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PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE TEACHERS
A Guide for Scientists
Any society that is serious about the education of its children must be equally
serious about supporting the continuing education of those charged with that task.
If we are to meet the needs of diverse students and the nation's needs for scientifi-
cally literate citizens and skilled workers, it is essential that teachers have the
opportunity to continue to expand their knowledge, pedagogical skills, and labo-
ratory expertise from their undergraduate education through their professional
careers.
Rapid and extensive improvement of science education is unlikely to occur
until it becomes clear to scientists that they have an obligation to become in-
volved in elementary- and secondary-level science. In this chapter, we describe
ways to interest more scientists in becoming involved in professional-develop-
ment programs for science teachers, suggest ways that scientists can contribute
most effectively, describe various types of programs, and suggest ways to gain
administrative support for these programs. This chapter builds on the summary
of characteristics of effective programs in Chapter 2.
GETTING STARTED
Many scientists are ready to get involved, but few know where to begin.
Scientists from both academe and industry describe several common motivations
for their involvement in professional development. Many say that they "simply
love to teach" and believe that science education is so important that they will
take an active role, whether or not they are rewarded externally. Others discover
from their own children or grandchildren in school how poor science education
30
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A GUIDE FOR SCIENTISTS
can be and how their children are turned away from learning science. Many
scientists want to do something because they have found that many students in
introductory undergraduate courses are poorly prepared and not motivated to
learn science. Industrial scientists, in particular, share the widespread concern
that the schools are not producing the workforce that industry needs both trained
scientists and technicians.)
Self-Education
As a first step, scientists thinking about getting involved in the professional
development of science teachers should assess their own teaching to determine
whether they are using effective methods of science education. They should
educate themselves about the professional lives of elementary- and secondary-
school teachers and about classroom science teaching. To assist in the process,
this chapter includes three vignettes describing a day in the life of an elementary-
school teacher, of a middle-school teacher, and of a high-school biology teacher;
they show some of the varied teaching experiences in American public schools
{For more information about industry's role in science education, we suggest Business and the
Schools, a guide to programs run by businesses for schools, published by the Council for Aid to
Education (1992). Because of the availability of this excellent publication, this section focuses pri-
marily on ways to involve academic scientists.
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PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE TEACHERS
today. Scientists should also familiarize themselves with school organization and
the roles of teachers, administrators, and parents.
Although there are many effective partnerships between teachers and scien-
tists, to expand effective professional-development programs teachers' and sci-
entists' understanding and appreciation of each other's responsibilities must be
improved. Their misconceptions about each other exist partly because there are
few opportunities for them to interact. Our discussions with teachers around the
country revealed that scientists were often perceived to be "threatening" and "not
interested" in working collaboratively. That stereotype is perpetuated by miscon-
ceptions held by some scientists that cause misunderstandings between them and
teachers, including the following:
.
Because scientists understand a topic, they know how to teach it.
· Because a topic is a scientist's lifelong interest, it will be interesting to
precollege teachers and students or be an appropriate part of the science curricu
lum.
· Because a topic is new, it must be better and should be included in the
curriculum.
· If teachers understood the scientific content better, they would automati-
cally be able to teach more effectively and to create new and better curricula.
If students and teachers are merely told correct information, they will
acquire the skills necessary to recognize correct information when they encounter
it.
.
Working collaboratively with teachers will help to dispel some of those
misconceptions. Several professional societies have workshops for teachers and
scientists to foster partnerships. These are described below. In addition, the
annotated reading list found in Appendix D should help scientists to minimize
misunderstandings and educate themselves about the world of teachers and stu-
dents, issues of teaching and learning, educational research, and current efforts in
science-education reform.
Initial Involvement
Before beginning work with teachers to plan a professional-development
program, scientists should initiate interactions with teachers and school adminis-
trators to become familiar with the needs of elementary- and secondary-school
science teachers and learn about the realities of the school system. If possible,
they should visit other programs or participate in workshops, for example, at
professional meetings. Most scientists' first inclination is to volunteer to give a
1- to 2-hour class presentation and discussion of their own research or a review of
their subject. That might be a good starting point if planned in conjunction with
the teacher. A valuable next step is to visit the elementary- or secondary-school
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A GUIDE FOR SCIENTISTS
33
science classroom of one of the teachers for at least an entire day. That gives the
scientist a bird' s-eye view of schools and allows him or her to witness teachers'
motivation in the face of the physical and financial constraints of the classroom.
As a followup activity, scientists can invite local teachers to campus and
structure special seminars at times convenient for teachers and on topics decided
on in consultation with the teachers. Scientists can foster open discussions about
teachers' needs, explore opportunities for future activities, and discuss the impli-
cations of collaboration for K-12 science teaching and learning. Scientists can
also invite teachers to a research laboratory for a demonstration that emphasizes
the processes of science. The one-on-one interaction between teachers and scien-
tists can lead to the involvement of teachers with postdoctoral fellows, graduate
students, and technicians. Teachers can gradually then become members of a
community of people "doing science."
The following vignettes describe a day in the life of school teachers at
various levels. They provide a snapshot of the nation's public schools through
the eyes of teachers and give scientists a glimpse of day-to-day life of the teach
ers.
A Day in the Life of One Elementary-School Teacher
I teach fourth-graders in an urban elementary school serving about 500 stu-
dents. My class of 32 students represents over 10 ethnic groups. Among my
students are several limited-English speakers, two former special-education stu-
dents who have been "mainstreamed" for the first time this year, and 14 from
families who live below the poverty level.
I have taught for 10 years. For 5 years, I taught at the second-grade level only;
since then, I have been assigned a different grade level each year. This summer,
I spent a good deal of my vacation preparing to teach fifth-graders; unfortunately,
2 weeks before school began, the principal placed me with a fourth-grade class
instead.
As always, I report to school a week early to put up attractive bulletin-board
displays (to hide the ugly walls), organize my ancient desks and tables, and pre-
pare instructional materials.
The first day arrives, and I learn that the district computer has miscalculated:
the number of students in my class is 32, not 30. The janitor quickly brings in two
additional chairs (no tables or desks are available). Of these students, 12 are
newly assigned. This year the school has many unexpected new students, forcing
the creation of a new class, which will be taught in the school library. Since the
library has fallen into disrepair over the last few years, there are no objections from
the staff.
I sign in at the office well before 8:00 a.m., the required time for teacher arrival.
I hurry to my room to complete some last-minute preparations.
About 40% of the students take district-provided buses. If the buses are late,
so are the students. Today, as the first bell rings at 8:25, most students enter the
old, two-story building. Teachers stand just outside their doors, as expected, to
welcome their classes and to monitor the halls. When the tardy bell rings at 8:30,
the halls are filled with the sound of doors slamming shut.
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PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE TEACHERS
I begin the day by assigning several math problems to students divided into
small groups. The problems contain material that will be covered later that morning
on a math test. Ten minutes pass, and I ask each group to present its work. The
presentations are interrupted when the cafeteria "count" person comes by and
yells out to one of his friends.
After presentations, I go over the math problems with the students and give
them individual math tests. I provide bilingual versions of the test to several limit-
ed-English-speaking students and another version for two special-education stu-
dents. The latter version includes a section for discussing the math problems with
me directly. The test takes approximately 30 minutes. The children then take their
morning recess.
Next, I facilitate literature-reading groups. Students are grouped by what they
choose to read that leads to a wide range of abilities in each group. Reading
activities last until 11:00, when students march to the multipurpose room serving
as our cafeteria. I take a hurried 20 minutes for lunch, then return to my classroom
to prepare for the afternoon. Thirty minutes later I monitor the halls with other
teachers as the children come in from the playground.
Using several types of materials, I set up learning stations focusing on science
and art. Today, students have time to rotate through several stations. Next, we
spend 30 minutes discussing the history and culture of California, and I send them
out again for the designated afternoon recess.
The children return tired and hot from their combined "recess and physical
education" period. During the last period, I alternate daily between teaching "art
and music" and "science and health." Today I teach science. By the time the stu-
dents have completed their science activities, the 3:00 p.m. bell rings. I quickly
review homework assignments, pass out notices for parents, and dismiss the stu-
dents for the day.
All students have gone now, except for one who has been asked to stay late.
As he does his homework, I start my preparations for the next day. Next on my "to
do" list is to notify several parents by phone about some of my concerns about their
children's behavior in school. To get to the phone designated for teachers (limited
to local calls), I would have to go to the central office. I decide to remain in the
classroom with the detained student and make the calls later that evening.
After sending my student home at 4:00 p.m., I hurry down the hall for the month-
ly meeting of fourth-grade teachers. I am already familiar with the topic ("preparing
students for next month's standardized tests"), and so I try to grade a few math
tests during the meeting. Afterwards, I duplicate handouts for tomor-row's activi-
ties, finish classroom preparations, and gather today's math tests to grade. I hope
I have time to finish them before the "Open House" that evening at the school of my
own children.
A Day in the Life of One Middle-School Science Teacher
My day begins at 6:30 a.m. On the drive to school, I mentally review my plans
for the day. I think of my two seventh-grade environmental-studies classes for
which I have planned an activity on carbon dioxide. I remind myself to make sure
that I have enough solutions for the 34 students in the first class and the 31 stu-
dents in the second class and enough on reserve for the occasional accident.
Next, my thoughts turn to my three eighth-grade classes on plant science. The
Fast Plants unit has been a great success so far. Students have been coming into
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A GUIDE FOR SCIENTISTS
class early to check the progress of their plants, comparing the growth of various
sets and asking me to have a look at them. I enjoy watching the students interact;
their enthusiasm makes the class fun for me. As I drive, I am aware that this
commute is the only quiet time I will have to reflect all day.
I arrive at school and check the mail, finding the usual plethora of catalogs and
brochures filled with goodies that our small budget $100 per year cannot afford.
At 7:00 a.m., I go to the weekly faculty meeting, which offers a brief chance to
speak with colleagues. This week several teachers give small committee reports
on the designated meeting topic: integrated curriculum.
The meeting adjourns at 8:10 a.m., and I rush down the hall to unlock my
classroom door. Students pour into the room giggling, pushing, and shoving each
other playfully (for the most part). The first bell rings; 5 minutes later, we hear the
second bell and the school day begins. There are now 34 active bodies in my small
room. In 50 minutes, this group of students changes places with a group of 31
students, entering with the clamor of simultaneous chatter. At least five students
are calling my name or asking questions with urgency ("What are we going to do
today?" "Is this right?"). During this period, we have two interruptions over the
loudspeaker: a break to read the morning bulletin and a timeout to recite the Pledge
of Allegiance to the Flag. Another 50-minute period ends with the bell.
Five minutes later 33 eighth-graders enter the room. I turn my attention to a
new topic, using different equipment and teaching strategies to communicate the
appropriate concepts. This class, stocked with changing hormones, seems more
social and more boisterous than other classes. The unique challenge of this age
group is to keep up with the emotional roller coaster that dominates the dynamics
of the classroom; it calls for more of what I refer to as "nurturing and social work."
Another bell announces the 25-minute lunch period. There is no phone in my
classroom, so I rush to the school office to make some important parent phone
calls during this time. I have 10 minutes left for a cup of coffee with colleagues
before the next class begins.
After lunch, a group of 24 students comes into the room for "silent reading."
During this 20-minute interlude, the entire student population spends time reading
or doing homework. I am not in charge of assessing the students' work, but I am
often called on for assistance and attention. At the next bell, my conference period
begins. During the next 50 minutes, I talk with counselors about problems related
to my students, call more parents, mix solutions for laboratory exercises, read
mail, plan lessons, and grade papers. Unfortunately, I am unable to work in my
classroom because it is being used by another teacher.
Two classes later it is 3:00 p.m. By this time, I have met with 194 students who
have worked with me, leaned on me, laughed with me, and learned with me. At
3:30 p.m., I leave school for a meeting at the central office. Like all my colleagues,
I serve on several districtwide committees. Today, I attend a meeting on technol-
ogy in the classroom.
Later, as I head home, I reflect on this day's events for the first time. I have
spent at least a third of my time on "social work" (negotiating conflicts between
students, learning about difficulties that have kept students from completing their
homework, listening to problems at home, listening to jokes, trying to get kids to
focus, and disciplining those who get out of line), about 90 minutes in meetings,
and 10 minutes conversing with colleagues. I have had no "think time" no time to
reflect on my teaching, my students, or other areas of my life. I have a stack of 97
papers to grade, and I still have to stop by K-Mart to get materials for the next day's
lab with my own money.
35
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PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE TEACHERS
A Day in the Life of One High-School Biology Teacher
When I began teaching at Normal High School, I did not have my own class-
room. I used a cart for my laboratory supplies. I would set up a laboratory exercise
in one classroom before first period, teach the lab, dismantle it, and rush to the
next class. This took place for three consecutive periods. After several years of
teaching, I now have my own classroom and I no longer use a cart to store my
supplies. I am teaching an advanced-placement biology course and two honors
courses.
At 8:20 a.m., my day begins with a free period. I prepare laboratory exercises
during this time and then teach classes during the next three periods. After three
morning classes, at 1 1:35 a.m. I become a lunchroom monitor. I have no time
during this period to review teaching material, work with students, or prepare for
afternoon activities.
At 12:15 p.m., I use my own lunch period to prepare for the upcoming double
period of AP biology. The laboratory exercises for this class require significant
preparation. I try with little time, microscopes that were purchased in the 1 960s,
and no teaching assistant to simulate a college-level laboratory experience.
There is no time for the five biology teachers at Normal to assist each other with
these kinds of preparation or to share our teaching experiences. Last summer I
made an attempt to collaborate with some colleagues on the revision of a labora-
tory manual with funding from an Eisenhower grant. The project was not entirely
successful, because of administrative criticism and lack of support.
The labs take me straight through to the end of the school day. I clean up,
prepare materials for the next day, schedule guest speakers for future AP classes,
correct labs, grade exams, work with student leaders in the National Honor Society
(for which I am the adviser), collect new laboratory materials in local stores or
ponds, and purchase pet food and shavings. I use my own money to purchase
these supplies because the money is not available from the school district. I am
owed over $100 that I spent on materials; I do not expect to be reimbursed.
Since I began at the school, the expendable part of the AP budget has been
reduced to one-fourth, and the laboratory exercises have become more sophisti-
cated. Colleagues at the local university have donated some of the reagents and
supplies for the exercises; others have been given by ABC Research. The local
university has recently started to give area teachers its excess equipment and
glassware from its laboratories. Unfortunately, these supplies are scarce. There
is a circulating rumor that there is going to be another cut in the district's science
budget.
I spend the evening preparing classroom materials for the following day.
CONTRIBUTING MOST EFFECTIVELY
Roland Barth, a former principal, wrote in Improving Schools from Within
(1990~:
Perhaps the most influential contribution a university can make in assisting
teachers, parents, and principals in improving their schools is to convey prestige
and respectability to them.... Recognition these days is the commodity in
greatest supply in universities and in shortest supply to teachers and principals.
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37
Scientists can contribute to the professional development of teachers in many
ways. They can contribute directly by sharing their scientific knowledge, their
understanding of the processes of scientific research, and their individual profes-
sional experience. They can also contribute in less-tangible ways. For example,
scientists' involvement builds teachers' optimism about the eventual success of a
program and builds the program' s credibility among parents, administrators, stu-
dents, and even funding agencies. Scientists' specific contributions can be
summarized as follows:
· Scientists can support good science-process teaching by modeling scien-
tific processes what scientists do and how they do it. Scientists can work with
teachers to design inquiry-based laboratory exercises for use in K-12 classrooms
but should be careful not to underestimate the time that will be required for field
testing and development. This kind of collaboration helps to build a broader base
of investigative approaches in K-12 science laboratories. Scientists can also help
teachers to evaluate existing laboratory experiments, interpret data, and find rel-
evant connections to current research. In this way, student laboratory exercises
can be put into a research-oriented context.
· Scientists can provide accurate scientific content that also adds to the
teachers' understanding of scientific process. Content learning is an essential
part of science education, but content is best learned and retained when presented
in the context of the processes of science how science works. Directors of
programs that focus on inquiry-based and hands-on learning have observed that
once teachers have developed an understanding of scientific processes, they often
begin to seek out the content knowledge that can be used as a basis for inquiry
into real and immediate scientific questions (J. Bower, personal communication).
When teachers seek information themselves, it is likely to be successfully con-
nected to what they do in the classroom. The search for content to elucidate
inquiry-based teaching reverses the common approach of teaching content first.
The scientist can become an invaluable resource for teachers and their students
when the impetus to acquire content knowledge comes from inquiry-based expe-
riences. More important, this approach ensures that the content is relevant to the
teacher in the classroom, not just to what the scientist thinks the teacher should
know.
· Scientists can ensure the accuracy of scientific content of existing cur-
ricula by working with teachers to evaluate the accuracy of existing curricula and
textbooks. Scientists can help teachers to identify existing curricula and tailor
them to local needs. Developing new curricular materials, however, must be
done cautiously and with appropriate expertise because good curriculum design
takes money, many iterations, field testing, and dissemination. New discoveries
do have an intrinsic interest to students, but they need to be incorporated into a
coherent curriculum and be developed in an age-appropriate manner.
· Scientists can provide research opportunities for practicing teachers.
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PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE TEACHERS
Participating in laboratory or field research can provide teachers with experi-
ences that foster understanding of and excitement about the processes of sci-
ence the kinds of experiences that often are missing from their undergraduate
education. Research experiences, however, do not translate automatically into
improved inquiry-based teaching in the classroom, even if the teacher is invigo-
rated. For teachers to incorporate a new teaching strategy into classroom activi-
ties, they must practice, be coached by a team member, and analyze outcomes
(Joyce and Showers, 1980; Showers, 1985~. Once they have experienced and
accepted inquiry-based laboratory exercises, they are more likely to pursue new
content to elucidate the exercises, design their own laboratory exercises, and
teach in innovative ways. This scenario is enhanced through long-term support
and networking between teachers and scientists.
~ . . . . .
.
scientists can act as scientific mentors. Mentoring relationships can de-
velop early in the interactions between scientists and teachers, and these relation-
ships can grow into continuing, mutually beneficial partnerships. Many scien-
tists have reported that their interactions with teachers have resulted in improved
teaching in their own classes. Many teachers have reported that they have devel-
oped collegial interactions with scientists in university or industrial settings.
These professional relationships can lead to research experiences for teachers
during summers and other times convenient to teachers, collaborative review of
curricula, and grants for new scientific or educational projects.
· Scientists can provide connections to the rest of the scientific community.
Teachers are often isolated from the professional scientific community, so colle-
gial relationships with scientists can be an important link between the science and
science-education communities. Scientists can foster this linkage by including
teachers in seminars or lectures at the university or research facility, by inviting
teachers to spend time in research laboratories, by providing teachers with elec-
tronic-mail addresses at the university so that they can be connected to the scien-
tific community throughout the country through electronic networking, and by
encouraging and sponsoring teachers to become members of scientific and sci-
ence-education professional organizations.
· Scientists can assist in planning, conceptualizing, and writing grant pro-
posals for science-education projects. Successful professional scientists today
must have effective grant-writing skills. Teachers often do not have the time, nor
have they had the need, to develop those skills. The current financial conditions
of most public schools, however, make the need for outside funding of new
projects, or even of basic science instruction, critical. Scientists can provide a
valuable service by working with teachers to prepare grant proposals. Teachers
who develop these skills are in the best position to take advantage of federal and
private resources directed to science education.
· Scientists can provide teachers access to equipment, science journals,
and catalogs not usually available in schools. A particularly effective way to do
this is to prepare "kits" of equipment with everything needed for a group of
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39
students and to arrange for teachers to receive the kits when they are needed for
an exercise. This economizes on equipment cost by ensuring that equipment is
available when needed but does not need to be stocked and stored. It also makes
it possible for the teacher to concentrate on teaching, rather than on the logistics
of setting up a laboratory.
TYPES OF PROFESSIONAL-DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS
Once scientists become interested in professional development they can be-
come involved in many kinds of programs that will promote their effective con-
tributions. The overwhelming majority of programs that we reviewed were de-
signed for individual teachers who chose to participate. The various types of
programs for individual teachers are described below. In Chapter 6, we discuss
alternative types of programs designed for systemic reform of education through
programs that focus on groups of teachers or larger parts of the education system.
We believe that such systemic programs hold the greatest promise for an eventual
reform of science education that reaches all teachers and all students, but such
programs are complicated to initiate and sustain.
Scientists and teachers can choose from various professional-development
activities. We list here categories of individual programs in order of increasing
need for commitment on the part of the teachers and scientists involved. The
most common professional-development programs focus on activities in specific
topics, such as molecular biology, biotechnology, genetics, and ecology. Some
programs are open to all teachers in a specific region, school, district, or state;
others draw participants from a national pool through a selective application
process. Many kinds of institutions participate in professional-development pro-
grams for science teachers. They include 2- and 4-year colleges and universities,
museums, zoos, and science and technology centers.
Lectures and Seminars
Local universities, museums, and professional societies often sponsor indi-
vidual public lectures, lecture series, and seminars for science teachers. Indi-
vidual lectures usually occur during the school year on Saturdays, in the late
afternoons, or in evenings. The lecturer, usually a research scientist, often uses
the situation to introduce teachers to up-to-date science content. The effective-
ness of this approach depends on the lecturer's ability to communicate complex
research results in a way that meets the needs of the audience.
The same organizations often offer continuing seminar series that include
lectures followed by participant discussion. Sometimes, teachers find this format
on university campuses, where they can interact with faculty and graduate stu-
dents. Teachers are most likely to participate in these events if they take place
after school hours, if universities advertise them widely, if the teachers consider
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PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE TEACHERS
the subject matter to be important, and if they can be used to obtain continuing
education or graduate credit.
Lectures can be convenient and easy ways for scientists to begin their in-
volvement, but they might not be as effective in yielding classroom impact as
types of programs that promote more active participation. Lecture or seminar
content and presentation can often be irrelevant to the needs and interests of the
teachers, especially if they have not been adequately planned. If opportunities to
meet and plan with key teachers are provided, guest lecturers are more likely to
match their expertise to their audience and be able to engage its active participa-
tion. Some experienced scientist-speakers have incorporated classroom visits
and meetings with teachers as part of their presentation preparation.
Short Workshops
A common professional-development activity is a workshop, usually a 1- to
6-hour exploration of a specific topic. Workshops usually occur during staff-
development days allocated by school districts. They can be held at a school site,
a nearby college or university, a statewide professional-development gathering,
or a state or national teachers' convention. A common source of funding for such
workshops has been the Department of Education's Dwight D. Eisenhower Math-
ematics and Science Education State Grants program (see Appendix I for a dis-
cussion of funding). Teachers typically receive continuing-education credit rec-
ognized by local and state education agencies for attending these workshops.
The location of a workshop can have an impact on teachers and scientists.
For example, workshops held at a college or university can give the teachers a
chance to visit research laboratories. Workshops held in the schools give scien-
tists a chance to learn about teachers' working conditions and laboratory re-
sources. Exposure to elementary- and secondary-school teaching situations also
helps scientists to accommodate their strategies to teachers' circumstances.
Some colleges, universities, and other organizations have promoted both
lecture series and short workshops by establishing speakers' bureaus. Teachers
are encouraged to select from a list of scientists, often identified through profes-
sional societies. Scientists then help teachers to supplement their classroom
material by visiting classrooms or inviting teachers to visit their laboratories.
Communication between scientists and teachers helps scientists to present mate-
rial that fits into existing curricula.
It is often through short workshops, and thus interactions with teachers, that
scientists gain appreciation for the needs of teachers and become more interested
in and committed to science education. Poorly planned workshops can have the
opposite effect, disengaging both scientists and teachers.
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A GUIDE FOR SCIENTISTS
4
Summer Workshops or Institutes
National Science Foundation (NSF) summer institutes of the 1960s and early
1970s were popular and effective in increasing teachers' knowledge and enthusi-
asm for science, even if effects on students could not be measured (GAO, 1984~.
Similar content- and inquiry-based workshops have been developed in recent
years, and many are supported by NSF and other federal agencies.
Some institutes address misconceptions or lack of knowledge in specific
fields. In the life sciences, programs have focused on evolution, ecology, genet-
ics, or molecular biology and the techniques for gene isolation and manipulation.
Others have provided updates of basic concepts in light of modern information or
have focused on learning to use new tools in the classroom. Still other programs
have focused on the bioethical implications of new knowledge, particularly in
genetics, and exposed participants to techniques of ethical analysis and strategies
for conducting effective classroom discussions about ethical public policy.
Of the institutes we examined, the ones that best met our criteria for effec-
tiveness reinforced the processes of science by using activities that caused teach-
ers to rethink their own knowledge. Such programs incorporate both new infor-
mation and new interpretations. The continuing challenge for scientists and
teachers is to adjust their courses so that they examine the processes of science
through experiments and demonstrations for their students. Demonstrations with-
out experiments are discouraged in favor of real experiments. A number of
summer institutes and workshops (and some school-year workshops) offer inten-
sive hands-on laboratory training in new techniques and are designed to promote
transfer of laboratory skills and techniques to schools. In some instances, hands-
on laboratory exercises have been developed that are readily transferable to high-
school or even middle-school classrooms. Many of those exercises, however, are
expensive to implement, especially in school districts where science budgets are
low or nonexistent. Some of the best institutes included laboratory investigations
that tested hypotheses; these were developed through teacher-scientist partner-
ships. The institutes promoted teacher comfort with the procedures and interpre-
tations, thereby increasing the likelihood of their use in the classroom. Specific
kinds of workshops are considered below.
Learning to Use New Tools in the Classroom
In some school districts, computers have become an integral part of elemen-
tary- and secondary-school education. Nelson et al. (1992, p. 85) reported that
61% of eighth-graders and 79% of twelfth-graders attended schools that had a
computer laboratory (although there are few data on the use of computers specifi-
cally for science classes). Computers as a teaching tool are far more useful in the
science classroom although still uncommon than in a separate laboratory.
Professional-development programs have been designed to familiarize teachers
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with computers and their appropriate applications in classroom activities. Some
applications beyond word-processing are to collect real-time data, generate charts
and graphs for laboratory reports, analyze statistical data, and measure precisely
in the science laboratory.
Instruction in computing technology and networking through the modem can
be part of programs (see box). Every day, more information becomes available
on the Internet and World Wide Web. Laser disks and interactive videos are also
becoming more available in schools. Programs are available to assist teachers in
using these tools thoughtfully in the classroom and not merely as entertainment
devices. Their effective use depends greatly on the instructional strategies em-
bedded in the software or video or in the print materials that accompany them and
on adequate preparation of teachers. But poorly conceived educational software
abounds.
The experience of several programs has shown the difficulty of providing
basic computer services in schools. It is particularly difficult to secure funds and
permission for additional telephone lines for modem use. And teachers do not
have time to use computers at school even if they are available. Thus, providing
teachers with computers and modems for home use to promote their networking
with other teachers and with scientists is another effective use of computers for
teachers.
Development of Supplemental Curricula
Another type of professional-development program focuses on involving
science teachers in curriculum development. The underlying principle is that
teachers know best about teaching strategies and scientists about science. By
working together, they can develop or improve classroom and laboratory activi-
ties. Teachers who are involved in the programs then pilot test the materials in
their own classes and in some cases ask other teachers to field test the materials to
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identify problems. The result is new materials to supplement established cur-
ricula. Teachers become both advocates of new curricula and trainers of other
teachers. Although workshops might be a good way to develop supplementary
curricula, we caution against the use of professional-development activities to
develop curricular activities de novo. Curriculum-development programs are
expensive and take time. If quality control is not emphasized, new materials can
be used incorrectly and the programs might have little lasting impact.
Hands-on Programs Promoting Science Inquiry
A growing number of programs are designed to provide science teachers
with experiences that translate science into tasks that actively engage students in
the learning process. Science is taught by challenging students to explore scien-
tific concepts by engaging their senses of touch, sight, smell, and sound. These
activities have come to be known as "hands-on" science. Effective programs
have used the hands-on experience as a basis for student inquiry and developing
critical thinking skills. Professional-development programs built around hands-
on participation by teachers are designed to help teachers learn pedagogical tech-
niques that bring children into contact with the physical world. Hands-on activi-
ties have been shown to be an effective way to achieve inquiry-based learning,
especially in younger students. Increasingly, hands-on professional-develop-
ment programs involve teams of teachers from the same school or school district
and focus primarily on elementary-school teachers. These hands-on programs
are likely to lead to minds-on learning experiences for students.
Research Experiences for Teachers
Local universities, research institutions, and industrial and national laborato-
ries have increasingly become providers of summer research experiences for
science teachers. Teachers who work in scientists' laboratories are usually funded
by a stipend that comes from supplements to federal research grants, by grants
from professional societies, by special grants to national laboratories, or by in-
dustry. Successful programs take into account that a stipend must correspond to
a teacher's earning potential in other summer jobs. Research experiences typi-
cally last for 3-8 weeks in the summer. In the most effective programs, a teacher
becomes a part of the research-laboratory team. Such programs increase teach-
ers' understanding of the processes of science, expose them to the teamwork
required in modern research, and involve them in both the frustrations and fail-
ures and the rewards and successes of experimental science. Many scientists who
invite teachers into their laboratories find that such experiences educate the scien-
tists about teachers' needs and scientific backgrounds.
Some have found that the value of the research experience can be enhanced
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if several teachers are supported in a laboratory setting and then meet regularly
during the summer to exchange their experiences and to discuss ways to translate
the experiences into lesson plans. That process is an effective way to promote
direct transfer of new information into the classroom. Scientists' involvement in
the process gives them the opportunity to recognize the difficulties that teachers
face when transferring their research experiences into elementary- and second-
ary-school classrooms.
Examples of programs that bring teachers into research laboratories are the
Industry Initiatives for Science and Mathematics Education program in the San
Francisco Bay area, the Department of Energy's national laboratories, and the
Summer Scholars programs of the American Society for Biochemistry and Mo-
lecular Biology, the American Society for Cell Biology, and the American Physi-
ological Society. Not all of them have been as effective as they might have been,
because real partnerships have not been formed.
Comprehensive Programs
In some institutions, a comprehensive set of complementary professional-
development programs in which many things happen simultaneously have been
developed. Such programs typically are housed in research institutions or sci
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once centers, where many resources are drawn on to create a science-rich envi-
ronment for teachers. Comprehensive programs can accomplish the difficult task
of developing and maintaining communication networks among teachers, who
then are able to support one another continually. Those programs are character-
ized by a high degree of collaboration with other professional-development
programs. Partnerships can be established between teachers and universities,
museums, zoos, industrial settings, and extension services of federal agencies.
Comprehensive programs can help to promote systemic change (see Chapter 6) if
they work together with all elements of a school, district, or region to promote
systemwide reform.
Duration of Programs
The goals of a program will dictate its length, but the duration of the program
affects its accessibility to all teachers. Short workshops need to be scheduled at
a time and place convenient for the teachers. A summer program designed to last
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4 weeks or longer will not reach the many teachers for whom 1-3 weeks is a more
attractive option, given family considerations and the need for summer employ-
ment. Many teachers feel the need for a break in the summer and are reluctant to
participate in longer professional-development programs, and longer programs
must pay enough to compensate for loss of employment income. If professional-
development programs are to be truly effective, they must reach all teachers, so a
range of durations, daily hours, and locations should be available.
Support and Participation of School Administrators
Many of the program developers in our survey initially planned and secured
funding for the programs independently and were not part of the local school
administrative structures. Teachers who later became interested in the programs
learned about them directly from the organizers, local universities, other teachers,
professional-education publications, or pre-existing networks. In many cases,
programs functioned without the attention of school administrators, union lead-
ers, parents in the surrounding community, or even awareness on the part of the
school district's central office. Although teachers and scientists involved in the
programs often benefited tremendously from them, they rarely became self-sus-
taining. Many lasted until the first round of funding disappeared usually no
more than a few years and among those programs, few offered followup activi-
ties to teachers who completed the programs. Individual-based programs should
aim to include administrators and policy-makers in their planning and develop-
ment so that the programs have a greater likelihood of being incorporated into the
practices and budgets of schools or school districts.
Examples of Effective Professional-Development Programs
Although many programs that were examined benefited from some of the
scientist contributions that are necessary for effective programs, few exhibited
them all. We highlight here examples of different ways that scientists have
contributed to effective professional-development programs.
.
The North Carolina Biotechnology Center (NCB C), Research Triangle
Park. The initial planning of the program was done by teachers; current ad-
ministrators of the program are former research biologists. These scientist-ad-
ministrators help to nurture support for the program in the state legislature. Their
knowledge about the educational system in North Carolina has facilitated the
involvement of scientists at state universities, and most of the administration and
consensus-building is done by NCBC staff. Scientists are provided with all the
materials needed to conduct the biotechnology-oriented activities for teachers
within their own universities, and the NCBC administrative center provides con
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tinning support. Scientists are allowed to do what they do best: illustrate the
process of science to teachers and share their enthusiasm for science with them.
· Iowa Chautauqua, University of Iowa. This program involves research
scientists on its advisory board. The scientists' role is to help to conceptualize the
program, aid in grant procurement, and make departmental resources available.
Community-college faculty serve as consultants in the development of curricu-
lum units.
.
The Exploratorium, San Francisco. Research scientists with expertise in
the physical sciences are the teachers of teachers in a summer program with
followup activities throughout the school year. Research scientists with different
teaching styles model the inquiry-based strategies used in the conduct of research
to demonstrate to teachers how to phrase leading questions to engage student
thinking. Lectures are avoided.
.
Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center (FHCRC) Science Education
Partnership, Seattle. FHCRC's programs involve research scientists at many
levels. This one was initiated by a research scientist who organized a small
planning committee of teachers, FHCRC public-relations staff, and research sci-
entists. The scientists' interest, creativity, and tenacity resulted in institutional-
ization of the program. One indicator of institutionalization was the creation of a
new position: Science Education Partnership program director. Within the pro-
gram, research scientists are both mentors and resource persons for the teachers.
Through collaborative activities, a mutual exchange of professional expertise has
developed. As resource persons, scientists also provide content-update lectures
for teachers.
Cornell University. Research scientists initiated and direct summer insti-
tutes for teachers from the surrounding area of upstate New York. These insti-
tutes have created partnerships between scientists and teachers to develop new
laboratory materials for teachers attending the summer programs. The network,
both personal and electronic, promotes communication among teachers about
their classroom experience with new laboratory and content updates. An elec-
tronic bulletin board, maintained by Cornell faculty and support staff, promotes
communication among the whole group and allows posting, for example, of used
equipment available from university laboratories. Scientists also respond rapidly
to teachers' technical questions via the bulletin board.
Lansing Community College Hands-on Science Workshops. The Science
Department of Lansing Community College, through its Teacher Education
Project, offers inquiry-based workshops for K-6 teachers. The workshops are
designed with science-shy teachers in mind. The goals are to help teachers to
become more confident about their knowledge of fundamental concepts in biol-
ogy, chemistry, geoscience, and physics and to encourage them to integrate pro-
cess-oriented activities and student investigations into their own classroom in-
struction. Workshop leaders demonstrate research-based teaching strategies and
.
.
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provide ready-made materials for classroom use, which reflect the new science
objectives of the Michigan Department of Education.
.
University of Illinois. The University of Illinois in Urbana has an excel-
lent "footlocker program" to support molecular biology and other experiments in
local schools. Complete footlockers of equipment with everything needed for
experiments are loaned to the schools. An alternative is a traveling equipment
van that can go from school to school. The program requires administrative
support from a college, university, or industrial company.
RECOMMENDATIONS
· More scientists should become involved in professional-development pro-
grams for science to help ensure substantive improvements in science education.
· Scientists should educate themselves about K-12 education and not as-
sume that they know or understand the problems and issues involved. That
requires learning about teachers' needs and working cooperatively to form part-
nerships with teachers and science educators. It also requires learning about the
educational research on how students learn science and how to teach most effec-
tively.
· Scientists should examine their own teaching in undergraduate classes
and laboratory exercises. Their classes include potential science teachers, so
scientists should be aware that their teaching will be modeled by these teachers
and ask themselves whether they are promoting active learning and good process
and content teaching.
· To promote better science education, scientists should
Become champions of science education in their own institutions and
professional communities.
Respect and support colleagues and students who become involved in
science education.
Join professional organizations concerned with science education, such
as the National Association of Biology Teachers and the National Science Teach-
ers Association.
Work with their own professional organizations to support K-12 sol
once education.
Support reciprocal interchanges of scientists and other science educa-
tors at their own conferences.
.
Representative terms from entire chapter:
science education
