citation:"9. Cooperation with the United States." National Academy of Sciences. 1989. Biotechnology in China. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2074.
×
Page 72
Suggested Citation:"9. Cooperation with the United States." National Academy of Sciences. 1989. Biotechnology in China. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2074.
×
Page 73
Suggested Citation:"9. Cooperation with the United States." National Academy of Sciences. 1989. Biotechnology in China. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2074.
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Page 74

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9Cooperation with the United States Since 1978, Chinese scientific leaders and administrators have increasingly focused on cooperation with developed countries, particularly the United States, as a means to raise China's modest level of research and development in biotechnology. Contacts within developed countries occur through a variety of channels, including government agencies, private foundations, educational institutions, and commercial concerns. Major activities include information and technology transfer, support of Chinese research through grants and contracts, joint research projects, joint commercial ventures, training programs in China, and perhaps most important, study abroad. In China, cooperative activities are coordinated by active international cooperation departments within CAS, NSFC, SSTC, SEDC, and the Ministries of Agriculture and of Public Health. The sections below, while not all-inclusive, indicate the range of Sino- American cooperative activities. GOVERNMENT-SUPPORTED PROGRAMS The CSCPRC, sponsored by NAS and with financial support from NSF, and CAS have organized a joint 3-year program (1987-1989) of minicourses and a symposium aimed at introducing Chinese scientists to the new frontiers of basic biological and biotechnology research. To date, three combined laboratory and lecture minicourses have been held at the Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and one at the Beijing Institute of Microbiology. The first, organized by Robert Horvitz (Massachusetts Institute of Technology), focused on the genetics and molecular biology of Caenorhabditis elegans. During the past decade, this COOPERATION WITH THE UNITED STATES 68

simple nematode has proven to be an exceptionally useful experimental organism for fundamental studies of early development, behavior, and neurobiology. The main purpose of the course was to expose young Chinese scientists to the genetic manipulations that make this organism well suited for answering basic biological questions. The course was the first introduction to this important organism for most of the attending Chinese students and researchers. The second course, organized by Dean H. Hamer (National Institutes of Health [NIH]), focused on gene cloning and expression in yeast and mammalian cells. The laboratory portion of the workshop offered instruction in several techniques, such as cDNA cloning and site-directed mutagenesis, which have wide applicability in many areas of biotechnology. Perhaps more importantly, the lecture portion focused on the most recent advances in understanding the regulation of eukaryotic gene transcription during environmental adaptation and development. The third course, organized by Mike Bjorn (NeoRx Corporation), focused on the more applied topic of immunotoxins. Laboratory exercises demonstrated state-of-the-art methods for antibody and toxin purification, chemical coupling, and immunotoxin delivery. Lectures ranged from introductory material on basic immunology to the most recent results of animal and clinical trials. The fourth course, organized by Thomas Osborn (University of Wisconsin), was on plant molecular genetics and was held at the Beijing Institute of Microbiology in May 1989. The above minicourses lasted for 2 to 3 weeks and were taught by up to five visiting instructors, including university professors and assistant professors, NIH scientists, industrial scientists, postdoctoral fellows, and in one case, a Chinese scientist studying in the United States. Laboratory exercises were limited to between 10 and 25 people, whereas lectures were attended by larger numbers of interested Chinese scientists. Laboratory space and large equipment were provided by the Chinese, while reagents and most laboratory supplies were brought in from the United States. In general, the Chinese participants were enthusiastic, eager to learn, and hardworking. They were excellent in the laboratory, picking up new techniques with ease, and in most cases, they had a good working knowledge of modern experimental methods. In contrast, the students' basic knowledge, particularly in genetics, was not always so strong. In some cases, they could do a Southern blot but were unable to predict the outcome of a single Mendelian cross. Others could transform years cells with high efficiency, but were incapable of distinguishing between a cis- and a trans-acting mutation. Thus, while the students knew many of the facts of modern molecular biology, they had less sense of how to design experiments to test these hypotheses or develop new ones. Perhaps the main benefit of the minicourses, in particular the lecture portions, was in emphasizing the importance of the experimental method and broad training in science. This message appeared to be warmly accepted by the participating scientists. An original aim of the joint CSCPRC-CAS program was to establish a continuing series of minicourses, similar to those at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory in Cold COOPERATION WITH THE UNITED STATES 69

Spring Harbor, New York, in which Chinese scientists would gradually take over the teaching responsibilities. The Chinese support this idea, and the Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry has set aside space for a dedicated training laboratory. However, at the present early stage of this cooperative program, it is clear that additional American participation and funding will be required to achieve this aim. The CSCPRC also has administered the Visiting Scholar Exchange Program. This program has provided funding for short (1- to 3-month) visits of American scholars to China and of Chinese scholars to the United States. The main focus in the sciences has been on the establishment of collaborative research projects, especially in areas in which work in China and/or with Chinese scientists can make a unique contribution. The program has been especially useful in allowing American-trained Chinese scientists to continue their contacts with the West and update their training. The program has been supporting 15 American and 10 Chinese scholars each year, typically including two biologists. This has been an important program that bridges the gap between graduate study abroad and visits by senior scientists and administrators. It is regrettable that this program will be terminated in 1990. The NIH, which is the main supporter of biological research in the United States, engages in several cooperative activities with China. While the general agreements between NIH and CAS, and NIH and CAPM, are largely inoperative, contract research programs are supported within several NIH institutes. The National Cancer Institute is engaged in epidemiological studies of throat and stomach cancer in China, clinical trials of traditional herbal medicines, and an analysis of the relationship between vitamins and cancer. The National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases supports research on hepatitis and several parasitic diseases, while the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute is involved in a study on the relationship between diet and stroke. Although it is not widely known, investigator-initiated NIH grants are open to scientists of all nationalities on a competitive basis; the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases expects to fund at least one independent research project in China in 1989. The NIH, through the Fogarty International Center, is also an important training center for Chinese scientists. There are currently 125 Chinese scientists at the main NIH campus. PRIVATE FOUNDATIONS AND ACADEMIC INSTITUTIONS The Rockefeller Foundation, which has long historical ties with China, is the most visible of the private American foundations supporting research and training of Chinese scientists. It provides direct research grants in two major areas: population control (including basic studies of reproduction) and agriculture (particularly improvement of rice strains). Between 1979 and 1988, the COOPERATION WITH THE UNITED STATES 70

foundation's medical sciences department expended $2.1 million on 34 research grants, of which 10 dealt with basic studies of the molecular and cellular biology of reproduction, e.g., studies of plasminogen activators in early embryos and cloning of sperm surface protein genes. In addition to research grants, the Rockefeller Foundation provides Biotechnology Career Fellowships to young scientists (many of whom have trained abroad) in China and other developing countries. These Rockefeller Foundation programs have had a major impact on Chinese biotechnology. While average grants are small, typically $30,000, they are very effective because they are provided in U.S. dollars, which can be spent outside China without the usual encumbrances of the procurement system. In addition, the fellowship program allows investigators to work abroad on a regular basis, providing a key incentive for students to return to China. Furthermore, virtually every high-caliber scientist that was met during the 1- month evaluation trip had been helped, one way or another, by the Rockefeller Foundation. Finally, most of the foundation-supported research projects, except those at the Beijing Institute of Developmental Biology, are clearly above average. Several other private foundations support Sino-American biotechnology cooperation, mostly through small grants for travel and study abroad. Recently, the Fudan Foundation has unveiled preliminary plans to establish the Thomas H. Morgan Science Center at Fudan University's Institute of Genetics at a projected cost of several million dollars (see Chapter 8). Many Chinese educational and research institutes have established formal or informal ties with American universities. For example, Fudan University has ties with Harvard, Princeton, and Yale Universities and with the University of Maryland, while Nanjing University has an association with Johns Hopkins University. In certain instances, attempts have been made to establish joint research projects such as the breeding of improved pig strains (Beijing Institute of Developmental Biology with North Carolina State University) and the development of anti-liver cancer immunotoxins (Shanghai Institute of Cell Biology with Stanford University). However, such ties lag behind those established by other countries, and notably, no American university conducts a regular research or training program in China such as the Max Planck Institute's program at the Shanghai Institute of Cell Biology. The major contribution of American universities lies in training Chinese students abroad, a topic discussed below. STUDENTS ABROAD: HOW MANY WILL RETURN? According to a recent study by Leo Orleans, Chinese Students in America: Policies, Issues and Numbers (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1988), some 56,000 Chinese students and scholars visited the United States between 1979 and 1987. About 60 percent of these were officially sponsored by the COOPERATION WITH THE UNITED STATES 71

Chinese government (J-1 visa status), while 40 percent were students privately supported by friends or family (F-1 visa status). At the beginning of 1988, it was estimated that there were 36,000 visitors from China in the United States: 21,000 studying or working with J-1 visas, 7,000 holding F-1 student visas, and 8,000 who managed to remain in the United States either with or without a different type of visa. Based on figures from 1985, 17 percent of the Chinese visitors were supported by the Chinese government; 9 percent by personal funds; and 64 percent by U.S. universities, foundations, corporations, and government programs. Between 1979 and 1985, there was a severe decline in the proportion of students and scholars supported by the Chinese government (from 54 percent in 1979 to 17 percent in 1985) and a corresponding increase in support from American sources, particularly universities (from 18 to 57 percent). Total expenditures by American sources in 1985 were in excess of $80 million, and it is likely that today the figure is greater than $100 million. Although no statistics are available on the number of Chinese visitors working specifically on biotechnology, it is estimated that 11 to 17 percent are involved in the combined fields of life sciences, health sciences, and agriculture and that 7 percent of undergraduate plus graduate students are studying biology or biochemistry. From these figures, together with causal observations of graduate student populations at several American universities and medical schools, it can be estimated that about 1,000 to 3,000 Chinese students and scientists are currently training in biotechnology and related fields in the United States. Clearly, this sizable pool of students and scientists abroad presents China with an important opportunity to accelerate technological development. But how many of the students will actually return? And will those that do return be able to use their new training? Although breakdowns by field of study are not available, overall figures compiled by Orleans on the return of students and scholars to China between 1978 and 1988 are revealing. It is estimated that within this period approximately 12,500 J-1 visa holders and 7,000 F-1 visa holders returned to China. These 19,500 returnees represent approximately one- third of the total sent to the United States, including the majority of all officially sponsored students and scholars. Moreover, of the 36,000 visitors currently in the United States, only 20 percent have overstayed their originally planned visits. Since more than half of all students and scholars that have been sent to the United States are still here, it is too early to predict what the overall return rate will be; but judging from the first few years, it will undoubtedly be high enough to have a significant impact on China's science and technology development. Despite these encouraging return rates, Chinese leaders have recently introduced several new measures to try and increase the fraction of students and scholars that return to China. These include the following steps: 1. Students are no longer officially sponsored for undergraduate study, only for graduate study and postdoctoral research. COOPERATION WITH THE UNITED STATES 72

2. Students who have obtained their undergraduate or masters degree in China must remain in the country for 2 to 3 years before going abroad for a Ph.D. degree. 3. Visas for spouses and children are no longer routinely granted. (representatives of the Chinese Embassy in Washington, D.C. deny changing this policy, but numerous Chinese colleagues assert that it has been changed.) 4. Work units are being held increasingly responsible for selecting and ensuring the return of students and scholars abroad. Even when a student or scholar has clearly emigrated, he or she is still counted as occupying a work position in China. Financial penalties are levied on the family and/ or guarantor of students or scholars that fail to return within the allotted time. Since these penalties are decided by each work or administrative unit, they may vary considerably. One example cited to us was 100 yuan per month (about the average salary for a Chinese scientist) for the first 6 months; after that, 400 yuan per month. 5. Several Chinese universities and research institutes are trying to establish programs in which graduate students do their course work in China and go abroad only for their dissertation work (typically, 2 years). While the intent of these measures is clear, their ultimate effectiveness remains to be tested. The general impression is that there has been a tangible alteration in the mood of Chinese students in the United States since the ''antibourgeois democracy'' movement of late 1986 and early 1987. Students who fully intended to return to China are now taking a "wait and see" attitude; recipients of an undergraduate degree are staying on for graduate studies; and Ph.D. recipients are staying on for postdoctoral work. These "lingerers" are waiting for three assurances: (1) that China will not return to an outright anti- intellectual campaign of the sort that has occurred so regularly since 1949, (2) that once they return they will have the opportunity to go abroad again to continue high-level training or collaborative research, and (3) that they will be provided with an appropriate environment and sufficient funding to continue doing science in China. Measures that help to assure students and scholars abroad on these points will undoubtedly have a positive impact. The most commonly discussed solution to the brain-drain problem, namely, the improvement of working and living conditions in China, is unfortunately the most difficult to achieve. To their credit, certain Chinese universities and research institutes have offered considerable incentives for scientists to return from abroad. These include immediate promotion to professor, ample laboratory space, permission to go abroad on a regular basis, and virtually guaranteed research support. In addition, while scientists are abroad they can apply for the relatively small research grants provided by NSFC. By offering such incentives, a small number of universities (e.g., Peking University) and institutes (e.g., Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Beijing Institute of Virology) have managed to attract truly top-notch researchers trained abroad. The increased use of such incentives could have a major impact on China's biotechnology development. COOPERATION WITH THE UNITED STATES 73

COMMERCIAL ENTERPRISES Given China's preoccupation with applied research, it is not surprising that special emphasis and hopes are placed on ties with U.S. corporations. Four types of commercial activities are under way or planned in China: (1) sponsored (contract) research, (2) joint ventures, (3) wholly owned subsidiaries, and (4) technology transfer. Although the details of many of these commercial agreements are not publicly available, a few examples will suffice to indicate the range of ongoing activities. One of the most active U.S. companies in China is the Monsanto Company, which currently supports over 50 research projects at various Chinese institutions. Most of these are contract research programs that take advantage of the special skills of Chinese scientists, e.g., plant tissue culture methods. In the realm of joint ventures, the formation of the Sino- American Biotechnology Company by Promega Corporation has been especially useful in giving Chinese scientists access to biotechnology reagents (see Chapter 5). Several major U.S. pharmaceutical firms operate joint venture factories in China. Other projects at various stages of negotiation include the genetic engineering of soybeans, HBV vaccines, and cancer detection kits. Despite these encouraging signs, and despite the fact that a large number of U.S. biotechnology, chemical, and pharmaceutical firms have made overtures to China, the overall level of Sino-American cooperation in commercial biotechnology remains low. The main complaints on the American side are the weakness of the Chinese patent system (see Chapter 5) and the fact that many Chinese have tried to obtain new technology for free, often by playing one company against another and by offering preferential market entry. On the other hand, the number of marketable, profitable products available from biotechnology is still low. Perhaps the Chinese are wise to save their money, and at the same time build their own technological expertise, until the potential of biotechnology becomes a reality. COOPERATION WITH THE UNITED STATES 74

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