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4.1.2 Marine Site Evaluation
The impact on the ocean resulting from discharged waste
depends on the composition and volume of the waste and on
the dispersal and transport characteristics of the site
selected for disposal. Clearly, the distribution, fate,
and effects of waste inputs are governed by the physical,
chemical, and biological processes that alter the
chemical forms of the waste and their bioavailability.
These processes are discussed in detail in Chapter 2.
Sewage sludge has been routinely discharged or dumped in
the sea at several sites along both the east and west
coasts of the United States. From these disposal
activities, data bases are available that can be used to
begin to evaluate the biological impact of waste disposal
in the marine environment. Although our discussion is
focused on the impact of sewage sludge disposal, the
input of chemical contaminants from the disposal of
dredged material and industrial wastes will result in
similar effects in the marine environment.
4.1.2.1 Nearshore Disposal
Sewage sludge is discharged to U.S. coastal waters either
by pipeline (commonly used on the west coast) or barge
(primarily used on the east coast). Although the
discharge method will generally determine the initial
dilution of wastes, subsequent dispersal and transport
will depend on advective processes. Along the coast of
southern California, the city of Los Angeles discharges
sewage sludge (1 percent solids) through a pipe 75 cm in
diameter at a depth of 100 m along the rim of a submarine
canyon 10 km from shore (Bascom, 1982). Initial dilution
of the wastes by 102 occurs, and further dilution and
transport of the waste plume are achieved by passive
advection and lateral spreading (Brooks et al., 1982).
Because of the highly stratified water column at this
site, the waste plume usually remains at a depth below
the pyanocline.
Contaminants of biological concern, such as pathogenic
microorganisms, trace metals, and xenobiotic organic
compounds, are primarily associated with particulate
material, and transport of the sludge particulates is
controlled by the same phenomena as is the transport of
natural sediments. Only 10 percent of the sludge solids
discharged settle on the bottom within 5 km of the
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dissolved oxygen and accumulation of nutrients in the
benthos. Boesch (1982) concluded that the altered
benthic community within Christiaensen Basin is better
able to cope with organic enrichment than is the
indigenous community, but it is less suitable for support
of higher trophic levels. Similar changes have been
observed in the southern California Bight, and only
generalist feeders among demersal predator populations
appear to be unaffected by alterations in benthic
communities (Allen, 1975; Word, 1979).
In addition to the high level of concern about toxic
chemicals and pathogens in the marine environment, there
is also concern about the release of degradable and
nondegradable organic matter and nutrients to the ocean.
If these substances are discharged in sufficiently high
concentrations to oceanic areas of poor dispersion and
mixing energy, depletion of oxygen as a result of the
high rate of microbial degradation may occur. Eutrophica-
tion of coastal areas from nutrient enrichment may result
in changes in species composition and dynamics of marine
communities. Mearns et al. (1982) have recently reviewed
the effects of nutrient and organic enrichment on marine
ecosystems, focusing primarily on the data base available
for the New York Bight Apex. Coastal waters of the New
York Bight and adjacent estuaries receive high annual
inputs of organic carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus from
multiple sources, including barge dumping of sewage
sludge and dredged materials, inputs from the Hudson-
Raritan estuary, and other coastal and atmospheric inputs
(Mueller et al., 1976). In the New York Bight Apex,
seasonal and annual variations in productivity and
stratification of the water column may lead to periods of
low dissolved oxygen or anoxia in the benthos, such as
that experienced during the summer of 1976 following a
bloom of Ceratium tripes. Nutrient enrichment has also
been observed in the Southern California Bight (G.
Jackson, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla,
California, personal communication)
On both the southern California coast and in the New
York Bight, there are many sources of contaminants and
nutrients, so biological effects cannot be attributed to
the impact of dumping of sludge alone. Understanding the
impact of other point sources is necessary to predict
overall degradation of a receiving area. Clearly, the
impact of waste discharges depends on the volume and
composition of waste to be discharged and on dispersal
characteristics at the site of discharge. Low-volume
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inputs from a small coastal city will not have the same
impact as inputs from a large metropolitan area, in
either total volume or contaminant loading. These
factors must be taken into account in future permit
decisions for ocean dumping.
4.1.2.2 Deep-Water Disposal
Deep-water disposal of wastes, such as sewage sludge,
offers the advantages of greater dilution and dispersion,
reducing the potential return of wastes to humans and
reducing the potential impact on living resources in
nearshore coastal areas. Two deepwater sites have been
proposed for receiving sewage sludge: the 106-Mile Ocean
Waste Disposal Site (Dumpsite 106) located 106 nautical
miles southeast of New York Harbor on the continental
slope in the northwest Atlantic at a water depth of 2,000
m; and the proposed Orange County deep-water disposal
site located off the coast of southern California at a
depth of 300 to 400 m.
Dumpsite 106 is typical of slope water regions of the
northwest Atlantic, and experience with industrial waste
dumping at this site provides a background of mixing and
dispersal characteristics of waste inputs. Initial
dilution and dispersion of wastes will be similar to
those measured for barged wastes in the New York Bight,
but the greater depth and proximity to the Gulf Stream
ensures greater horizontal transport (O'Connor and Park,
1982). Despite a limited number of investigations that
suggest that deposition rates of sewage sludge to deep
benthic areas would be minimal, no accurate information
exists on the potential deposition rates of sewage sludge
to deep sea benthic areas in the vicinity of Dumpsite
106, the extent of the area of deposition, or the
resulting impact on benthic systems.
Predictive transport models of the pipeline discharge
from the proposed Orange County deep-water disposal plan
indicate that initial dilution of wastes will be 5 x
102, or greater, depending on the prevailing current
regime and the height to which the submerged plume may
rise. Further mixing is accomplished by advection and
lateral spreading. The most critical difference between
other outfalls off the southern California coast and this
proposed outfall is its proximity to the oxygen minimum
layer, and the potential effects of high biodegradation
rates on biota acclimated to a low ambient oxygen
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concentration (1 mg/L). Brooks et al. (1982), in
conjunction with a baseline study conducted by the
Southern California Coastal Water Research Project, have
developed a comprehensive research program to address the
feasibility and impact of this particular disposal
option.
The paucity of documentation for the disposal of
wastes at deep-water sites makes predictions of ultimate
biological and/or ecosystem effects difficult to assess;
further research is required for evaluation.
4.1.2 Terrestrial Site Evaluation
The use of terrestrial and affiliated freshwater
ecosystems for the disposal of anthropogenic wastes
involves issues that are quite distinct from those of the
marine situation. Because of the more intimate contact
that humans may have with the wastes, compared, for
instance, with contact from open-ocean disposal, the
central goal of disposal for terrestrial systems is
containment of the various components of the wastes.
general, a properly sited terrestrial waste disposal
system incorporates an area within which impacts on the
natural ecosystem are not considered important and
In
concern instead is focused on export to other ecological
and human systems. As discussed in detail in Chapter 3,
such concerns include (1) long-term environmental effects,
including contamination of surface or groundwater re-
sources, potential threats to human health, and secondary
effects on valuable natural and agricultural ecosystems
and (2) long-term commitment of land resources. Land
spreading and reclamation may also be used as part of
ecosystem management practices, such as the use of wastes
for nutrient enrichment of park lands to enhance diversity
and productivity.
There are a large number of terrestrial waste disposal
options currently in use (Loehr et al., 1979), such as
sludge applications to agricultural land (Council for
Agricultural Science and Technology, 1976), sewage
treatment by means of cypress domes, other wetlands and
silvicultural areas (Ewel et al., 1982), and disposal in
landfill and mine reclamation areas (Sopper and Kerr,
1981). Many of the constituents of waste enter surface-
water and groundwater systems (Loehr et al., 1979? either
through deliberate disposal (e.g., into some rivers and
lakes) or secondarily (e.g., from leachate from agri
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108
cultural and forest systems). The purpose of this
section is not to discuss specific disposal methods or
recipient systems but to highlight those aspects of land
disposal that need to be addressed.
The exports from disposal systems can be categorized
as nutrients, organics, heavy metals, and pathogens. The
pathways of concern for these include both those linked
to other natural systems and those linked to humans.
Disposal systems should be designed to prevent direct or
indirect contamination of freshwater, groundwater, and
estuarine systems, because such systems are characterized
by extensive contact with humans, lack of containment,
and high concern for system alterations (Ewel et al.,
1982).
With respect to nutrients, direct enrichment of the
disposal area may result in positive benefits, such as
increased harvest of food or wood products. This is a
key aspect of the application of wastes to managed
terrestrial systems in that the resource value (i.e.,
nutrients) of human activities is recycled. Concern
develops with the inadvertent nutrient enrichment of
water systems from surface runoff and via percolation of
leachate to groundwater. Nitrogen and phosphorus are of
primary concern, particularly the movement into ground-
water of nitrates and the movement of nitrogen, phos-
phorus, and oxygen-demanding organics into surface-water
systems (Loehr et al., 1979). The latter is more
problematical where climate, topography, and system
management practices (e.g., agricultural cultivation)
result in significant fluxes of runoff into streams and
lakes. Movement of phosphorus into groundwater has been
found to be far less significant (National Research
Council, 1978~.
For various terrestrial disposal systems, transport of
toxic organics and heavy metals into both surface- and
near-surface water systems remains an issue of concern,
with respect to impacts on other natural systems and
particularly with respect to pathways to humans. It is
beyond the scope of this section to treat this topic in
detail; rather, we will simply indicate that the waste
stream must be characterized with respect to these
toxicants and that their physicochemical characteristics
and those of the environment are critical to determining
the fate, transport, and effects of the toxicants.
Transport of pathogens to humans must be addressed for
any terrestrial system. Potential pathways include
direct consumption of food products grown in waste-amended
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110
population- and community-level effects occurring within
the area under primary impact rather than on processes,
because of the limited spatial extent of the population
perturbation relative to the spatial scale of most
ecosystem processes.
When considering the effects of waste disposal at
population and community levels, the first concern is
potential elimination of a species, either through direct
toxicological impacts or indirect effects, such as loss
of habitat or reduction in some essential resource base.
The issue of the spatial extent of the impacted area
versus the spatial range of the species is critical.
Further, for many species the area of concern includes
the range for early life stages (e.g., nesting or spawning
areas), which is smaller than the total geographical
range for the mature stages. Similarly, the loss of a
particular habitat that is both limited in its general
occurrence and spatially of the same scale as the
waste-impacted area presents a problem that must be
addressed, as does the elimination of unique biotic
communities.
Of less dramatic concern is the alteration of com-
munity structure. Community structure continually
changes, even without significant anthropogenic pertur-
bations; thus, alteration in the community structure per
se may not represent a major problem. The situation
becomes important, however, if such community alterations
are major in spatial extent or unidirectional change and
in the relationship and distribution of the constituent
species. To evaluate these alterations, one must look at
the interrelationships among the species. There may be
some critical species whose presence is required for a
significant part of the overall community to exist. Loss
of the critical species from a location will result in
concomitant indirect losses or population explosion of
other species. Similarly, there are critical groups of
species, i.e., a number of species may function
redundantly within the system. The loss of all of them
would result in the loss of their critical function in
the overall ecosystem.
Another class of indirect effect that must be con-
sidered is the impact on some species that have par-
ticular aesthetic or economic value. For example,
pollution-induced reduction in benthic habitat could
result in depletion of fisheries, even though the fish
were not directly affected by the pollution.
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111
A final issue that needs to be addressed is the
recoverability of the systems under impact. Rates of
recovery of defaunated or defoliated areas depend on the
rates at which the area becomes habitable again and on
the rates of recolonization by the biota. These values
depend to a large degree on the spatial scale of the
impacted area. The recovery of a small area surrounded
by undamaged systems is more rapid than is recovery of
large impacted areas that have relatively fewer sources
of colonizers.
In summary, the aspects of ecosystems that must be
considered when evaluating waste impacts range from
direct effects on individual species and effects resulting
from interspecific interactions to effects on community
structure and concomitant functional relationships.
These aspects are overlaid by consideration of spatial
and temporal scales. These are the types of information
and understanding required, but it is quite another
matter actually to attain them. For instance, while
direct impacts on heavily affected areas may be readily
discernible, effects of longer-term, more widely
disseminated lower-level stresses are generally more
difficult to detect. Such chronic stresses can affect a
species in more subtle ways (e.g., behavioral changes
versus immediate mortality) and often involve more
indirect mechanisms. The response time is longer, and
distinguishing stress-induced responses from normal
environmental fluctuations and spatial heterogeneities is
especially difficult. Temporal relationships, such as
the one between biodegradation and accumulation rates,
become important. Even more difficult to understand are
synergisms, in which chronic pollutants have a greater
impact in combination than separately. Each of these
aspects contributes to the degree of uncertainty inherent
in ecological evaluations. The significance of the
uncertainty that remains after the ecosystems have been
realistically characterized is a major issue in selecting
among disposal options. This is particularly true since
the uncertainty in predicting ecosystem-level effects of
waste disposal includes not only a component related to
the amount of information that has been collected about a
system but also a component of intrinsic unpredictability.
Further, the degree of uncertainty remaining even after a
system is reasonably well studied varies from one
ecosystem type to another.
OCR for page 135
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· The effects of incomplete degradation or
metabolic alteration of toxic chemicals on human health
and ecosystems continue to be a subject of primary
concern owing to the mutagenic, carcinogenic, and
teratogenic potential of toxic parent compounds and their
metabolites.
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Representative terms from entire chapter:
york bight
