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OCR for page 11
J
Husbandry
This chapter provides guidelines for the care of laboratory dogs. The
first section, on housing, details design and construction considerations for
facilities that house dogs, as well as for primary enclosures (here defined as
cages and pensJ. The subsection on facilities contains information on build-
ings, rooms, and outside areas for containment of dogs, and that on environ-
ment and environmental control describes mechanisms for controlling the
environment and gives the legislatively mandated ranges for temperature,
humidity, and ventilation.
The remaining information in this chapter is supplemented by discus-
sions in other parts of this report. For example, Chapter 4 ("Management of
Breeding Colonies") contains sections on food for puppies and gestational
or lactating dams and on record-keeping for a breeding colony that amplify
the sections on food and identification and records in this chapter. Social-
ization of puppies is also discussed in Chapter 4. Modified primary enclo-
sures and bedding for dogs with specific disorders are described in Chapter
6 ("Special Considerations".
The 1985 amendment to the Animal Welfare Act required the U.S.
Department of Agriculture (USDA) to establish standards for exercise for
laboratory dogs, and they were established in 1991. A federal court has
now found that the regulations concerning exercise for dogs are inadequate
and ordered that new regulations be written. This committee has reviewed
the available information relevant to exercise, space, and well-being of dogs,
11
OCR for page 12
2
DOGS: LABORATORY ANIMAL MANAGEMENT
and it has found that, as was the case in 1985, it is inadequate to formulate
objective standards.
Although knowledge of canine behavior is leading to a consensus that
opportunities for social interaction with people, other dogs, or both are
important for promoting canine well-being, no similar consensus is avail-
able concerning fitness and exercise. Another issue is the notion that a
single standard can provide optimal care for all dogs. It is generally recog-
nized that such factors as breed, physical conformation, age, health status,
past experiences, and general behavioral characteristics influence what con-
stitutes adequate space and exercise. For example, a dog undergoing a
surgical procedure might require a restricted space to limit its activity. Once
the dog has recovered from the surgical procedure, a different space and
exercise regimen can be implemented. Likewise, the space and type and
duration of exercise required for Alaskan sled dogs in working condition is
quite different from that required for Shih Tzu and other brachycephalic
breeds. Finally, medical research benefits from the availability of dogs
with inherited disorders similar to those of humans, and the presence of
these disorders in dogs imposes the same types of restrictions that human
patients must endure. Unsupervised exercise is often contraindicated in
dogs with heart and metabolic diseases. Similarly, the construction and
layout of primary enclosures for dogs with such conditions as muscular
dystrophy, bleeding disorders, blindness, or Ehlers-Danlos syndrome must
be carefully considered to avoid compromising their health and well-being.
The most important objective for those responsible for housing dogs
should be to achieve an overall high level of care, rather than to conform
rigidly to specific standards. Animal well-being must be assessed case by
case by those qualified to do so. The regular evaluation of animal well-
being is an important aspect of any husbandry and animal-care program and
serves as a measure of the appropriateness of animal-care procedures. Pro-
cedures that are ultimately linked to the well-being of the individual are
defined as performance standards. The committee strongly recommends
that performance standards, coupled with sound professional judgment, be
used to develop space requirements and exercise programs for dogs. This
committee is firmly convinced that performance standards are ultimately
better for each dog's physical and behavioral well-being than engineering
standards, which might lack the flexiblity necessary to meet the needs of all
dogs.
HOUSING
Facilities
Housing facilities for dogs must be designed and constructed so that
they are structurally sound, protect animals from injury, contain animals
OCR for page 13
HUSBANDRY
13
securely, and prevent entry of other animals (9 CFR 3.1a). Dog facilities
vary in size and complexity, depending on their purpose (e.g., holding or
breeding), colony size and type (e.g., specific-pathogen-free or conventional),
and breed. The design of breeding facilities should address the following:
· The design should facilitate the conduct of research.
· There should be sufficient space for expansion, both for adding an
mats and for increasing ancillary operations.
.
Breeding facilities should have sufficient space to house dams with
litters and the progeny.
The design should promote effective sanitation and husbandry proce
dures.
· Operation of the facility should be efficient and cost-effective.
· Construction should be economical.
The physical facilities and equipment should be constructed and oper-
ated to fulfill the following criteria:
· Contamination from areas adjacent to, but not part of, the facility
should be minimized. The locations of equipment washing and sterilizing,
food and bedding storage, quarantine, treatment, receiving and shipping,
shipping-crate storage, mechanical services, shops, offices, and laboratories
should minimize crossovers from soiled or contaminated to clean areas.
Clean material and equipment should not come into contact with soiled and
contaminated material and equipment.
.
There should be sufficient control of temperature, humidity, ventila-
tion, and lighting to provide the animals with appropriate conditions for
their comfort and well-being.
· Behavioral well-being should be considered by allowing for visual
contact between dogs, social housing, exercise areas, and other appropriate
areas.
· The entry of vermin should be prevented.
.
Provisions should be made for lunchrooms, locker rooms, and toilets
for animal-care personnel.
.
Caging equipment and feeding and watering devices should provide
a safe environment, make food and water readily available, minimize the
opportunity for transmission of diseases and parasites, and make sanitation
and sterilization efficient.
· Auxiliary equipment such as washing machines, cage racks, rolling
equipment (e.g., dollies, tables, and carts), and fixed equipment (e.g., cabi-
nets, sinks, and shelving) should be designed, fabricated, and used to pro-
mote maximal sanitation and operating efficiency.
OCR for page 14
4
DOGS: LABORATORY ANIMAL MANAGEMENT
When a dog facility is designed to be part of a larger facility housing
other species of animals or part of a multipurpose building with offices and
research laboratories, the physical relationships between areas must be care-
fully planned (NRC, 1985a). Those establishing operating procedures should
use the best available information on physiology; nutrition; genetics; behav-
ior; animal breeding, care, and maintenance; colony management (produc-
tion and research); and disease control.
Dogs can be housed in indoor facilities, outdoor facilities, or a combi-
nation of the two (sheltered housing facilities). If the site is exclusively
indoors, the only factors that influence site selection are local zoning regu-
lations, the ability to control odors and noise, the availability of appropriate
utilities (e.g., sewerage and water) (9 CFR 3.1d), and the proximity to other
businesses. Indoor facilities should be constructed and maintained in com-
pliance with CFR, Title 9, Part 3.2 and the Guide (NRC, 1985a), as summa-
rized below.
Indoor Facilities
Walls. Exterior walls should be fire-resistant and impervious to ver-
min. To facilitate cleaning, interior walls should be smooth, hard, and
without pits or cracks, and they should be capable of withstanding the
impact of water under high pressure and scrubbing with cleaning agents
(e.g., detergents) and sanitizing agents (e.g., disinfectants). They should be
protected from damage caused by movable equipment.
Ceilings. Ceilings should be smooth, moistureproof, and free of imper-
fect junctions. Surface materials should be capable of withstanding scrub-
bing with detergents and disinfectants.
undesirable.
Exposed pipes and fixtures are
Floors. Floors can be constructed of a variety of materials that are
smooth, moistureproof, nonabsorbent, and skidproof; that are resistant to
wear and the adverse effects of detergents, disinfectants, acid, and solvents;
and that are able to support heavy equipment without being gouged, cracked,
or pitted. They should also be easy to clean.
Drainage. Drainage must be adequate to allow rapid removal of water
(9 CFR 3 . 1 f).
_ --So ~ 1
If floor drains are used, they should be constructed and
maintained in accordance with the Guide (NRC, 1985a). Rim flush drains
should be at least 6 in (15.2 cm) in diameter. Porous trap buckets installed
in the drains aid in cleaning and screen out solid waste. Floor drains must
contain traps that prevent backflow of sewage and gases (9 CFR 3.1f). If
OCR for page 15
HUSBANDRY
15
unused floor drains are present, they should be closed with gaslight seals
that are flush with the floor surface.
Doors. All rooms should have doors. External doors should have
adequate latches and locks and should be verminproof when closed. If they
are left open during warm weather, adequate screening is essential. All
door frames should be sealed to walls and partitions with caulking com-
pound or a similar material.
Ports in animal-room doors allow personnel to observe the dogs with-
out entering the rooms, prevent injury to personnel while they are opening
doors, and provide a way to verify that room lights are on at appropriate
times. Experience has shown that doors at least 42 in (107 cm) wide and 84
in (213 cm) high allow free passage of cages and equipment. The doors
should be equipped with locks and kickplates and should be self-closing.
Outside windows. Outside windows and skylights might not be desir-
able, because they can contribute to unacceptable variations in temperature
and photoperiod. Other problems associated with outside windows and
skylights include dust and bacteria buildup on frames; drafts, and increased
ventilation costs.
Washrooms and sinks. Washing facilities for personnel (e.g., basins,
sinks, or showers) must be provided and must be readily accessible (9 CFR
3.1g).
Sheltered Housing Facilities
A sheltered housing facility, as defined by the Animal Welfare Regula-
tions (AWRs), is a facility that provides shelter, protection from the ele-
ments, and protection from temperature extremes at all times (9 CFR 1.13.
It can consist of runs or pens in a totally enclosed building or indoor-
outdoor runs with the indoor runs in a totally enclosed building. The re-
quirements for the sheltered portion of such facilities are identical with
those for indoor facilities, with the additional stipulation that the shelter
structure must be large enough to permit each animal to sit, stand, and lie
down in a normal manner and to turn around freely (9 CFR 3.3~.
The outdoor portion of a sheltered housing facility should be constructed
to prevent the introduction of vermin. Outdoor floor areas in contact with
animals should be constructed of hard, moisture-resistant material and be
properly drained. The use of compacted earth, sand, gravel, or grass is
discouraged. The sides of runs can be constructed of chain-link fencing and
steel posts or pipe frames or, when necessary to prevent fighting or injury,
of solid concrete block coated with sealant. Fencing at the lower ends of
OCR for page 16
6
DOGS: LABORATORY ANIMAL MANAGEMENT
runs and pens should be high enough above the surface to permit adequate
drainage but not high enough to allow young puppies to escape. Curbs at
least 6 in (15.2 cm) high should be constructed between runs to help pre-
vent the spread of microorganisms during washing. Curbs 24-30 in (61.0-
76.2 cm) high might be necessary in runs in which the dog population is
constantly changing. Higher curbs might be beneficial in whelping-pen
runs to reduce the anxiety of nursing bitches. Run doors or gates should
have well-made latches that can be easily opened by animal-care personnel
but not by the dogs. Special consideration must be given to removing
animal wastes and controlling noise.
Outdoor Facilities
The AWRs, with some restrictions, permit facilities to house dogs solely
outdoors, provided that each animal has access to a structure (consisting of
a roof, four sides, and a floor) that furnishes adequate protection from cold,
heat, the direct rays of the sun, and the direct effects of wind, rain, and
snow (9 CFR 3.4~. In general, this type of housing is discouraged for dogs
being used in an experimental protocol, because environmental factors, in-
fectious agents, and vermin are difficult to control. In other instances (e.g.,
in protocols requiring acclimation or in breeding colonies maintained in
temperate climates), outdoor facilities might be adequate.
Environment and Environmental Control
An important part of maintaining the health and well-being of labora-
tory animals is control of the environment. In nature, animals respond to
environmental changes both behaviorally and physiologically in a manner
that will maintain homeostasis. In an animal room, a behavioral response
might not be possible, and the animal must deal with an altered environ-
ment physiologically. Therefore, it is necessary to control the environment
to avoid physiologic changes. Besch (1985) has reviewed environmental
factors that can effect the biologic responses of laboratory animals.
Temperature and Humidity
Temperature and humidity are important considerations in a dog facility
(Beech, 1985~. Dogs can tolerate moderate ranges of temperature and weather,
provided that they have appropriate amounts of food and water, have access
to shelter, and are allowed sufficient time to acclimate to their environment.
The Guide recommends that room temperature for dogs be maintained within
a range of 18-29°C (64.4-84.2°F) and relative humidity within a range of
30-70 percent. The AWRs require that the ambient temperature in indoor
OCR for page 17
HUSBANDRY
17
facilities not fall below 7.2°C (45°F) or rise above 29.4°C (85°F) for more
than 4 consecutive hours when dogs are present (9 CFR 3.2a). Except as
approved by the attending veterinarian, ambient temperature must not fall
below 10°C (50°F) for dogs not acclimated to lower temperatures, breeds
that cannot tolerate lower temperatures, and young, old, sick, or infirm dogs
(9 CFR 3.2a).
Dogs recovering from general anesthesia are frequently hypothermic.
Every attempt should be made to maintain normal body temperature during
surgery and recovery. This can be accomplished by using supplemental
sources of heat (e.g., heating pads and heat lamps), by avoiding direct
contact with heat-conducting surfaces (e.g., metal), and by maintaining the
postoperative recovery cage at 27-29°C (80.6-84.2°F) (NRC, 1985a). New-
born pups have poorly developed thermoregulatory mechanisms and might
require supplemental sources of heat. Temperatures of 29.4-32.2°C (85-
90°F) have been suggested for the first week of life (Poffenbarger et al.,
1990~.
Each room should be provided with temperature controls and high- and
low-temperature alarms. Graphic recorders are useful for monitoring sys-
tem performance. Ideally, the temperature controls should allow individual
adjustments in dry-bulb temperature of + 1°C (+ 2°F) within the range of
18.3-29.4°C (65-85°F).
Relative humidity should be maintained at 30-70 percent throughout the
year (NRC, 1985a). It is important to control sources of humidity, such as
cage-cleaning equipment, transient loads from cleaning water (Gorton and
Besch, 1974), and thermal and mass loads from animals (Beech, 1991~.
Low humidity can contribute to respiratory distress; and coughs, pneumonitis,
and other problems can follow. High humidity impairs efficient body-
cooling (Beech, 1991).
Ventilation
Ventilation serves multiple functions. It supplies oxygen; removes heat
generated by animals, lights, and equipment; dilutes gaseous contaminants;
and helps to control the effects of infiltration and exfiltration (slough and
Gamble, 1976; Edwards et al., 1983~. Gorton et al. (1976) have reported a
method for estimating laboratory animal heat loads.
Indoor facilities must be sufficiently ventilated when dogs are present
to provide for their comfort and well-being and to minimize odors, ammo-
nia concentrations, drafts, and moisture condensation. Auxiliary ventilation
must be provided when the ambient temperature is 29.5°C (85°F) or higher
(9 CFR 3.2b). It is commonly thought that 10-15 volumetric changes per
hour with outside air must be provided to animal rooms and that air must
not be recirculated. As a consequence, animal facilities are generally venti
OCR for page 18
18
DOGS: LABORATORY ANIMAL MANAGEMENT
lated with "one-pass" air, although the Guide (NRC, 1985a) includes provi-
sions for alternative methods of providing equal or more effective ventila-
tion. Besch (1992) has reviewed alternative methods of ventilation.
Ventilation system design and construction considerations include the
following:
Diffusers and exhaust openings should be located and controlled to
prevent drafts.
· Outside openings and exhaust-ventilation grillework should be screened
to prevent entry of vermin. Screening should be cleaned regularly.
· Air pressure in clean areas and animal rooms should be greater than
that in public and refuse areas. Where pathogenic organisms are present, a
negative-pressure system is necessary.
· Ventilating mechanisms should be equipped with suitable alarm sys-
tems that will be activated if the temperature moves outside the desired
range or if power fails.
.
.
Supplemental exhaust fans or exhaust systems increase drying and
reduce humidity when fixed equipment is being washed. If such systems
are used, they should be permanently mounted in external windows or wall
openings, their frames should be sealed to the building structure, and the
systems should be screened.
· Emergency power sources should be available in case of power fail
ure.
Power and Lighting
Electric systems should be safe, furnish appropriate lighting, and pro-
vide a sufficient number of outlets. Lighting systems should allow for
either manual or timer-controlled changes in illumination levels or photope-
riods, and timer performance should be checked regularly. Lighting fix-
tures, switches, and outlets should be sealed to prevent entry or harboring
of vermin. Moistureproof switches and outlets should be installed where
water is used in cleaning. Emergency power should be available.
Illumination must be adequate and uniformly diffuse throughout each
animal room to allow proper cleaning and housekeeping, to permit inspec-
tion of animals, and to maintain the animals' well-being (9 CFR 3.2c).
Light levels of 323 lx (30 ft-candles), measured 1.0 m (3.3 It) above the
floor, appear to provide sufficient illumination for routine animal care (Bellhorn,
1980; NRC, 1985a). A regular diurnal lighting cycle must be provided (9
CFR 3.2c).
OCR for page 19
HUSBANDRY
Noise Control
19
Barking dogs can be a nuisance both to personnel working in animal
facilities and to the adjacent population. Self-generated noise of 80-110 dl3
(Peterson, 1980; Sierens, 1976) has been measured in dog rooms. The
effects of noise on animals are reviewed in the Guide (NRC, 1985a).
Noise-control measures should be implemented in both indoor and out-
door environments. Sound transmission can be reduced by using concrete
to build walls, covering concrete walls with sound-attenuating material, and
eliminating windows (NRC, 1985a). Pekrul (1991) has discussed other
means of decreasing noise in animal facilities. Sound-attenuating materials
may be bonded to walls or ceilings only if they can be sanitized and will not
harbor vermin. Outdoor runs must be designed and constructed to comply
with local noise ordinances.
Chemicals and Toxic Substances
Many of the chemicals used in animal facilities for cleaning, sanitizing,
pest control, and other purposes can be toxic to housed animals and person-
nel. In addition, some materials used in construction for coating surfaces
can react with certain cleaning and sanitizing agents to produce toxic gases,
including chlorine. Where possible, the use of chemicals should be avoided.
For example, adequate ventilation is more effective than chemicals in elimi-
nating most animal-room odors, provided that air inlets are not placed near
the building exhaust. Newberne and Fox (1978) and Besch (1990) have
reviewed chemicals and other toxicants found in animal facilities.
Where chemical agents must be employed, it is essential to be familiar
with their potential toxicity and to develop procedures for using and dispos-
ing of them properly. Noxious chemicals should not be used to clean
animal facilities. Adequate rinsing is essential to prevent the skin irritation
or allergic reactions that can be caused by some cleaning and sanitizing
agents (e.g., pine oil).
Primary Enclosures
Primary enclosures should facilitate research while maintaining the health
and well-being of the dogs. They must confine dogs securely, enable them
to remain clean and dry, protect them from injury, and contain sufficient
;; ~o allow Rem lo sit, ~e, stand, rum around, and walk normally (9
CFR 3 6a). The design should allow inspection of cage or pen occupants
without disturbing them and provide easy access to feeding and watering
devices for filling, changing, cleaning, and servicing.
~ ~ ~ _ ~ _ ~ 1 1 _ _ _ .1 ~1 · . ~
OCR for page 20
20
DOGS: LABORATORY ANIMAL MANAGEMENT
Cages or pens should be fabricated of smooth, moisture-impervious,
corrosion-resistant materials that can be easily sanitized and sterilized. Floors
must be constructed to preclude entrapping toes, dew claws, or collars.
Expanded metal or plastic-covered metal mesh is satisfactory for pens or
runs, provided that the dogs' feet cannot pass through the openings (9 CFR
3.6a2x). Pen floors must have adequate drainage.
Each cage and pen should have a hinged or sliding door that covers the
opening sufficiently to prevent escape of the occupants. Each door should
have a latch that holds the door securely closed.
Space Recommendations
The AWRs require that the floor space for each dog equal at least the
"mathematical square of the sum of the length of the dog in inches (mea-
sured from the tip of its nose to the base of its tail) plus 6 inches t15.24
cm]," expressed in square feet (9 CFR 3.6cli,. In addition, the interior
height of each enclosure must be "at least 6 inches t15.24 cm] higher than
the head of the tallest dog in the enclosure when it is in a normal standing
position" (9 CFR 3.6cliii). Each bitch with nursing pups must be given
additional floor space based on breed and behavioral characteristics and in
accordance with generally accepted husbandry practices, as determined by
the attending veterinarian (9 CFR 3.6clii). The additional space for each
nursing pup must be at least 5 percent of the minimum required for the
bitch, unless otherwise approved by the attending veterinarian (9 CFR 3.6clii).
Minimal space recommendations for dogs are also given in the Guide (NRC,
1985a, p. 14~. These requirements and recommendations are based prima-
rily on professional judgment and convention.
The few scientific studies on this subject have focused on how enclo-
sure size affects movement, activity patterns, and physical fitness. Clark et
al. (1991) found no decreases in physical fitness, as measured by heart rate
and muscle enzyme (succinate dehydrogenase) activity, when dogs were
housed in cages or runs of various sizes that complied with federal stan
~ - 1 _ _ _1 _ _ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ _ _ . ~ ~ ~ . ~ V1_ A _
clarets and gulclellnes; However, modest Decreases in llr~less Wt;1~ l(JUllU WllC:11
dogs were housed in cages smaller than mandated by the AWRs. It has
been shown that, in general, dogs are more active in pens and runs than in
cages; however, dogs housed in the largest enclosures are not always the
most active (Hefts et al., 1992; Hits et al., 1977; Hughes and Campbell,
1990; Hughes et al., 1989; Neamand et al., 1975~. Enclosure size has not
been demonstrated to affect the musculoskeletal system (Newton, 1972),
cortisol concentrations (Campbell et al., 1988; Clark et al., 1991), or se-
lected measures of immune function (Campbell et al., 1988~. Although they
provide interesting and relevant information, the studies do not provide
OCR for page 21
HUSBANDRY
21
sufficient objective, scientific data on which to base space requirements for
dogs.
To set standards based on scientific data, one must show a correlation
between cage size and behavioral well-being. That poses two problems: it
is not clear how to define and measure behavioral well-being, and the deter-
mination of well-being depends on human interpretations of the data. Move-
ment and activity patterns are unlikely to be sensitive behavioral measures,
because a dog's activity can be increased without improving its well-being
(e.g., if there is locomotor stereotypy or increased activity caused by social
isolation or competition for space). Moreover, the definition of movement
varies between studies, so it is difficult to compare and interpret results. It
is generally accepted that a variety of perspectives are needed to assess
well-being, including measures of physical health, of neuroendocrine and
immunologic responses to stress, of the ability to respond effectively to
social and nonsocial environments, and of behavior. Scientific data on dogs
are inadequate to support any such assessment relative to enclosure size.
EXERCISE AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENRICHMENT
The requirements for providing opportunities for dogs to exercise are
specified in the AWRs (9 CFR 3.8~. The following paragraph summarizes
the AWRs now in effect. It is incumbent on the reader to keep abreast of
changes that might occur as the result of further federal court or USDA
actions.
Dogs over 12 weeks old, except bitches with litters, must be given the
opportunity for regular exercise if they are kept individually in cages, pens,
or runs that are less than 2 times the AWR-required floor space. Dogs
housed in groups do not require exercise periods, provided that the total
floor space of the cages, pens, or runs equals the sum of-the AWR-required
spaces for the dogs if housed individually. If a dog is housed without
sensory contact with other dogs, it must receive positive physical contact
with humans at least once a day. Forced-exercise programs (e.g., swim-
ming or walking on treadmills or carousel devices) are not considered to
comply with the AWRs. Each institution is responsible for developing a
plan for providing exercise. The plan must be approved by the attending
veterinarian and must be made available to USDA on request. Exceptions
to the requirement for exercise can be made by the attending veterinarian
case by case or, if exercise is inappropriate for a scat ntific protocol, by the
institutional animal care and use committee (IACLJC) In the former in-
stance, the exemption from exercise must be reviewed every 30 days, unless
it was granted because of a permanent condition (9 CFR 3.8d). In the latter
instance, exemptions must be reviewed at appropriate intervals, as deter-
mined by the IACUC, but not less often than every 6 months (9 CFR 2.31)
OCR for page 24
24
DOGS: LABORATORY ANIMAL MANAGEMENT
consulted by those designing exercise and social interaction plans or when
other questions arise concerning the behavioral well-being of dogs.
FOOD
Selecting Optimal Rations
Many commercially available dog foods contain all essential nutrients
in their required proportions, as outlined in Nutrient Requirements of Dogs
(NRC, 1985b) and the Association of American Feed Control Officials'
Official Publication 1993 (AAFCO, 1993~. These foods are manufactured
in dry, semimoist, and canned forms. Dogs should be fed only complete
and balanced diets. Specific procedures should be followed to ensure that
stored foods do not become deficient in nutrients (NRC, 1985a).
Diet quality can be evaluated by examining the label for a statement of
nutritional adequacy, which must be present on all dog-food products sold
across state lines. This statement informs the purchaser whether the prod-
uct has been approved for use as a complete ration for specified life stages
(i.e., growth, maintenance, or pregnancy and lactation). Approval is ob-
tained by one of the following means:
· Each of the diet's individual ingredients is analyzed for all essential
nutrients; the sum of these nutrients in all ingredients must meet or exceed
the nutritional requirements of the animal for specified life stages.
.
The product itself is chemically analyzed and shown to meet or ex
ceed the essential-nutrient requirements for specified life stages.
.
The product passes a feeding trial as specified by the Association of
American Feed Control Officials.
If the product fails to be approved, it must be labeled for use as a
dietary supplement only and is not appropriate for use as a dog food. Of the
three means of approval, only the feeding trial evaluates the availability of
the nutrients in the product. Dog foods approved by that method should be
used whenever possible. If such a diet cannot be used, because it would
interfere with the experimental design (e.g., nutritional studies with purified
diets), the manufacturer of the diet to be used should be consulted about
experience with the diet's performance under given conditions.
Many commercially available dog foods, although designed for a speci-
fied life stage, are approved and adequate for use during all life stages.
Most growth formulations will meet the requirements for gestation, lacta-
tion, and maintenance. Similarly, most gestation-lactation products also
meet requirements for growth and maintenance. Some foods intended for
maintenance will meet the criteria for more than one life stage. However,
OCR for page 25
HUSBANDRY
25
no food should be used for growth, gestation, and lactation unless its label
states that it meets or exceeds nutrient requirements for these life stages.
Special therapeutic diets are available for dogs with specific nutrient
requirements caused by the presence of disease (Kirk and Bonagura, 1992;
Lewis et al., 1987~. Such diets should be fed only under the supervision of
. .
a veterinarian.
Feeding
Most commercial rations are formulated to meet all nutrient require-
ments if a dog eats enough to fulfill its caloric requirements. Estimates of
daily caloric requirements can be obtained from several sources, including
the manufacturer of the specific food being used. These estimates can be
used to initiate feeding programs, but they might need substantial modifica-
tion because of variations in metabolic rates of individual dogs.
Under most kennel conditions, meal feeding is preferable to free-choice
feeding, and individual feeding is preferable to group feeding for the fol-
lowing reasons:
· Restricted feeding has been shown to decrease the incidence of metabolic
bone disease in growing dogs that mature at greater than 30 lb (Kealy et al.,
1992).
.
Restricted feeding has been shown to decrease the incidence of obe-
sity in young beagles and Labrador retrievers (Kendall and Burger, 1980~.
· The continual ingestion of small amounts of food observed in free-
choice feeding programs stimulates oral bacterial growth and might pro-
mote dental disease and gingivitis (Dr. John Saidla, Department of Clinical
Sciences, New York State College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell Univer-
sity, Ithaca, N.Y., unpublished).
· When dogs are fed in groups, dominant dogs might overeat and might
prevent subordinate dogs from eating enough to fulfill their daily needs.
· When dogs are fed individually, their food intake can be monitored.
Some kennels have successfully used free-choice feeding to maintain
dogs. This practice is most successful when the diet used is a food of
relatively low energy density and palatability.
Dogs must be fed at least once a day, except as required for adequate
. .. . . . . ~. .
veterinary care (9 CFR 3.9a). Each healthy adult dog should be fed enough
to maintain its optimal body weight; this amount will vary with the environ-
ment and with the dog's age, sex, breed, temperament, and activity. Within
an individual breed, there is often a wide variety of normal sizes. It is
better to evaluate a dog's size according to how it looks and how it feels
than according to body weight alone. With the hands-on approach, a dog's
.
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26
DOGS: LABORATORY ANIMAL MANAGEMENT
rib cage, spinous processes, and ileal wings should be easily palpable. They
should not protrude from under the skin, nor should they be buried under a
layer of adipose tissue. Once an adult dog is being maintained at its ideal
body size, its weight can be used as a reference for future evaluation of
food requirement. However, the loss of muscle mass and gain of adipose
tissue, such as are observed in several endocrine disorders, and shifts in
-
fluid balance might make body weight an inaccurate means of assessing
nutritional status; therefore, body weight should not completely replace ap-
pearance and feel as assessment methods.
_
Contaminants
Animal-colony managers should be judicious in purchasing, transport-
ing, storing, and handling food to ensure that it does not introduce diseases,
potential disease vectors, or parasites. Food must be stored in a manner that
prevents spoilage, contamination, and vermin infestation. Open bags must
be stored in leakproof containers with tightly fitting lids (9 CFR 3.1e; NRC,
1985a).
Contaminants in food can have dramatic effects on biochemical and
physiologic processes. In general, food for dogs should not be manufac-
tured or stored in facilities used for farm foods or any products containing
additives, such as rodenticides, insecticides, hormones, antibiotics, fumi-
gants, or other potential toxicants.
WATER
Ordinarily, all dogs should receive fresh, clean, potable water ad libi-
tum. If water is not continuously available, the AWRs require that it be
made available at least twice a day for at least 1 hour each time, unless it is
restricted by the attending veterinarian (9 CFR 3.101.
Watering devices can be either portable or self-watering. Self-watering
devices are convenient and reduce labors but they require scheduled obser-
vations to ensure proper function.
Portable watering devices should be
easily removable for daily rinsing and periodic sanitizing.
BEDDING AND RESTING APPARATUSES
Bedding can be used in some husbandry situations. For example, if
drains are not available, it can be used as an absorbent to help to keep dogs
clean and dry. Kinds of bedding typically used for dogs are wood shavings
and shredded paper. Bedding must be stored in a manner that protects it
from contamination and vermin infestation (9 CFR 3.1e).
Resting apparatuses, especially those made of high-density polyethyl
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HUSBANDRY
27
ene (Britz, 1990), are useful for minimizing loss of body heat from dogs in
postoperative recovery, dogs in ill health, and young pups with poorly de-
veloped heat-control mechanisms.
SANITATION
The schedule for cleaning and disinfecting dog facilities will vary ac-
cording to the physical makeup of pens, cages, or runs and other factors.
Generally, primary enclosures should be cleaned as needed and sanitized at
least once every 2 weeks. Excrement pans and runs should be cleaned
daily. If pens and runs composed of materials that cannot be sanitized (e.g.,
gravel, sand, or pea stone) are used, the contaminated materials should be
replaced as often as necessary to prevent odors, diseases, and vermin infes-
tation. Procedures outlined in the AWRs (9 CFR 3.11) should be followed.
Dogs must be removed before the floors of primary enclosures are thor-
oughly cleaned. Primary enclosures containing bitches near parturition,
dams with litters, or dogs in quarantine require a cleaning schedule that
disturbs them as little as possible.
Equipment and peripheral areas should be cleaned according to the
recommendations of the Guide (NRC, 1985a). Waste should be removed
regularly and frequently, and safe, sanitary procedures should be used to
collect and discard it (NRC, 1985a).
IDENTIFICATION AND RECORDS
Identification
Each dog held in a research facility must be marked either with the
official USDA tag or tattoo that was on the dog at the time it was acquired
or with a tag, tattoo, or collar applied by the facility that individually iden-
tifies the dog by number (9 CFR 2.38gl).
Unweaned puppies need not be individually numbered as long as they
are maintained in the same primary enclosure as their dam (9 CFR 2.38g3~.
However, they can be marked for identification with a variety of methods.
Colored yarns or spots made with such marking substances as nail polish or
paint provide a quick visual reference. Subcutaneous dots can be made by
injecting a small amount of tattoo ink beneath the abdominal skin with a
tuberculin syringe and 25-gauge needle. Ink dots should be placed in a
different location for each pup (e.g., left axilla and right side of abdomen).
The location or pattern of the dots and the sex and markings of each pup
provide individual identification until permanent tattoos can be applied.
Tattooing of the inner surface of a dog's ear is common. Before the
tattoo is applied, the ear should be cleaned thoroughly. Tattoos can be
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28
DOGS: LABORATORY ANIMAL MANAGEMENT
applied with special pliers or an electrovibrator. A tattoo might have to be
reapplied after several years. An ancillary method for individually identify-
ing dogs uses a subcutaneously implanted, permanently encoded microchip
(transponder) that, when activated by an electronic scanner, broadcasts the
encoded number; the scanner transfers the broadcast to a processor that
produces either a digital readout or a printed copy. This identification
system can be useful during daily examination of dogs being used in stud-
ies, but it has not been approved by USDA as the sole source of identifica-
tion because there is no standard implantation site, no standardized scanner,
and no definitive information on whether the microchip migrates from the
implantation site. USDA has approved the trial use of the microchips for a
few commercial organizations (Richard L. Crawford, Assistant Deputy Ad-
ministrator for Animal Care, Regulatory Enforcement and Animal Care,
APHIS, USDA, Beltsville, Md., personal communication, 1993~.
Record-Keeping
Record-Keeping for Scientists and Animal-Care Staff
A life-long, day-to-day log of individual events and experimental pro-
cedures experienced by each dog especially surgery, postsurgical analge-
sia, and other veterinary interventions-should be carefully maintained. The
log will assist animal-care personnel in providing appropriate care, investi-
gators in interpreting research results, and the institution in preparing its
annual report to USDA (9 CFR 2.36~. Computer programs for maintaining
such logs are commercially available (Riley and Blackford, 19914. For
small colonies, hand-kept records on each dog might be more appropriate.
McKelvie and Shultz (1964) described a record system for long-term stud-
ies that is still relevant; it covers clinical examination and includes a coded
daily log entry of all events that the animal has experienced.
Records Required by Federal Regulations
Research facilities are obliged to maintain records on procurement, transport,
and disposal of all dogs and an inventory of dogs in the facility. When dogs
are procured, facilities are required to obtain detailed information on the
seller including name, address, USDA license or registration number or
vehicle license number and state and a description of each dog (9 CFR
2.35b). Likewise, when a dog is transferred to another owner, records must
include the name and address of the purchaser, the date and method of
transport, and a certificate of health (9 CFR 2.35c). Additional information
is available in the section of this chapter entitled "Transportation."
A variety of forms are available to assist institutions in keeping records.
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HUSBANDRY
29
Among them are USDA Interstate and International Certificate of Health
Examination for Small Animals (VS Form 18-1), Record of Dogs and Cats
on Hand (VS Form 18-5), and Record of Disposition of Dogs and Cats (VS
Form 18-6~. These forms can be obtained from Regulatory Enforcement
and Animal Care, APHIS, USDA, Federal Building, Room 565, 6505 Belcrest
Road, Hyattsville, MD 20782 (telephone: 301-436-7833~. All records should
be maintained for at least 3 years (9 CFR 2.35f).
Records must also be maintained on all offspring born to dogs in the
colony (9 CFR 2.35b) and on exceptions to the requirements for exercise (9
CFR 3.8d). Facilities conducting research on any vertebrate animal, includ-
ing dogs, are obliged to maintain additional records that include the follow-
~ng:
· minutes of meetings of the IACUC;
· semiannual IACUC reports;
· protocols involving animal use;
· scientifically justified deviations from the AWRs; and
· studies involving pain in which analgesics cannot be used.
Some of the information must be reported annually to USDA (9 CFR
2.361; other information, such as approved protocols, must be maintained
for 3 years after the study ends (9 CFR 2.35f).
EMERGENCY, WEEKEND, AND HOLIDAY CARE
Dogs should be observed and cared for by qualified personnel every
day, including weekends and holidays, as outlined in the Guide (NRC, 1985a).
Emergency veterinary care should be available after working hours and on
weekends and holidays. For dogs undergoing particular experimental pro-
cedures and dogs with conditions that might require emergency care, inves-
tigators should develop written protocols and provide appropriate additional
coverage.
TRANSPORTATION
Transportation over long distances is known to be a stressor for ani-
mals. Proper attention to environmental conditions, cage design, and care
in transit will minimize the stress. The AWRs specify the requirements for
transporting dogs (9 CFR 3.13-3.19~. Before a dog is transported, special
arrangements must be made between the shipper (consignor), the carriers)
or intermediate handlers, and the recipient (consignee). The shipper must
certify that the dog was offered food and water during the 4 hours before
delivery to the carrier and must prepare a written certification, which must
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30
DOGS: LABORATORY ANIMAL MANAGEMENT
be securely attached to the cage and must contain the shipper's name and
address, the animal identification number, the time and date when the dog
was last offered food and water, specific instructions for feeding and water-
ing the dog for a 24-hour period, and the signature of the shipper with the
date and time when the certification was signed.
Primary Enclosures
Carriers must not accept dogs for shipment if their primary enclosures
do not meet the requirements of the AWRs (9 CFR 3.14~. The primary
enclosure must be large enough to allow a dog to turn around while stand-
ing, to stand and sit erect, and to lie in a natural position. Primary enclo-
sures must be structurally sound, free of internal protrusions that could
cause injury, constructed of nontoxic materials, and able to withstand the
normal rigors of transportation. The container must secure the animal and
all parts of its body inside the enclosure. Devices, such as handles, must be
attached to the outside to allow the container to be lifted without tilting.
The container must have a leakproof, solid floor or have a raised floor and a
leakproof collection tray. If animals are housed directly on the floor, absor-
bent bedding material must be provided. Primary enclosures must be cleaned
and any litter replaced if dogs are in transit for more than 24 hours. Pri-
mary enclosures should be well ventilated to minimize the potential for a
thermal gradient during shipment. Additional specifications for transport
cages are in the AWRs (9 CFR 3.14) and the IATA Live Animal Regulations
(IATA, 1993 et send.
Puppies 4 months old or younger must not be transported in the same
primary enclosure with adult dogs other than their dams. For puppies shipped
during sensitive periods of behavioral development (i.e., 8-14 weeks of age;
see Scott and Fuller, 1965), shipping stress should be minimized. Dogs
likely to display aggressive behavior must be shipped individually, and
females in heat must not be transported in the same primary enclosures as
males. No more than two live puppies 8 weeks to 6 months old, of compa-
rable size, and weighing 9 kg (20 lb) or less each may be transported by air
in the same primary enclosure. Older dogs and puppies weighing more than
9 kg (20 lb) should be individually housed. Weaned littermates that are less
than 8 weeks old and are accompanied by their dam may be transported in
the same enclosure to research facilities, either by air or surface transport.
During transport by surface vehicle, no more than four dogs 8 weeks old or
older and of comparable size may be transported in the same primary enclo
sure.
When viral-antibody-free (unvaccinated) dogs are transported between
facilities, precautions must be taken to avoid contact with infectious agents.
Some commercial suppliers have developed filtered shipping containers to
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HUSBANDRY 31
transport those dogs. IATA rules require that special measures be taken to
ensure that ventilation rates are maintained within the container, that the
container be appropriately labeled, that sufficient water be provided for the
entire journey, and that food, if required, be provided at the point of origin
(IATA, 1993~.
Environmental Conditions
At all times, containers holding dogs should be placed in climate-con-
trolled areas that provide protection from the elements (9 CFR 3.13, 3.15,
3.18-3.19~. Trucks and planes must be ventilated and provide air that has
adequate oxygen and is free of harmful gases and particulate contaminants.
Airlines should always place dogs in pressurized compartments. Dogs may
be shipped if temperatures will fall below 7.2°C (45°F) during any portion
of their journey only if a veterinarian certifies in writing that they have
been acclimated to lower temperatures and states the lowest temperature to
which they have been acclimated. During transit, dogs must not be exposed
to ambient temperatures exceeding 29.4°C (85°F) for a period of more than
4 hours.
Food and Water
All dogs must be offered food and water within 4 hours of delivery to
the carrier (9 CFR 3.13c). Carriers must offer water to each dog at 12-hour
intervals beginning 12 hours after the shipper last offered water. Adult
dogs must be fed at least once every 24 hours, and puppies less than 16
weeks old must be fed every 12 hours throughout the trip. Feeding and
watering utensils must be firmly secured to the inside of the container and
placed so that they can be filled from outside the container. Written in-
structions for feeding and watering in transit must be attached to the pri-
mary enclosure in such a way that they are easily seen and read (9 CFR
3.16).
Other Requirements
There are special requirements for animal holding areas of terminal
facilities, including rules for sanitization, pest control, ventilation, tempera-
ture control, and shelter from direct sunlight, rain, snow, and extreme heat
(9CFR3.18).
Each dog must be accompanied by a health certificate, issued by a
licensed veterinarian not more than 10 days before shipping, that states that
the dog is free of any infectious disease or physical abnormality that would
endanger it or other animals or pose a threat to public health. An exemp
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32
DOGS: LABORATORY ANIMAL MANAGEMENT
lion can be made by the secretary of USDA for individual animals shipped
to research facilities if the facilities require animals that are not elegible for
certification (9 CFR 2.78b). Instructions for the administration of drugs or
provision of other special care must be firmly attached to the outside of the
container (9 CFR 3.14h). A pregnant bitch should be accompanied by a
certificate, signed by a veterinarian, that states that there is no risk of birth
during transit (IATA, 1993~.
Carriers and intermediate handlers must not accept dogs more than 4
hours before the scheduled departure (6 hours by special arrangement). An
attempt must be made to notify the recipient on arrival at the destination
and at least once every 6 hours thereafter (9 CFR 3.13f). During shipment
by surface transportation, the operator of the conveyance or someone ac-
companying the operator must observe the dogs at least once every 4 hours
to ascertain that they have sufficient air for normal breathing and are not in
distress and that the rules for ambient temperature and all other AWR re-
quirements are met. The same rules apply in air carriers if the animal cargo
area is accessible during flight. If it is not accessible, the carrier must
observe the dogs at loading and unloading. Dogs in physical distress must
receive veterinary care as soon as possible (9 CFR 3.17~.
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Representative terms from entire chapter:
primary enclosures
