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APPENDIX State Data INTRODUCTION Education is a state responsibility that the states share with local districts; what happens in science and mathematics education is determined largely at those levels. Therefore, there is a need for information specific to each state. Nationally aggregated data on supply or demand for teachers do not necessarily reflect conditions in a particular state; national trends in enrollment may or may not be the same as in different states; etc. Seemingly comparable data that are not derived from comparable samples can yield quite misleading information. For example, ranking all the states by mean SAT scores of high school seniors, as an index of educational quality, would be patently inappropriate because the percentage of students who choose to take the SATs ranges from 69 to 3, and there is an associated systemic variation in scores: see Table Al. Even somewhat more sophisticated attempts at ranking (see, for example, Bell, 1984) may lead to questionable correlations between SAT or ACT scores and teacher salaries or other resource investments. Even when data appear to be similar, often they cannot be compared because of definitional and methodological differences in the way they were collected, as in the case of high school course enrollment data available in a number of states. The committee gratefully acknowledges the assistance of officials in the states who made data available; they are listed at the end of the Appendix. 149
150 ~ ~ a, ~ to or oo ~ ~ 0 O ~ O ~ ~ ~ ~ to tD Up or U] so o .,, VO o m 1 CO 0 ~ c) · - ~ cad In ~ a) ~ of ~ 0 v U] En Al Q hi: 0 ~ 0 ~ s En ·` Cal 0D s .-, :t U) I-; ·~' at: S U] ~ al up :O . - En Ed ¢5: U. U) 0 .~t . - up En o 0 S ~ A ~ S ~ . - Cal U) ~ en 0D ~ 0 ~ ~ to ~ co ~ up at ~ ~ O ~ ID LO up ~ ~ LO ~ In ~ ~ ~ up rat rn ~ cat ~ co ED GO ~ ~ ~ ~ Cal or ~ or up 0 ~ 0 a' ~ al a, ~ ~ ~ 0 ~ al oo ~ ~ ~ 0 ~ ~ ~ cat o 0D co ~ ~ or ~ ~ ~ Up Dot d ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ED O ~ ~ 0D rem at 0 Go ~ ~ rat or ~ ~ up ~ ~ ~ O ID ~ ~ ~ ~ ED Up ~ ~ or ~ ~ ~ up 0 ~ ~ ~ ~ at a, up at ~ ~ ~ ~ to at ~ a, 0 0 ~ ~ ~ ~ CO CX) oo al up al cat CO ~ 0 ~ ~ cat al ~ ~ cat ~ ' ~ ' ~ d' r. ~ ~ ED ~ ED al a, 0 ~ ~ of a, ~ ~ ' ~ ~ ~ a' 0 a, ~ ~ 0 ~ ~ ~ 0 ~ ~ 0 a, ~ ~ 0 ~ ~ a, Go 0 CD Up ~ Cal to ~ Up or 0 rat oo ED 0 cat ~ al al ~ co Cal ~ 0 Go ~ ~ ~ oo 0 a) ~ a, 0 ~ Up ~ ~ Up Up ~ ~ Up oo ~ a) O ~ OD Up ~ d O US ~ `~ Go al or In rn CO or ~ 4~ ~ ~ :' -' i) ~ U) ~ ~ U) ~ O ~ ~ U1 ~ ~ ~5 ~ ~ ~ - ~ - tI5 ~d ~ ~ i ~ ~ ~ · ~ Y ~ c: s ~ O U] U] O ~ O ~ ~ ~ ~ O c: U) ~ ~ ~ V ~ U) en ~ ~ Y O ~ ~ ~ ~ 3 ~ ~ ~ O ~ ~ ~ ~ Up 0) ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ o .Q up be ~ ~ o c: ~ ~ ~ A s ~ id ~ up O 0 3 ~ ~1 ~ 3 Al ~ ~ ~ O O ~ ~1 0) ~ 7:S ~ c: O to al O (I) ~ (3 ~ ~4 0 I: H H H H A; lo:;
151 al ~ rn al r O Cad ~ A) [r) ~ N _1 ~ ~ ~ ~ Cad O tD Us O ~ It) In ~ r a) ~ O Cot t ID ID I (D N Us ~ ~ ~ lo u~ U~ ~ ~ er ~ ~ ~ ~ un u~ ~ ~ ~ ~ U~ u~ ~ u~ ~ ~ u~ 0 ~ ~ co eo r~ ~ u~ a~ a~ ~ er ~ ~ c~ ~r ~ ~r ~ ~ er 0 ~ u~ u~ ~ ~ 0 ~ ~ ~ ~ co ~ ~ u~ a' a' ~ c~ ~ a:, ~ a' ~ 0 rn ~ ~ ~ ~ co r ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ U~ ~ ~ ~ ~ d~ ~ 1D {X) N ~ C~ ~ It) N C~ _I Oi ~) 0 C~ ~ ~ _I aN 1 0 U~ _t u~ ~ ~D ~ _~ ~ u~ ~ ~ ~ In lr) ~1 _1 ~ co 0 u~ ~ ~ a~ ~ ~ ~ ~ oo a~ kD ~ U~ ~ ~ 0O a:~ ~ ~ ~ c~ 0 co 0 a~ ~ a, ~ 0 a, ~ ~ 0 r~ ~ u, tD ~ ~ ~ ~ u~ o u~ r~ 0 rn kD ~ ~ ~ ~ u~ O4 0 0O ~ O kD ~ ~ r~ 0 ~ 0 oo ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ' ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ' ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ a~ ~ ~ C~ ~ ~ a~ ~ co ~ tD a ~o ~ ~ ~ ~ oo ~ ~n rn ~ ~ o ~ o er \0 OD ~ ~ U~ ~ c~ ~ o un u~ o ~ ~ 0 ~ 0 a, u, ~ a, c~ oo tD ~ O u~ r~ ~ u~ ~ o ~ un ~ er CD In e, O a~ kD ~D 0 a' ~ 0 ~D ~ ~ ) ~ ~ co o ~ tD o a, 0 ~ ~ a, a, 0 ~ co u~ er rn ~r ~r - s~ ~ ~ .-l ~ a~ ~ ~ ~ S ~ O ~ ~ ns ~ ~ .'l en ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 0 ~ `: . - y ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ . - . - k4 X ~ O O ~ ~ H O s:: u~ ~ ~ ~ ~ O ~ Y O ~: ~ ~ y ca c: ·a ~ ~ :r: ~ ~ ^ ta ~ s 0 tn a) ~ ~ a~ u~ O ~, ~ ~ a 0 ~ ~ ~= ~ a ~ ru s £ rs~s ~ ~ £ ~ ~ ~ 3 3 3 3 ~ ~ ~ ~ o ~ X ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ O 0 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ a) · · s Y ~ ~ S · . Q' ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ . . - £ Z Z z Z z Z z Z O O O ~ ~ u~ u~ E~ E~ ~ ~ ~ 3 3 3 3 tn ~0 .,. ~; O h a £ o q~ 4~ ~: .,' tn a V o s JJ o £ ~q E~ ~: ~q s 4 cn Y ~ O o U] 4 o o U) .,' s o s~ £ z ·- O E~ :^ O Z ~: a a' ~4 £ U' y h o 3 z o U~ q} a O C) 00 . H . ~: ~a ~ ~ O O U) S S tn 00 U] 0 3 )- a O Z ~3 ·e 4 O CO
152 States vary enormously with respect to the amount and kind of information they collect pertinent to the four indicators of science and mathematics education discussed in this report. Table A2 provides a very brief summary of some of the relevant data bases that have been com- puterized in each of the states. State assessment of student performance has taken on an increasingly impor- tant role. As of spring 1984, 34 states had assessment programs in selected grades and subjects. As shown in Table As, 33 states have assessment programs for mathe- matics, and 11 states have assessment programs for science . In an attempt to illustrate the kinds of data avail- able to state education systems, this appendix summarizes information provided on science and mathematics education for 10 states: California, Connecticut, Illinois, Michigan, Minnesota, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, and Washington. These states were selected because they are among the leaders in their collection and analyses of pertinent data; no attempt was made to be representative of all 50 states, although among the 10 there is at least 1 in each region of the country. Several of the 10 states have also participated at a state level in B S and NAEP. With agreement of each of the 10 chief state school officers, the individuals listed at the end of the Appendix were asked to comment on the committee's selection of indicators and on what relevant state data and reports they had available. The brief summaries below cannot do justice to the work going on; the excerpts presented (with permission) from the materials supplied by the 10 states are intended as examples of their information activities rather than as comprehensive reports. Some of the excerpts do illustrate, however, instances of similarities or differences regarding con- ditions in a given state compared with those in the nation at large. TEACHERS With respect to the quality of teachers, states use certification as the primary measure of competence. As discussed in Chapter 3, this entails a great variety of more or less highly specified requirements for a bache- lor's degree, usually including some professional education courses. In addition, 20 states--mostly in the South and Southwest--have recently added minimum-
153 C a' ~ ~ o U. ~ a' E~ ~ c s o ~a Y ~ o o o ~ C X ~ a' c E~ U) ~5 a) N . - S~ o C) o o H m ~: E~ c JJ ~ C U] a~ u ~ U] 4~ U] U] ¢5: U) C C O a) - ~ c) O ·= O C h P4 U] 0 C J c E oe h `1) 0 ~ q~ ~ ~ O ~ C C C-) O ~ ~ U) O ,~, ~ O ~ U' S U] C C) ~ aJ U] C: C-) JJ CO X X X X X X X X X X X X XX X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X . X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X U) ~ ~ ·- . U: C O · - CJ U) :~ C ~ ~ C ~ · - · - .,_' ~ y ~ C s ~ O C ~ O ~ ~ ~ ~-- · - O C ~ ~ ·- ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ `t Y O C ~ ~ 0) 3 · - ~ · - O C tt ~1 ~ U: ~ _' (O · - C' ·-1 0 .~ U1 N tI5 · O C t\S L~ t ~ ·I · ~ U) 4~ ~ C: >~ U) ~C C U] U) ·0 ra · y I _~ C _I O 0 3 ~I ~ 3 f:: ~ ~ · Ll U] O C U) U) _t _I L~ Ll ~1 0 0 ~ ~ a~ ~ ~ ~ c O n5 ~ ° tl5 ~ t1~ ~ ~ ~ - ~ ~ ~ ~ O a ~ co ~ - - - - ~ = ~ ~ ~: = ~ ~ ~:
154 C a' o cn a :~: h a' S ~ C) ~ ~ h a E~ ~ C ~ a S ~ ~ O E~ ~ Y h O O O J~ ~ C X a, c E~ H C E C U] ~n U. ~ U) U] ~: U) 4~ C C O a) -~ O ·= h O C h O3 P a) ·~. o - U) 4J UO C C UO h h <1) 0 ~ ~ ~ h O ~ C C o O C) ~n O h ~ O J~ U) S U) C u' a ~: E~ u X X X X x X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X x X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Y c oe ·a h n5 C O ~ ~ :~: Z Z h .,' =; U) ~ U] h ~a a 3 3 Z Z - CO a~ - ~n h . - o o o U. ~a C C: G5 C C '-' .,' ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ O C C 1 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ · - - O O ~ ~ H O O ~ ~ ' - h y O ~ ~ Ll Y U] C C. C h C C ·a n~ ~ O u~ a, n5 615 ~ U) O ~ -l ~ O - oa 0 ~ ~ c=o ~ C ~ ~ ~ ~s~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ c 0 c X ra ~ ~ ~ O · · ~ y h ~ ~ · · ~ ~ ~ ~ . - ~ · . - Z Z o 0 o P. ~ U~ u) E~ ~ :> 3 3 3 3 U) .,, s o .,l o C~ ·. ~; o U]
155 lo 0 - a: C) .= at In So o .,, CQ EN c) o C) . - .,, a: ' 0 to al ~ 0 o {Q Ed a: ~ o U) ~ z Rev ~ a) m 0 a: ~ U] o 8 In U] U] U] ~ on 0 a' C) En . {A o z ~ ~ U) v En o a, s o 3 In so a: ma a, . - v O ~ U) U] v .,, v U] -a. -a' 3 U] v .,, s a: .,, so C' ~ In ~ ~ co ~ ~ ID ~ At a' ~ u~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ a, ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ o o o ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ o ~ ~ oo ~ ~ 0 u~ u~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 0 0 rn u~ c~ ~ ~ ~ {~ ~ ~ ,-1 0 0 rn ~5 - 0 - o ra a) o o tn co a, - ~n v ~l o O ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ e ~ o o s v u] u] D - o-d s c) o u~ ~ ~ ~ o ~ cO ~ ~ ~ u~ ~ ~ tn · o ~ z ~ u) Co ~ o ~ ~ o o ~ ~ ~ E~ v ~ - 3 O C~ - .e O O U) P; .
156 competency tests to certification procedures. Reference to Table 6 and the accompanying comments in Chapter 3 are pertinent as a reminder of the variation among states with respect to certification. As far as the quantity of teachers is concerned, both the Howe and Gerlovich (1982) survey and the survey by the Education Commission of the States (Flakus-Mosqueda, 1983) discussed in the report demonstrate differences among the states as to their perceptions of teacher supply and demand in mathematics and science. California In the past, a secondary school teaching certificate allowed a California teacher to teach any high school subject, regardless of the teacher's preparation in that subject. A number of teachers so certified are still in the schools. At this time, California is one of three states that require both a state-constructed test and the National Teacher Examination for teacher certification. The state routinely prepares reports on the salaries and on the characteristics of professional staff. State officials have become concerned about the distribution of science teachers throughout the state and has prepared a density map showing for each county the number of science teachers per 1,000 students. Generally, the northern and eastern portions of the state are above the statewide median of 1.63, the western and southern sections below. Variations within the state are considerable: for example, from 1.18 science teachers per 1,000 students in Los Angeles County to 3.29 per 1,000 students in sparsely populated Mono County; or even between adjacent areas, for example, from 1.48 science teachers per 1,000 students in Contra Costa County to 2.56 per 1,000 students in Marin County. Connecticut Connecticut prepares teacher supply and demand reports, but they do not now include separate statistics on the numbers and preparation of mathematics and science teachers. However, such data on teachers in the system are available from detailed retirement records kept for every teacher. Because of recently enacted legislation
157 - providing $5,000 per year of college to college students preparing to teach in shortage areas, the state will need to develop demand/supply projections for mathematics and science teachers, including not only the numbers teaching and numbers needed, but also information on the quality of the current staff. A competency-based approach is being considered to ensure the quality of mathematics and science teachers in the state. Illinois - Illinois prepares an annual demand report on unfilled positions. It also collects information on the number of teachers employed and the percentage of teachers who are certified to teach In grades 9-42. Since some local- ities--especially Chicago--levy extra certification requirements beyond those of the state, the data from different districts are not comparable. Since periodic recertification requires continuing education, retraining is also recorded. The state has not found a satisfactory answer at the state level to tracking the quality of the teaching staff beyond certification and retraining, although some local districts have evaluation systems in place; instead, state authorities work with the teacher preparation institutions in the state to upgrade their education programs. In the last few years, every state university but one has been cited as needing to improve its programs. In 1983 the Illinois State Board of Education (1983) produced a report on the supply and demand for mathe- matics and science teachers in the state. Table A4, covering the previous 6 years, indicates that, for both mathematics and science teachers, the number of new teachers prepared was higher than the number of new, first-time teachers hired. Though the supply of newly trained teachers has been decreasing, so has the demand (i.e., the number of teachers hired). Although data for the Chicago public school system are not available for earlier years, in 1982-1983 10 science teachers were hired by the system, all reentering, and 13 mathematics teachers, of whom 12 were reentering and 1 was a new, first-time hire. The report notes (p. 2): "In mathe- matics, supply decreased by 35.5% from 1977-78 to 1982-83 while demand for mathematics teachers decreased by 35.4% during the same period. The supply of science teachers decreased by 36.2% from 1977-78 to 1982-83 while demand
158 TABLE A4 Supply and Demand for Mathematics and Science Teachers in Illinois .. Number of Persons Number of Persons Completing Hired by Illinoisan Other Preparation Public High Math Subjects in Illinois Schools (Demand) Turnover Turnover Year (New Supply) (Begin + Reenter = Total) (No.) (%) (I) Mathematics 1977-1978 197 72 + 103 1978-1979 155 79 + 108 1979-1980 123 62 + 89 1980-1981 123 58 + 93 1981-1982 129 54 + 76 1982-1983 127 48 + 65 Science 1977-1978 218 103 + 91 1978-1979 185 88 + 99 1979-1980 156 70 + 107 1980-1981 142 64 + 84 1981-1982 157 54 + 59 1982-1983 139 39 + 62 = = 175 217 (8.3) (9.6) 187 216 (8.3) (9.5) 151 199 (7.7) (10.1) 151 195 (7.5) (8.2) 130 180 (7.0) (8.2) 113 138 (5.4) (7.0) 194 211 (7.9) (9.6) 187 205 (7.7) (9.5) 177 248 (9.5) (10.1) 148 192 (7.5) (8.2) 113 157 (6.2) t8.2) 101 137 (5.5) (7.0) NOTES: NEW SUPPLY: New teacher graduates prepared by Illinois colleges and universities. NEW (BEGINNING) DEMAND: Persons hired as teachers for the first time (with no previous experience). REENTERING DEMAND: Persons hired as teachers who have taught in the past, have left teaching for at least one year, and are again employed as teachers. TOTAL DEMAND: Estimated total incoming teachers (beginning and reentering) in Illinois public schools. TURNOVER: The group of individuals which for any reason terminated their employ- ment with a public school district between May and September, and did not undertake employment in another Illinois public school district. Exclusive of Chicago, for which data are not available. SOURCE: Illinois State Board of Education (1983) decreased by 47.9%. In Illinois, the new supply and the reserve pool of previously prepared teachers seem to be keeping up with demand." These statistics do not take account of the new demand that may be created by Illinois' increased requirements for high school graduation--2 years of mathematics and 1 year of science. The potential impact of the new requ~re- ments is not yet known, since 80 percent of Illinois high schools currently require one year of each to graduate, while 10.5 percent require two years of mathematics;
159 TABLE AS Supply and Demand for Mathematics and Science Teacher s in I 11 inois by Ma in Ass ignment: 19 82-19 83 Number of Persons Number of Persons Completing Hired by Illinois Ma jor Area Preparation Public High of Prepar- in Illinois Schools (Demand) Turnover ation (New Supply) (Begin + Reenter = Total) (No. ) (% ) Sc fence Biology 83 15 + 22 = 37 50 (4.8) Chemistry 27 4 + 13 = 17 27 (5. 4) Earth science 3 3 + 8 = 11 14 (8~2) General science 4 9 + 10 = 19 27 (9.1) Physical science 5 4 + 4 = 8 7 (5~4) Physics 7 4 + 4 = 8 7 ( 3. 5) Other 10 0 + 1 = 1 5 ( 3. 4) Total 139 39 + 62 = 101 137 (5.5) Mathematics ~ Algebra a 30 + 29 = 59 81 (5.4) Geometry ~ 1 + 8 = 9 22 (5.3) Elasic/general math a 16 + 22 = 38 29 (6.6) Other math 1 + 6 = 7 6 (3.3) Total 127 48 + 65 = 113 138 ( 5. 4) NOTE: For definitions of captions, see Table A4. Molly the total supply of mathematics teachers is known. Ma jor area of preparation in mathematics is not designated by specific course or subject. SOURCE: Illinois State Board of Education (1983). hnw~v~r shiv R Dercent of Illinois seniors report taking 90 ~ , ~ , no mathematics beyond grade 9, implying that over percent already take 1.5 years of mathematics or more in -trades 9-12 (see Table All, below). Table A4 also shows that, for Illinois, the per- centages of mathematics and science teachers leaving these fields do not differ substantially from the percentages leaving other teaching specialities; they are, in fact, somwehat lower. Nevertheless, the number of people leaving suggests that the need for newly prepared teachers continues. Table AS shows demand and supply statistics for specific mathematics and science specialities in 1982- 1983. Only for general science were there more new hires than newly trained teachers, but for earth science, physical science, and physics, the number of newly prepared teachers was less than the total number hired, suggesting that the need for newly prepared teachers is greater in these areas than in biology and chemistry. In general, the data in the report do not address the quality of the hired teachers, although it is presumed in the report that they have valid teaching certificates.
160 Michigan Teachers certified for elementary school may teach through grade 8. Certification is based on approval of teacher education programs as certified by each institu- tion of higher learning. The state collects information on class assignments and college preparation. Using these data, Hirsch (1982, 1983) found that in 1980-1981, 33.4 percent of teachers teaching mathematics in junior high school did not have a major or minor in the field; in 1981-1982, the percentage was 36.8. Science fared better: only 12.1 percent of the teachers assigned to science classes in junior high school had neither a major nor a minor in the field of assignment in 1980-1981; in 1981-1982, the percentage was 14.1. New state reporting forms to be filled out at the district level will elicit further information on teacher preparation and also on participation in continuing education. The state has experimented with demand projections; the most recent estimates were made 4 years ago. Minnesota In 1983 Minnesota conducted a survey of science education (Minnesota Department of Education, 1984) using modified versions of the teacher and principal ques- tionnaires from the national survey carried out in 1977 with NSF support (Weiss, 1978). Some 800 teachers and nearly 500 principals participated, drawn from a strati fled sample of school districts and representing both elementary and secondary schools in the state. A major topic on the questionnaires was the qualifications of science teachers. The average age of teachers was 41, varying little among grade levels or science subjects being taught. The average number of years of teaching experience also varied little by grade range and science subject: about 16 years in elementary school, slightly higher in grades 7-9, and about 18 years in grades 10-12. For all grades, this represented about 6 years more teaching experience than the national average (10-12 years) in 1977; the difference may well be due to declining student enrollment, which caused the layoff of teachers with the least seniority. With respect to the qualifications of science and math teachers, only 6-7 percent of elementary school teachers had an undergraduate science major or minor; in fact, -
161 more than 50 percent had 20 or fewer college quarter credits in the natural sciences. Not surprisingly, only 26 percent of elementary school teachers felt "very well qualified" to teach science; 16 percent felt "not well qualified. n For grades 7-9 and 9-12, respectively, 95 percent and 97 percent had undergraduate science majors or minors, and 53 percent and 69 percent had graduate work in science. However, only about one-third of the teachers teaching earth science (grades 7-9), physical science (grades 7-9), and physics (grades 10-12) indicated certification in these areas, while about one-half had an all-sciences certification. New Jersey The Advisory Council on Math/Science Teacher Supply and Demand (1983) recently prepared a report that included a survey of New Jersey secondary school districts. Responses were received from 162 of the 259 districts in the state. The results indicated that most responding districts were able to fill their mathematics and science openings, but that a shortage of certified mathematics and science teachers exists in the low-wealth, urban school districts (see Table A6). The report also provides projections of demand and supply for mathematics and science teachers through 1992-1993, using four different sets of assumptions. Baseline demand and supply estimates are based on the continuation of present trends, including known enroll ment declines and increases in course requirements. Alternate demand and supply estimates assume additional mathematics and science enrollments and an increased teacher attrition rate (based on retention of teachers in 1980-1982, which was somewhat lower than in 1976-1982). Figures Al and A2 indicate that shortages of both mathematics and science teachers will be considerable under assumptions of alternate demand, i.e., if a year-long computer science course taught by a certified mathematics teacher is added to the four mathematics courses per secondary school student assumed (by 1989-1990) in the baseline demand projection, and if three science courses are required in grades 9-12. In 1983 New Jersey set minimum requirements for admission and graduation of teaching candidates and increased the amount of substantive study required. As a result, all prospective elementary and secondary school -
162 En . - o C) A a) v En .,, En £ o a, P. U) at: Cal 1 s~ U] 3 s~ z oo ~: Er3 1 CO ~: E~ a' ~ C) Ul V] v C: .,' U: :~: o ~ . - .,4 4~ t, U] . - . - cn ~ s UO U) o .,, ~ ·,' C ra ~ o .,, U) a' .,, s :) 2: ~ C: .,, .,. U) U] o .,, JJ .,. s oc ~ P4 x: a) .,4 o CO ~q o .-, 4~ . , s on 4 o P4 u~ a~ 0 co co In · · · · · ~ C~ o o C~ ~ · ~ ~ o ~ ~ U' · · o U~ ~ ~ ~D C~ ~ o d. ~1 o o ~ U~ ~r ~1 o o o ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ co c~ ~o ~ ~ c~ o ~ c~ ~ ~r ~ o 0 o ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~o co ~r ~1 a~ ~ ~ 0 0 cr, ~0 d' ~ ~ ~ aD tD ~ ~ ~ O ~ c~ ~ ~1 a' ~ ut u~ a, O CO O ~ _I tD a a' _ ~ ul a' E~ ~ ~5 =~ - 4~ ~ ~ ~ o ~ .,' ~ ~ O ~ ca c: ~ ~ ~ ~ o ~ ~ ~ - .- ~ ~ ~ ~ Q Q ~ ~ 4-~ }-~ {d O ~ ~ ~ ~ 0 4~ C) ~ u~ P; ~ E~ u, o a_' 4 V ~5 0 0` - . U) JJ ~ V O . - ~ 4 JJ ~n ~ h s a v ~q 4 C~ L~ 4~ C~ U] U] ~ a~ a~ u 4 4 U] a' ~ s Z 4 0 ~ U) (D ~ :' 0 ~ .,' v S~ U' a) ~Q eq ~n a) a P; JJ .. . - E~ u 0 ~ Z m1 U) ~4 a, s v E~ vc a .,, v s o .^ V {Q ~ o ~ C) o ~ o u] u] Q ~ ~: ·. ~3 tr; o V]
163 1 000 800 600 400 us I C: LU 200 o 11 o m -200 z - 00 -600 -800 . . , -1 000 1 1 1 1983 1984 1985 1986 Baseline Demand and Baseline Supply Baseline Demand and Alternate Supply Alternate Demand and Baseline Supply Alternate Demand and Alternate Supply - - - - - - - _ ~ e ~ ' _ ~ 1987 1988 1989 1990 199 1 1992 YEAR FIGURE Al New Jersey: Mathematics teacher discrepancy analysis, 1983-1984 to 1992-1993. SOURCE: Advisory Council on Math/Science Teacher Supply and Demand (1983:40b). teachers must have some college courses in mathematics and science; however, it is still possible for a cer- tified elementary schoolteacher with only three credits in mathematics or science to teach these subjects in middle or junior high schools (grades 5-8) New York . Secondary school certification is required of mathematics and science teachers in grades 7-12 in New York. Transcripts relating to the majors of elementary school teachers as well as secondary school teachers are also collected. The state collects information on teachers actually in service, on how many get certified
164 each year, and on how many accept teaching positions. Reports on the current teaching staff are available. In 1982-1983, there were 14,116 mathematics teaching positions--about 13 percent of all the mathematics teachers in the country--and 11,340 science positions. (There were also 520 nonteaching mathematics positions and 604 nonteaching science positions.) In mathematics, two-thirds of the teachers filling these positions had at least a master's degree, and another one-fourth had 30 hours or more of graduate work in addition to their bachelor's degrees. Preparation in the sciences was slightly better, with almost three-fourths of the teachers having graduate preparation at the master's degree level or higher. Only a little over 2 percent of the teachers in each field were not certified; nearly 90 percent had permanent certification; the rest had provisional cer- 1000 800 600 ~ 400 I LL 200 o o UJ m z - 00 -200 -600 Ann Baseline Demand and Baseline Supply Basel ine Demand and Alternate Supply Alternate Demand and Baseline Supply Alternate Demand and Alternate Supply . 'e _ ~ _ . - _ _ _ -1 000 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1 - `_ ~ · - ~ ~ - ~ ~ · ~ - - ~~- ~ 988 1989 1990 199 1 1992 YEAR FIGURE A2 New Jersey: Science teacher discrepancy analysis, 1983-1984 to 1992-1993. SOURCE: Advisory Council on Math/Science Teacher Supply and Demand (1983:4Oe).
165 tification (University of the State of New York/The State Education Department, 1983a). In contrast, in 1968 only 47 percent and 50 percent had permanent certification in mathematics and science, respectively. The number of provisional certificates issued declined dramatically between 1968 and 1981: from 1,920 to 351 for mathematics and from 3,571 to 656 for science, a decline of about 82 percent; the decline in all provisional certificates issued over that period was 53 percent. Teacher prepara- tion has also improved between 1968 and 1981, with the percentage of those having no graduate work decreasing from 40 to 9 percent in mathematics and from 33 to 7 percent in science. At the same time, the teaching force has aged, although not distinctively more so in Tnathe- matics and science than in other areas (University of the State of New York/The State Education Department, 1983c). North Carolina North Carolina does not specify mathematics and science requirements for elementary school certificates. Teacher preparation institutions in the state vary from requiring one course in mathematics or science for elementary school certification to requiring eight in the two disciplines combined. North Carolina State University, which prepares many of the teachers for the state, requires 42 semester hours in mathematics for certification of mathematics teachers for grades 9-12 and 29 semester hours for grades 6-9. Basic algebra and precalculus courses are not acceptable. In May 1983, the state instituted rules prohibiting out-of-field teaching. Pennsylvania Pennsylvania routinely issues reports on the profes- sional personnel of its public schools. In 1983 two special reports were prepared on the demand for and supply of science and mathematics teachers, based on a survey of secondary school principals, a survey of teachers, and the state's routine data base on teachers. In summary, only 7.5 percent of the principals had difficulty in 1981 filling mathematics and scienc positions with certified teachers; the most troublesome area was physics; biology teachers appeared to be in oversupply. Philadelphia and some of the rural areas of
166 the state were issuing the greatest percentage of emer- gency certificates. Science and mathematics teachers responding to the survey had an average of 15 years of teaching experience; on the average, they took their last subject-area related course in 1972 and their last method- ology course in 1975 (Dorwart, 1983). One of the reports concludes (Laverty, 1983:13-14): The demand for science and math teachers is unlikely to increase in the next five years. Increased math and science requirements in the new curriculum regulations, if passed, and the attraction of more remunerative positions in industry are balanced by a continued decline in secondary school enrollment through 1989. . . The supply of incoming teachers seems to be . adequate in all areas except physics; but math may soon become a problem area. The author sees the new Pennsylvania higher education assistance program, which offers grants to students preparing to teach mathematics or science, as adequate for meeting future demands. CONTENT There is great variation among the states regarding the extent to which they provide guidance to local systems on the content of instruction. In New York, for example, mandatory state syllabi for various curriculum areas are prepared at the state level; other states allow local districts to develop their own curriculum guidelines and high school graduation requirements. But even in the latter states, statewide mandates for student testing, which have now been instituted in 37 states (see Table 5, Chapter 3), do tend to generate some common core of learning. This effect is particularly strong where the state offers assistance to localities in meeting the educational goals that have been set for students, as in Connecticut, Michigan, and Pennsylvania. Connecticut Connecticut intends to collect descriptive information on the curriculum scope and sequence followed by local
167 districts in each of 11 major curriculum areas. Previous experience indicates that even district-level information is likely to be difficult to interpret, that information on instructional content must be collected at the indi- vidual school level. Connecticut does provide detailed guidelines in science and mathematics for grades K-12 along with suggestions for the use of the guidelines to improve instruction. Illinois Illinois plays a limited role regarding content; most schools follow locally developed curriculum guides. State staff provide developmental learner objectives for different educational levels, which are designed to be used as a planning tool by local districts. Decisions on textbooks are also made at the local level by committees that review the curriculum on a cyclical basis, generally every 5 years. Information on the most commonly used textbooks is available from local districts, but is not collected on a statewide basis. The state does provide free textbooks under specified circumstances: the free textbooks can be selected from a list of the most popular titles, but since schools participating in the free- textbook program are not a good sample of all Illinois schools, statistics on the most frequently requested texts would be misleading. In conjunction with its assessment program, the state collects information from teachers on the likelihood that students have studied particular topics included in the assessment tests. This procedure is adapted from that of the TEA mathematics and science assessments. From time to time, the state also uses questionnaires on classroom activities to inventory the perception of teachers and students about classroom practice; classroom observation is also used to further document teacher preference and emphasis as to instruc- tional content. Michigan Michigan publishes minimum performance objectives in mathematics and science (as well as other areas) as an aid to teachers, but instructional content is determined at the local level. In conjunction with the state assess-
168 ment program, the mathematics and science curricula are sampled for grades 4, 7, and 10. Minnesota In a state survey of science education (Minnesota Department of Education, 1984), teachers were asked about the use of textbooks. In elementary school 55 percent of the teachers in grades K-3 and 59 percent in grades 4-6 used a single published textbook/program for science instruction, and a little over 40 percent did so for science courses in grades 7-12; for grades 7-9 and 10-12, respectively, 45 and 50 percent of the teachers used multiple texts. The survey also documented the most frequently used texts at each grade level. According to the perception of principals surveyed, teacher committees and individual teachers are heavily involved in the selection of textbooks. Not surprisingly, 70 percent of teachers in grades 10-12 and 58 percent of those in grades 7-9 indicated they would choose the textbook they were currently using, given a free choice. Because of a new state reimbursement process for telecommunications software being used in schools, the state is constructing a state-approved software list that may provide further information on curriculum content. New York The New York State Board of Regents was established in 1784 and governs both lower and higher education. Hence, the state has a long tradition of strong interaction with local districts, including the content of their instruc- tion. Curricula and syllabi are published in all subjects and sent to al' schools. Secondary schools are required to follow them, and the state-constructed Regents exams are based on these syllabi. Although not all students take the Regents exams, these exams are generally used to guide instruction. Until recently, elementary schools have not been required to follow the state curriculum guidelines, but as of 1984 some state requirements will be mandatory at this level as well as in secondary education. By implication, an analysis of the syllabi and of the Regents exams should provide reasonably good information on the intended curriculum content for each grade and subject. Obviously, the degree to which the
169 curriculum is actually followed will vary from class to class. The state has sponsored an analysis of 2,500 textbooks for readability (The College Board, 1983); these titles represent the most commonly used texts in the state and in the country. North Carolina North Carolina provides a list of approved textbooks; multiple options are given for each course and area of instruction. Information is available on selections made by local districts. Pennsylvania Pennsylvania's Educational Quality Assessment (EQA) taps 14 different cognitive and noncognitive areas of students' knowledge, skills, and attitudes. The EQA is used to help local districts improve their instruction; in this sense, the content of the EQA inventory can be used to help shape instructional content. Participation in EQA by local districts and by schools within districts is voluntary. INSTRUCTIONAL TIME/ENROLLMENT Very few states collect information on the amount of time spent on specific instructional areas in elementary school; nearly all collect information on course enroll- ments in secondary school, though not all do so in readily interpretable form. The data are generally collected at the individual school level. Because district organiza- tion varies--the most common secondary school arrangements are grades 7-8 and 9-12 or grades 7-9 and 10-12--grade 9 course enrollments tend to be undercounted in statewide aggregations of data on secondary schools. California California has collected data on time allocated to various subjects in elementary school. Mean time allocations for grade 6 are shown in Table A7.
170 TABLE A7 Mean Time Allocations, by Subject Area, in California, Grade 6, 1981-1982 Subject Area Mean Minutes per Day Reading Writing/language Mathematics Science Social studies Art Music Health Physical education Other Total Total instructional time Total noninstructional time Total school time (sum) School day length 61 47 53 25 36 16 14 16 27 7 302a 299a 67 366 365 _The total does not equal the "Total instructional time n because of adjustments for outlying (obviously incorrect) values. SOURCE: Law (1984:167) The state also collects enrollment data for all courses offered in secondary school and also for special classes (including some in mathematics and science) in elementary school; statistics are available for male and female enrollments. Enrollment figures for 1982-1983 show that in the more advanced mathe s tics courses, such as advanced placement mathematics (grades 11-12), analytic geometry/precalculus, and calculus, almost 30 percent fewer females participate than males, with a pronounced dropout in grade 11 of females in college-preparatory mathematics. The enrollment of females in physics is about one-half that of males. Table AS shows a compari- son of national and California enrollments in mathematics courses, derived from California and national samples in the High School and Beyond study.
171 TABLE AS Percent of 12th Grade Students Reporting Specified Years of Mathematics Coursework Taken in the Last 3 Years of High School, 1979-1980 and 1981-1982 1979-1980a 1981-1982b Year of - Mathematics Nation California California l- 0 7.8 9.7 8.6 1 27.3 32.1 30.1 2 33.5 32.6 32.1 3 or more 31.4 25.6 29.2 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 Median years 1.44 1.25 1.35 data are derived from the High School and Beyond survey conducted by the National Center for Education Statistics in 1980. "Figures have been adjusted to reflect the fact that the High School and Beyond survey inquired only about the final 3 years of high school and that essentially all California students take at least one mathematics course. Thus, the values have been reduced by 1 year. SOURCE: Law (1984:180). Illinois In 1977 a statewide census was conducted on course offerings in Illinois's junior and senior high schools (grades 7-12); more than 95 percent of the schools participated. The census was repeated in 1981-1982, and these data are now being analyzed. Mathematics is generally required in grades 7 and 8, but most enrollment in high school level mathematics is elective. Many of the schools do not offer some of the more advanced courses, as shown in Table A9. According to the census report (Illinois State Board of Education, 1980a:14), "both advanced and remedial mathematics courses show a higher percentage of males than females enrolled. Male enrollment exceeds female enrollment by 19 percent in advanced algebra, 27 percent in algebra-trigonometry, and 54 percent in trigonometry."
172 TABLE A9 Mathematics Courses with Enrollment of 3 Percent or More of Illinois High School Students, 1977 Number of Percent of All Schools Percent of High School Of fer ing Schools Students Course Title Course in State Enrolled Pre-algebra 110 15.6 3. 2 Elementary algebra 548 77 .8 12. 4 Intermediate algebra 457 64.9 6.7 Advanced algebra 401 56 .9 3.8 Elementary general math, grades 9-12 429 60.9 4.8 Plane geometry 466 66.2 7 .9 Integrated plane and solid geometry 217 30.8 3.2 Remedial math 238 33.8 4.0 . _The percent enrollment would have to be multiplied by 3 or 4 to make the data comparable to national data on percentage of seniors who have taken var ious courses. SOURCE: Illinois State Board of Education (1980a: 4) Table A10 shows enrollments in high school science courses. Data on gender differences indicate that male enrollment in physics is more than twice that of females, although the difference in first-year chemistry is negligible. Female enrollment is greater than that of males in all biology courses and in honors physics and chemistry. Illinois also has data from student self reports, shown in Table All, on a state sample from High School and Beyond. Comparable national percentages are given in parentheses. Michigan Data on course offerings, required credits for graduation, and estimated course enrollment (compiled separately for males and females) were requested from all Michigan high schools in spring 1983. Two-thirds of the schools responded; most of those schools (88 percent) include grade 9. In mathematics the average number of years required by local districts for graduation is 1.5, and the average taken is 2.8 (see Table A12). Although, on average, 1.3 years of science are required for
173 TABLE A10 Selected Science Courses and Percentage of Illinois High School Students Enrolled, 1977 Cour se Ti tl e Nunber 0 f Schools Of fer ing Cour se Percent of Schools in State Percent of All High School Students Enrolleda Biology, first year 620 88.1 17.7 Chemistry, f irst year 597 84.8 5 .6 Physical science, f irst 307 43.6 5.4 and second year General science, grade 9 291 41.3 4.9 Earth science 227 32.2 3.4 Physics, first year 535 76.0 2.6 Biology, second year, 354 50.3 2.1 advanced aThe percent enrollment would have to be multiplied by 3 or 4 to make the data comparable to national data on percentage of seniors who have tak en var ious cour ses . SOURCE: Illinois State Board of Education (1980b: 3) . graduation, 2.2 years are taken (see Table A13). In both mathematics and science, there is a major decline in enrollment as the sequence of courses advances. Students in some locations do not have the opportunity to take higher-level courses: 41 percent of the schools do notioffer calculus; 44 percent do not offer earth sciences; 8 percent do not offer physics; and only 60 percent of the high schools reported having computer courses available. Minnesota In the survey of science teaching conducted by the state in 1983 (Minnesota Department of Education, 1984), elementary school teachers provided data about time spent on various subjects. For grades K-3, the average for mathematics was 38 minutes per day, for science 17 minutes per day, for social studies 19 minutes per day, and for reading and language arts 128 minutes per day. For grades 4-6, the average for mathematics was 51 minutes per day, for science 26 minutes per day, for social studies 35 minutes per day, and for reading and language arts 90 minutes per day. These time allocations are virtually the same as reported in the analogous national
174 TABLE All Percent of Illinois and U.S. High School Seniors Reporting Various Amounts of Mathematics and Science, 1980, Grades 10-12 Subject None Years Mathematics Science 8 (5) 13 (9) 0.5-1 1.5-2 2.5-3 3+ Years Years Years 26 (24) 35 (36) 31 (34) 24 (29) 9 (8) 28 (31) 15 (18) 6 (6) NOTE: Percent of U.S. high school seniors are shown in parentheses. SOURCE: Illinois State Board of Education (1981:3). survey done in 1977. Nearly two-thirds of the Minnesota teachers reported that they spent about the same amount of time on science in 1983 as they did 3 years earlier; of the rest, half reported spending more time and half reported spending less time. Information on science course offerings in secondary schools was obtained from principals. The data indicate that schools with grades 10-12 only were significantly more likely to offer advanced science courses than schools that include one or more of the lower grades: for example, 62 percent of schools with only grades 10-12 offered advanced biology while 32 percent of schools with grades 7-12 offered it. Enrollment statistics for secon- dary school science courses show that close to one-half of the students enrolled in each subject are female, except for enrollment in physics in grades 10-12, which averages 38 percent female enrollment. New Jersey Beginning with the graduating class of 1985, students seeking a high school diploma in New Jersey will be required to have taken 2 years of computational mathe- matics (arithmetic, not algebra, geometry, or trigo- nometry) and 1 year of science (laboratory work not required). Only one public college in New Jersey requires an achievement test in mathematics as part of
175 TABLE A12 Course Enrollments for Mathematics, 1983 Enrolled Students , Percent of Percent Percent Course All Students Male Female Remedial 24 55 45 Vocational 8 58 42 Consumer 20 52 48 Algebra 77 50 50 Geometry 57 57 43 Advanced algebra 33 51 49 Trigonometry 17 53 47 Calculus 8 56 44 Other 32 51 49 SOURCE: Michigan Department of Education (1983). its admission requirements; none requires an achievement test in any science area. Nevertheless, in 1982, almost one-half of all graduating high school seniors had com- pleted at least 2 years of algebra or 1 year of chemis- try; two-thirds had completed 1 year of geometry; and one-quarter had completed 1 year of physics (Advisory Council on Math/Science Teacher Supply and Demand, 1983) In 1982 71 percent of college-bound males and 57 percent of college-bound females took 4 or more years of mathematics; college-bound males also averaged 3.4 years of science, and college-bound females averaged 3.2 years New York A census of course enrollments is collected yearly in New York, with every teacher reporting on course titles, number of students, and type of class. Enrollment information is not collected separately for males and females or for different ethnic groups. The data are used to generate 15 to 20 annual reports on enrollment, plus several ad hoc reports. Despite a slight decrease in total enrollment, registration in mathematics and science courses in grades 10-12 increased both in percentage terms and in actual numbers between 1972-1973
176 TABLE A13 Course Enrollments for Science, 1983 Enrolled Students Percent of Percent Percent Course All Students Male Female General science 35 52 48 Biology 82 48 52 Earth science 22 52 48 Physics 18 56 44 Chemistry 38 51 49 Other 22 53 47 SOURCE: Michigan Department of Education (1983). and 1977-1978. Between 1977-1978 and 1982-1983 there was a further decrease in total student enrollment of 120,000 students, but the percent enrolled in science and mathe- matics continued to increase, as shown in Table A14. A New York State subsample of the High School and Beyond sample provides additional information, shown in Tables Ale, Ale, and All, on the number and specific courses taken by 1980 seniors in New York and in the United States. New York students who graduate from high school show a considerably higher level of preparation than do U.S. students as a whole; the state has, however, the sixth highest drop-out rate in the nation (Bell, 1984). TABLE A14 Registration in Grades 10-12 Mathematics and Science Courses in New York State Public Schools, 1973-1974, 1977-1978, and 1982-1983 . Sc fence Mathematics Ratio to Ratio to Total Grades Grades Enrollment Number of 10-12 Number of 10-12 Grades Year Students Enrollment Students Enrollment 10-12 1973-1974 647,754 .836 401,093 .517 775,141 1977-1978 674,126 .877 420,375 .547 768,252 1982-1983 591,445 .912 418,521 .645 648,479 SOURCE: Unpublished data provided by the University of the State of New York/The State Education Department.
177 TABLE A15 Cumulative Percentage of 1980 High School Seniors Reporting Varying Amounts of Mathematics Taken, by Sex, Grades 10-12 All Male Female Amount of Coursework Nation N.Y. Nation N.Y. Nation N.Y. Total, including those w ith no coursework 100 100 100 100 100 100 1 year or more 93 94 94 97 92 90 2 years or more 67 76 71 81 63 70 3 years or more 34 44 40 54 28 33 SOURCE: University of the State of New York/The State Education Department (1982: 5) . TABLE A16 Cumulative Percentage of 1980 High School Seniors Reporting Varying Amounts of Science Taken, by Sex, Grades 10-12 All Male Female Amount of Coursework Nation N.Y. Nation N.Y. Nation N.Y. Total, including those w ith no coursework 100 100 100 100 100 100 1 year or more 90 89 91 93 89 85 2 years or more 53 69 57 75 50 62 3 years or more 23 41 27 48 19 33 SOURCE: University of the State of New York/The State Education Depar tment ( 1982: 5 ) . TABLE A17 Percentage of 1980 High School Seniors Reporting Mathematics and Science Courses Taken, Course and Sex, Grades 10-12 Na t ion New Yor k Course All Male Female All Male Female Algebra I 79 79 79 86 87 85 Algebra II 49 51 47 60 64 54 Geometry 56 58 55 69 73 63 Trigonometry 26 30 22 54 59 48 Calculus ~ 10 6 16 20 11 Physics 19 26 14 36 46 25 Chemistry 37 39 35 56 62 49 SOURCE: University of the State of New York/The State Education Depar tment (1982 :9 ) .
1 178 North Carolina North Carolina collects course enrollment data for grades 9-12 annually and information on blocks of instructional areas for grades 7 and 8. Data are not collected separately for males and females or according to ethnicity. The data are stored in the state's management information system and are available for specific analyses. Pennsylvania Enrollment data show steadily declining enrollments in Pennsylvania's public secondary schools, but there has been an increase in enrollments in higher-level courses. Total enrollment in 1973-1974 was 1,137,660 students; in analytic geometry and calculus, it was 14,700 (1.3 per- cent of total high school enrollment); in physics, 37,000 (3.2 percent). The analogous numbers for 1981-1982 were 935,670 total enrollment; 26,000 in analytic geometry/ calculus (2.7 percent), and 36,200 in physics (3.9 percent). Washington Washington periodically surveys requirements for high school graduation set by local districts. There are two data bases available on enrollment: one is derived from a survey of 1980 high school seniors representing a state sample of High School and Beyond; the data are shown in Tables A18 and Al9. State enrollments and differences in enrollment between males and females in advanced mathe- matics and physical science courses mirror national statistics (see Table A20). The second set of data comes from a statewide census (including private schools) of courses taken by high school students to which more than 82 percent of the schools responded; the data are shown in Tables A21 and A22. Fewer than 40 percent of the high schools in Washington offer calculus; some 30 percent do not offer introductory (first-year) physics. The Washington enrollment data in Tables A18-A22 illustrate some problems with data that come from different sources. For example, enrollments in trigonometry are given as 29 percent in the HSB data in Table A20 and as 6 percent (1.4 x 4) in the census data
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180 in Table A21: the HSB data, based on student self reports, are probably high; the state census data may be low. On the other hand, there is reasonably good agree- ment for some other courses: for example, for chemistry, 37 percent (HSB) and 32 percent (census); for calculus, 8 percent (HSB) and 6 percent (census). A summary of enrollment data derived from the HSB study for 1980 seniors is given in Table A23. STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT Competency testing or assessment programs of student achievement have been mandated in 39 states (see Table 5, Chapter 3); 22 states have both. Most of the tests and programs include mathematics at selected grade levels, but not science (see Table AS above). The purposes of the assessments, the designs of the testing programs, the degree of participation by local districts or individual students, and the types of tests used vary greatly. The majority of states having assessment programs list as their purposes the use of the data by school districts (25 states) and monitoring trends and progress (24 states); other purposes listed include state policy, public accountability, and national comparison (Council of Chief State School Officers, 1984). Many states use nationally normed, standardized tests available through commercial publishers, particularly at the lower grade levels; others construct their own instru- ments, whether testing for competency in the skills required for high school graduation or for achievement in a particular subject. Some states test all students in selected grades, usually on a few subjects per year; some test on a sample basis. Some states make participation by local districts voluntary; some make participation by schools or by individual students voluntary. Some assess- ment programs concentrate on the attainment of cognitive skills; others include questions on student attitudes. Most states collect at least some information on variables concerning the students and the schools taking part in the assessment. Analysis and reporting may be done using districts, schools, grades, or achievement bands as the unit of analysis. Four states--California, Illinois, New York, and Washington--have participated through state subsamples in the HSB study, and several states have used some of the NAEP tests for their own assessments. This participation allows states to appraise selected aspects
181 TABLE A20 Percentage of 1980 High School Seniors Reporting Mathematics and Science Courses Taken, by Course and Sex, Grades 10-12 Nation Wash ington Course All Male Female All Male Female Algebra I 79 79 79 85 85 84 Algebra II 49 51 47 53 56 49 Geometry 56 58 55 60 63 58 Trigonometry 26 30 22 29 33 24 Calculus 8 10 6 8 10 7 Physics 19 26 14 20 27 14 Chemistry 37 39 35 37 40 35 Source: Brouillet et al. (1982:4). TABLE A21 Enrollment in Selected Mathematics Courses Course Percent of All High School Students (Grades 9-12) Enrolled Algebra, first year Algebra, intermediate, second year Algebra, integ. and trigonometry Calculus Geometry Mathematics, general Advanced courses Trigonometry 15.88 6.77 3.78 1.53 13.91 7.89 3.04 1.42 NOTE: On the assumption, not quite accurate, that enrollment in each grade is about one-fourth of the enrollment in grades 9-12, percentages need to be multiplied by 4 to yield percentage of seniors having taken a course. SOURCE: Adapted from Brouillet (1982:7).
182 TABLE A22 Enrollment in Selected Science Courses Percent of All High School Students (Grades 9-12) Enrolled Course Biology, introductory Chemistry, introductory Earth science, geology, natural history Physics, introductory Science, general Science, physical 23.45 7.97 3.72 3.91 4.32 3.80 NOTE: On the assumption, not quite accurate, that enrollment in each grade is about one-fourth of the enrollment in grades 9-12, percentages need to be multiplied by 4 to yield percentage of seniors having _ taken a course. SOURCE: Adapted from Brouillet (1982:8-9). 1 of their educational systems in the light of more general findings for the United States on such matters as enroll- ment in particular courses or attainment on tests of cognitive achievement. In addition to participating in statewide assessments, many local districts administer their own testing pro- grams. There is as much variation among districts within a state as there is among states. State and local assess- ments tend to concentrate on basic skills, including mathematics achievement up to 9th-grade algebra. There is much less assessment of science achievement or of achievement in the more advanced mathematics courses-- understandably so, since over the last decade the emphasis in education has been to ensure that students acquire the basic skills. However, several states are planning to add student achievement in science as an area to be assessed periodically. California During 1982-1983 all California students in grades 3, 6, and 12 were assessed with state-constructed tests in
183 TABLE A23 Percentage of 1980 Seniors Reporting Enrollment in Advanced Science and Mathematics Courses New Course Nationa Californiab YorkC Washingtond Algebra I 79 81 86 85 Algebra II 49 50 60 53 Geometry 56 59 69 60 Trigonometry 26 25 54 29 Calculus 8 8 16 8 Physics 19 17 36 20 Chemistry 37 33 56 37 data from National Center for Education Statistics (1981). ata from Law (1984:180). CData from University of the State of New York/The State Education Department (1982:9). data from Brouillet et al. (1982:4). reading, written language, and mathematics; these same areas and grades have been tested every year for several years. For grade 3, scores in all three areas have been going up steadily since 1979-1980; scores on reading tests have been improving for 16 years. For grade 6, there was some improvement over the previous year in written language and mathematics, while scores declined slightly in reading. For grade 12, scores in mathematics stayed constant and scores in reading and written language declined slightly. California students in the 3rd and 6th grades perform at about the same levels as the national average; Californians in the 12th grade perform somewhat below the national average (Law, 1984). Connecticut Connecticut's assessment program (CAEP) is designed to test every subject at 5-year intervals. Samples of students in grades 4, 8, and 11 are tested. The state uses the NAEP tests as a base for its assessment program. The most recent CAEP testing in mathematics and science took place in 1979-1980; mathematics achievement will be
184 TABLE A24 Performance of Students on NAEP Mathematics Items, 1979-1980 Average Percent Correct 9-Year-Olds 13-Year-Olds 17-Year-Olds Area (11 Items) (17 Items) (13 Items) Connecticut 72 65 72 United States 57 63 69 Northeast 62 66 70 SOURCE: Wolfe (1980). retested in 1984-1985, and science will be tested in 1985-1986. The assessments are designed so that compari- sons over time are possible. The state also administers a statewide basic skills testing program to all students in grade 9 to ensure that those who have not acquired basic competencies will have the opportunity to learn them before high school graduation. The 1979-1980 Connecticut assessment in mathematics used some of the same items as the national mathematics assessment of 1978-1979. The performance of students in Connecticut as compared with those in the nation as a whole and with those in the northeast is shown in Table A24. A comparison of this assessment with an earlier mathematics assessment done in 1976-77 shows little change in performance for any of the age groups in Connecticut. Science achievement was also assessed in 1979-1980; again, some items common to NAEP were used. Connecticut students scored about the same as students in the United States as a whole, but somewhat lower than students in the northeast. The 1979-1980 scores were also compared with an earlier CAEP science assessment in 1974-1975. As is true of all U.S. students, scores for Connecticut students decreased during this 5-year period: 3.3 percentage points for grade 4 (23 common items); 4.2 percentage points for grade 8 (32 common items); and 4.9 percentage points for grade 11 (38 items) (National Evaluation Systems, Inc., 1980).
185 Illinois The state has administered the Illinois Inventory of Educational Progress (IIEP) since 1976. Grades 4, 8, and 11 are sampled; special subtests are used for reading, mathematics, and science. The state also conducted a decade study," comparing student performance between 1970 and 1981 in English, mathematics, natural science, and social science. In addition, data are available from a state sample of the HSB study and from NAEP. A self- selected sample of students (66 percent of the total number of high school graduates) takes the college admissions test of the American College Testing Program (ACT), required for admission to the state system of higher education. Only 15 percent of Illinois students take SATs; the number taking the College Board achieve- ment tests is negligible. In mathematics, the IIEP shows gains for all three grades tested between 1976 and 1980, with a leveling off or decline in achievement in 1981. The decade study in mathematics measured knowledge in advanced mathematics of students in grade 11; results, recorded in school means, were significantly lower in 1981, as shown in Table A25. Illinois results for the mathematics items in High School and Beyond, shown in Table A26, are similar to national results. Illinois students score at about the same level as all U.S. students on the ACT mathematics test. After a slight decline between 1972 and 1975, test results have been similar every year. Females scored consistently below males both in Illinois and across the nation. With respect to science achievement, there are four data sources: the IIEP tests for 1977 and 1981, the decade study tests assessing achievement in advanced science, the High School and Beyond data, and the ACT scores. The IIEP data show that performance in physical science either stayed level or increased (for grade 11), but performance in life science declined significantly for all three grades. The decade study shows a sig- nificant performance decrease: in 1970, student per- formance averaged 43 percent (9.9 items answered correctly); in 1981, the average was 34.3 percent (7.9 items answered correctly). The decline was more than two standard deviations. ACT scores on the science test, however, have remained level during this period. The authors of the report on student achievement in Illinois (Illinois State Board of Education, 1982:58) conclude:
186 TABLE A25 Illinois Decade Study School Means and Standard Deviations for Achievement in Advanced Mathematics Subtest/ Number of Items Mean (Standard Deviation) Percent Correct 1970 1981 1970 1981 Part I, 36 11.8 (1.6) 11.1 (1.5) 33 31 Part II, 24 9.0 (1.0) 8.0 (0.9) 38 33 SOURCE: Illinois State Board of Education (1982:42). TABLE A26 High School and Beyond Mathematics Test Scores, Illinois, Other North Central States, and Total United States Sophomore Test Senior Test Mean Percent Mean Percent Area Correct Correct Illinois 18.7 49.2 19.2 60.0 Other north central states 19.7 51.8 19.9 62.2 Total United States 18.5 48.7 19.1 59.7 SOURCE: Illinois State Board of Education (1982:43) . ''The evidence from the data sources indicates that students preparing to go to college have maintained a plateau with regard to science achievement. However, generally fewer students are exposed to science courses, and as a result, fewer students understand and can apply scientific concepts. The plateau of ACT scores and the drop in the Decade Study results indicate the gulf is also widening among schools in their ability to produce students with a basic knowledge of science."
187 Michigan The Michigan Educational Assessment Program (MEAP) is a statewide testing program in reading and mathematics, with other subject areas tested on a sampling basis. The reading and mathematics tests are given to all students in grades 4, 7, and 10. Between 1969 and 1972, standar- dized, norm-referenced tests were used, but since then Michigan has used state-constructed tests. As curricular objectives change, tests are revised. The current assess- ment tests were developed in 1980 and are designed to test minimum performance objectives in reading and mathematics. Figure AS shows performance changes in mathematics with respect to individual schools; Figure A4 shows that females outscore males within the highest range of mathematics attainment. A science achievement test was administered in 1980 on a sample of students in grades 4, 7 and 10. Results are shown in Table A27. Science performance will be tested again on a sample basis in 1984-1985. TABLE A27 Cumulative Percentages of Students at Specified Attainment Levels by Grade in the Statewide Sample (Multiple-Choice Only) Grade Attainment Levels A B C 4 10 98 92 82 97 89 66 91 74 50 NOTE: Attainment Level A includes all students who attained 25 percent or more of the objectives at their grade level. Attainment Level B includes those students attaining 50 percent or more of the objectives. Attain- ment Level C includes those students attaining 75 percent or more of the objectives. SOURCE: Michigan State Board of Education (1981:49).
MATH EM AT I CS 188 3% _ ~ A..:'............ ,. :e .:. .:.:.::.:.:.:: :.:.:.:\ I.:.:.: .:.:.::::;:::: :::::::\ <~ ·- 2a2-~ 2 *in ~ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ ma. ~ .-.7 \~\\\~::~-:~:-:~:e .:~:~:~:.:-.:~:.:.:~.:.:-.:.:.:.:~:~:.:~:.:.:/ `\\\~-:-:~:-:-:-~:~:~:~:. :-~:-~-:-:~:-:~:-:~:~:~:-:~:~:~:-:~ of\ \ ~.~ : N~.~:~:~:~:~:~:~:-:-:-:~:~:-:~-:-.~:~:~:~:-:~:~:~:~:-. :~:~:-:~x - ::~::::::::::::~:e ::::::. ::. :::. :::::~::::::::::::::::;i~ ~ - : :~:~:~:~:~:~:~:~:~:-. :-::--:-:--::- :::-:-:-:' 1 % ~~:~:.:.:.:-: :~:.: A:-:::: _ ;~;~9 Grade 4 (N = 1940 Schools) 1 °/n 3% At_ Grade 10 , (N = 626 Schools) I mproving Declining Stable Other A., > ~:~.:.:.:~:.:.:~:.:.:~.:.:.:.:.:-.:~.:.:) .- -.-.- ~ ~~__r. ·~ e·~ \\\\ _~... :.:................... :-:::::::-:: :::::::::::::::::~: .::::: ;: : ::~. :.:: ::::::::::: :::: :::::: : ::::: ::~ ::::::::: r : .......... .~ :::. . . :. . ~ ~ o/ . . %~ e Q~ lo ........ ~ :~:~:~:~:~:~:~:~:~:~:~:~:~:~:~:~:~: :::::::: ~ A::::::: ~ · ~ :. ::::: .~.-.~.~.-.~.~.-.-.~.~.-.~.-.-.~.~.-.:~:.~::.~::.~:.~:.~ .-.Y :~:.:.:-:~:~:~:~:~:~:~:~:-.~:~:~::~:~.:::::~:::~:.:~.~:~.~:~:~:~:~ :~ :~::~:~ :: %:~:-:~:~:-:-:-:~:-:~:-:~:~:~:-~-:-:-:. :~. ::: -::-:-:::' A:.::: :.:.:.: :.:.:: :.:.:.:.: ..: : ..:.:,' Grade 7 (N = 792 Schools) FIGURE AS Performance changes in mathematics, Michigan schools, 1981-1983. NOTE: Percentages may not add to 100 because of rounding SOURCE: Michigan Board of Education (1984) . 1 ~
189 100 80 An z 60 LL o Z 40 C: U] CL 20 o ~/~73 Males Females it, (75.0)* 1 .... .6) (59.0) . 1 Cr 1 1 1 (64.4) _~- ///// , (57.9) 2 - E 3 3 , ~ 3 3 ~ (64.0) GRADE 4 GRADE 7 GRADE 10 FIGURE A4 1983-1984 mathematics attainment for males and females: Percent of students attaining 75 percent or more of test objectives. NOTE: Statewide averages for 1982-1983 in parentheses. SOURCE: Michigan State Board of Education Minnesota . Minnesota is using the NAEP as a basis for its assess ment program. During a 4-year cycle, 12 different subjects are assessed, 3 per year. An extended NAEP sample of students in grades 4, 8, and 11 is used; half the districts in the state have extended the testing further to include all students in these grades. The NAEP test items are used; for additional subjects, the
190 state adds its own items. The intent is to hold a sufficient number of items constant in order to have a 12-year comparison period. For example, a comparison of performance on identical items in the 1974 and 1978 mathematics tests showed that there was a small overall increase in 1978 in grade 4 (1.2 percent more items answered correctly) and a small decrease in 1978 in grades 8 and 11 (1.3 percent fewer items answered correctly in each grade) (Minnesota Department of Education, 1980a). Use of NAEP test items and student samples also makes possible comparisons of the performance of Minnesota students with national and regional results. As Table A28 shows, in 1978 Minnesota students performed somewhat better than regional and national samples of students in mathematics and about the same in science. New Jersey Since 1978 the New Jersey College Basic Skills Placement Test (NJCBSPT) has been required of all students entering public colleges in New Jersey; as of 1982, 10 independent colleges in New Jersey had also joined the testing program. Table A29 gives the results for the three basic skills assessed in the test: verbal skills, computation, and elementary algebra. As indi- TABLE A28 1978 Minnesota and National Comparisons in Mathematics and Science Performance, Grades 4, 8, and 11 Overall Percent Correct, NAEP Items Grade 4 Grade 8 Grade 11 Mathematics Minnesota 75.6 60.4 63.6 National 70.0 56.1 59.8 Central United States 73.0 59.6 62.1 Science Minnesota 66.7 58.5 50.5 National 63.0 59.7 50.0 Central United States 65.9 61.7 50.3 SOURCE: Minnesota Department of Education (1980a,b).
191 U) m C) z o Ed o s CO a) sol 0 a' a Id 8 s v U) a: .,, :r: o A U] .,. 3 a) U) o o A .,, sot o C) a, cat At: Ed 1 ~ CD At; EN i: a' Al P' ~4 :' A P4 o a' a) a' z P. z `: A o' Or ~ ~ o o o o a, ~ a, a' ~ co ID low N (D CO ~ ~ ID Or 0 d. a' ID ~ Cal ~ ret ~ 0 ~ Or a' ~ co a, a' 0 ~ UP O Cat CO ~ UP ~ O CO I ~ N 1 CO O ~0 N ~ ~n N ~ ~ a' ~ 0 ~D N ~ O ~ rn ~ _I _I N ~ _I O ~ U~ ~r O U~ U~ U~ ~ _I k0 N N as kD 0O ~ O a' 0 r~ ~ N N O u~ N =, r~, a~ u~ un O ~ ~ ~ ~ ~r 0 a' C~~ ·J t' ~ O N ~ a~ co ~ ~ ~ kD CO U~ ~0 ' ' O ' r N ' ~ O ~ o _I ~ _1 _ ~ ~r a~ ~ tD ~ O In u~ N ~ N ~1 N ~ tD cr) _I tD ~ ~ ~ ~ U~ rn ~ a' CO ~ ~ ~ Cn ~ CO O iD N aN U~ ~ ~ _I N r N ~ a~ I ~ o C C C .~' . - . - ~1 1 :^ ~ ^ ~ ~ ~ :> C) ~ ~ ~ t) ~ C C C C D C C a' _~ ,4 u~ ~ ~ - ~ u~ a' ~ ~ ~ ~ ~n ~ ~ O ~ ~ ~ C ~ ~ ~ ~ C ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ C ,~ .~~ a~ a~ ~ ~ a~ ~ ~ ~ ~ a~) a~ O ~ C ~ ~ ~ O ~ ~ ~ s" O -/ O O ~ ~ C) O O O ~ J~ U >' O O ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ·^ ~ )- 54 -1 ~ ~ ~ ' Q. Q. a~ o4 S~ Q~ ~1 ~ ~ ~ ~ a~ ~ =1 O ~ £ ~ O ~ ~ ~ O Y ~ O ~ ~ ~ Y Y O ~ ~ ~ Y Y O C.) ~ ~n ~ Q, ~ ~ 0 u~ ~ ~ a~ ~ t) u~ Q Q. Q4 ,~ ~ £ ~ ~ <: ~ ~ ~ ~: O C) CO a, - · ~ £ ~q a~ C: a q~ ~ O Pd P. C ~ O U' ,, U] . - s E~ C C .,, ~ 4J o £ s ~a ~ C O O c .,, C) c o U) c U] ~ O U] U] O ~ ~: cn ·. C) C H O ~a1 u~
192 cased, there has been little change in results over the 5 years: nearly 40 percent of the students entering the participating colleges lack proficiency computation, and 50 percent lack proficiency in elementary algebra. Moreover, even students who had completed 3 years of high school mathematics (algebra I, geometry, and algebra II) did not fare well: half of these students could not answer 50 percent of the algebra problems presented, and 36 percent of the same students lacked proficiency in 6th-grade arithmetic (defined as answering correctly 20 of the 30 problems presented). Thus, while there is a correlation between the number of mathematics courses taken and performance in the NJCBSPT, the completion of high school mathematics courses does not necessarily lead to proficiency in mathematics (Advisory Council on Math/Science Teacher Supply and Demand, 1983). New York At the elementary level, mathematics and reading are tested in grades 3 and 6; in the future, the mathematics test will include computer-related items. Writing is tested in grade 5; the state plans to add tests in social studies and in science to be administered at the end of grade 6. At the secondary level, the Board of Regents exams that test achievement in specific subjects are optional, but they are intended to guide the curriculum in all schools. About three-fourths of the students who take the Regents exams in various levels of mathematics pass the tests; more than 80 percent do so in the sciences (biology, earth science, chemistry, physics). Although scores on Regents exams are not comparable from year to year, the data show that the percentage of students passing the exam in three of the four sciences--biology, earth science, chemistry--has gone up since 1975. How- ever, the numbers of students taking the exams in each of these sciences have decreased slightly. In physics, the percentage passing has remained stable, even though the number of students taking the physics exam has increased by 16 percent in spite of declining total high school enrollments. The percentage passing the various Regents exams in mathematics has remained stable or increased slightly. In 1983, 45 percent of the 194,128 students receiving diplomas in New York received Regents diplomas (University of the State of New York/The State Department of Education, 1983b).
193 State examinations are also prepared for non-Regents courses in several science subjects and mathematics as well as tests for minimum competency in mathematics, reading, and writing. The minimum-competency tests are first administered in the 8th and 9th grades to identify students needing remediation, then in the middle of 10th grade to ensure students' readiness for graduation. Only 1 percent of diploma candidates fail to graduate because of failure to pass the competency exams. North Carolina Statewide assessments have been carried out in mathematics (and other basic subjects) in North Carolina since 1978, in grades 1, 2, 3, 6, and 9. The California Achievement Test (QT) is used for grades 3, 6, and 9; the Diagnostic Mathematics Inventory (DMI) is used for grades 1 and 2. The results for mathematics are presented in Table A30. Science performance was tested in grade 3 in 1973-1974, in grade 6 in 1974-1975, and in grade 9 in 1975-1976. Pennsylvania Pennsylvania's Educational Quality Assessment (EQA) was designed to help local districts improve their educational programs by providing schools with informa- tion about the knowledge, skills, and attitudes of their students. Eight cognitive areas, including mathematics, are tested each year in grades 5, 8, and 11. Local school districts volunteer to participate; the number of schools involved has increased considerably since 1978 when the tests were first given; in 1983 more than 1,000 schools participated. Despite the fact that the test population may be changing from year to year, with Philadelphia and Pittsburgh sometimes included and some- times not, mathematics scores have stayed quite stable over the 6 years that EQA has operated: for grade 5, the mean score every year has been 37 (of 60; standard devia- tion around 4); for grade 8, 32 (of 60; standard deviation 3.3 to 4.7); for grade 11, 35 (of 60; standard deviation around 3).
194 TABLE A30 Mathematics Achievement Results and Differences in Performance Between 1979-1980 and 1982-1983 Gain, 1979- 1980- 1981- 1982- 1979- Grade 1980 1981 1982 1983 1983 1 (DMI) 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.4 0.2 2 (DMI) 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.5 0.2 3 (CAT) 3.9 4.0 4.1 4.1 0.2 6 (CAT) 6.9 7.3 7.5 7.5 0.6 9 (CAT) 9.4 9.9 10.0 10.0 0.6 NOTE: Results are presented as grade equivalents; national averages equal the seventh month of each grade level. The grade equivalents for grades 1 and 2 are estimates based on linking DMI results to CAT scores. SOURCE: North Carolina Department of Public Instruction (1983:6). Washington Washington has had a statewide testing program since 1975. For the first 3 years, the Comprehensive Tests of Basic Skills (CT8S) were used; in 1979, a change was made to the California Achievement Test (CAT). Table A31 presents results for 7 years. The state also administers the Washington Pre-College test; each year, about 28,000 students (more than 50 percent of each cohort) take this test.
195 TABLE A31 Comparison of Median Percentile Rank (MPR) in Mathematics Achievement and Percentages of 4th Grade Students Scoring in Each Norm Group Quarter Norm (I) 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 25 (top) quartile) 24% 23% 25% 27% 29% 28% 29% 25 25 25 26 28 29 29 29 25 31 32 31 26 26 27 26 25 (bottom quartile) 20 21 17 19 16 17 16 MPR 53 52 54 54 58 56 57 NOTE: The median percentile ranks (MPR's) for the 1976-1978 CTBS have been converted to their CAT equivalents. SOURCE: Data made available by Washington State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Olympia, Washington. REFERENCES Advisory Council on Math/Science Teacher Supply and Demand 1983 Report to the Advisory Council on Math/Science Teacher Supply and Demand. Trenton, N.J.: Department of Higher Education and Department of Education. Anderson, Beverly 1984 Status of State Assessment and Minimum Competency Testing. Denver, Colo.: Education Commission of the States. Bell, Terrell H. 1984 State Education Statistics: State Performance Outcomes, Resource Inputs, and Population Characteristics, 1972 and 1982. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education. Brouillet, Frank B. 1982 Washington High School Course Enrollment Study: A Focus on Grades 9-12. Tumwater, Wash.: Superintendent of Public Instruction .
196 Brouillet, Frank B., Rasp, Alfred Jr., and Ensign, Gordon B. 1982 Washington High School and Beyond: A Profile of the 1980 Senior Class. Olympia, Wash.: Superintendent of Public Instruction. The College Board 1983 Readability Report, Academic Year 1983-84. New York: College Entrance Examination Board. Council of Chief State School Officers 1982 An Information Exchange on the Status of Statistical and Automated Information Systems in State Education Agencies. A joint product of the National Center for Education Statistics and the Council of Chief State School Officers, Commission on Evaluation of Information Systems, Washington, D.C. 1984 A Review and Profile of State Assessment and Minimum Competency Testing Programs. Prepared for meeting of Chief State School Officers, August 1984. Dorwart, James P. 1983 Science and Mathematics Teacher Supply and Demand and Educational Needs Analysis: A Pennsylvania Report. Harrisburg: Pennsylvania Department of Education. Flakus-Mosqueda, Patricia 1983 Survey of States' Teacher Policies. Working Paper No. 2. Prepared for the Education Commission of the States, Denver, Colo. Hirsch, Christian 1982 Preparedness of Junior High School Mathematics Teachers. Memorandum to NCTM Executive Board Michigan Council of Teachers of Mathematics, Lansing. 1983 Preparedness of Junior High School Mathematics Teachers. Updated Memorandum to NCTM Executive Board. Michigan Council of Teachers of Mathematics, Lansing. Howe, Trevor G., and Gerlovich, Jack A. 1982 National Study of the Estimated SUPP1Y and Demand of Secondary Science and Mathematics Teachers. Ames: Iowa State University. . Illinois State Board of Education 1980a Special Report on Mathematics. Springfield: Illinois State Board of Education. 1980b Special Report on Science. Springfield: Illinois State Board of Education.
197 High School and Beyond: Illinois Students. Springfield: Illinois State Board of Education. 1982 Student Achievement in Illinois: An Analysis of Student Progress. Springfield: Illinois State Board of Education. 1983 The Supply and Demand for Illinois Mathematics . and Science Teachers. Springfield: Illinois State Board of Education. Laverty, Grace E. 1983 Investigating Mathematics and Science Teacher Supply and Demand in Pennsylvania; A Synthesis of POE Data. Harrisburg: Department of Education. Law, Alexander I. 1984 Student achievement in California schools. 1982-1983 Annual Report. Sacramento: California State Department of Education. Michigan Department of Education 1983 Highlights of High School Commission's Survey, An Overview of Pennsylvania 1983. Lansing: Michigan Department of Education. Michigan State Board of Education 1981 Science Education Interpretive Report. 1984 Lansing: Michigan State Board of Education. Results from the 1983-84 Michigan Educational Assessment Program. Presented to the Michigan State Board of Education, Lansing. Minnesota Department of Education 1980a Minnesota Statewide Educational Assessment in l Mathematics, 1978-79. St. Paul: Minnesota Department of Education. 1980b Minnesota Statewide Educational Assessment in Science, 1978-79. St. Paul: Minnesota Department of Education. 1984 Report of the 1983 Minnesota survey of Science , Education. St. Paul: Minnesota Department of Education. National Center for Education Statistics 1981 A Capsule Description of High School Students: A Report on High School and Beyond, A National Longitudinal Study for the 1980s. Prepared by Samuel S. Peng, William B. Fetters, and Andrew J. Kolstad. Supt. of Doc. No. NCES 0-729-575/2100. Available from the U.S. Government Printing Office. U.S. Department of Education. Washington, D.C.:
198 National Evaluation Systems, Inc. 1980 Connecticut Assessment of Educational Progress: Science 1979-80. Prepared for Connecticut State Board of Education, Bureau of Research, Planning and Evaluation. Hartford: Connecticut State Board of Education. North Carolina Department of Public Instruction 1983 Report of Student Performance. Raleigh: North Carolina Department of Public Instruction. Roeber, Edward D. 1984 Survey of Large-Scale Assessment Programs, Fall 1983. Lansing: Michigan State Board of Education. University of the State of New York/The State Education Department 1982 High School and Beyond: A National Longitudinal Study for the 1980's. Report No. 1, A Description of High School Students in New York State and the Nation, 1980. Albany, N.Y.: State Education Department Information Center on Education. 1983a Public School Professional Personnel Report, New York 1982-1983. Albany, N.Y.: State Education Department Information Center on Education. 1983b Regents Examination, Regents Competency Test, and High School Graduation Statistics for the 1982-83 School Year. Albany, N.Y.: Bureau of Elementary and Secondary Testing Programs. 1983c Teachers in New York State, 1968 to 1982. Albany, N.Y.: State Education Department Information Center on Education. Weiss, Iris S. 1978 Report of the 1977 National Survey of Science, Mathematics, and Social Studies Education. Prepared for the National Science Foundation. Supt. of Doc. No. 083-000-00364-0. Available from the U.S. Government Printing Office. Washington, D.C.: National Science Foundation. Wolfe, Martin S. 1980 Connecticut Assessment of Educational Progress: Mathematics 1979-80. Prepared for Connecticut State Board of Education, Bureau of Research, Planning and Evaluation. Hartford: Connecticut State Board of Education.
199 STATE PERSONNEL California ALEX LAW, Chief, Planning, Evaluation and Research, California State Department of Education MARK FETLER, Coordinator, Educational Planning and Information Center, California State Department of Education CLAIRE QUINLAN, Consultant, Division of Planning, Evaluation, and Research, California State Department of Education Connecticut PASCAL D. FORGIONE, Chief, Bureau of Research, Planning and Evaluation, Connecticut State Department of Education JOAN BARON, Project Director, Connecticut Assessment of Educational Progress Illinois MERV BRENNAN, Program Evaluation and Assessment Specialist, Illinois State Board of Education NORMAL STENZEL, Program Evaluation and Assessment Specialist, Illinois State Board of Education Michigan DAVID L. DONOVAN, Assistant Superintendent, Technical Assistance and Evaluation, Michigan State Department of Education EDWARD D. ROEBER, Supervisor, Michigan Educational Assessment Program, Michigan State Department of Education Minnesota LOWELL TORNQUIST, Director, Planning and Policy Research, Minnesota State Department of Education RICHARD C. CLARK, Specialist, Science Education, Minnesota Department of Education
200 New Jersey CONSTANCE O'DEA, Education and Program Specialist, New Jersey State Department of Education New York JOHN MURPHY, Assistant Commissioner, Office of Elementary/Secondary and Continuing Support Services, New York State Education Department JOHN J. STIGLMEIER, Director, Information Center for Education, New York State Education Department North Carolina WILLIAM BROWN, Special Assistant for Research, North Carolina Department of Public Instruction Pennsylvania ROBERT BURROWS, Educational Statistical Associate, Pennsylvania Department of Education, J. ROBERT COLDIRON, Chief, Division of Educational Testing and Evaluation, Pennsylvania Department of Education RICHARD LATTANZIO, Educational Statistical Supervisor, Pennsylvania Department of Education JOHN J. McDERMITT, Senior Science Advisor, Pennsylvania Department of Education JOHN A. REBERT, Director, Professional Standards and Practices Commission, Pennsylvania Department of Education Washington ALFRED RASP, Director, Testing, Evaluation and Accounting, Washington State Department of Public Instruction
