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OCR for page 43
J
Inputs
Petroleum hydrocarbons (PHC)
sources. Estimates of these
sources are interrelated and
INTRODUCTION
enter the marine environment from many
PHC inputs remain uncertain because the
~ available data are minimal.
Figure 2-1 shows the international flow of petroleum. The width of
that flow is representative of the amount of petroleum being transported
along these routes. This pattern of flow may change significantly in
future years, particularly in arctic areas where petroleum production
is increasing.
A major fraction of the world's petroleum continues to be produced
and transported from countries different from those in which the petrol-
eum is refined and consumed. During the past decade the quantity of
petroleum transported by sea, as well as the number and tonnage of ships
in operation, has increased significantly (British Petroleum Company,
Ltd., 1980; Lloyd's Register of Shipping, 1980~. This increase is
shown in Table 2-1.
Sources of PHC into the marine environment considered in this report
include natural sources; offshore oil production; marine transportion
(operational discharges, drydocking, marine terminals, bunker
operations, bilge and fuel oil transfer, and accidental spillages); the
atmosphere; coastal, municipal, and industrial wastes and runoff; and
ocean dumping. Each source type will be addressed in the following
sections.
NATURAL SOURCES
The direct input of PHC from natural sources is estimated to be
0.025-2.5 million metric tons per annum (mta), the best estimate being
0.25 mta. Natural seeps contribute the major fraction of this total.
A minor contribution is estimated to come from erosional processes.
These consensus estimates, developed at the 1981 workshop, are based on
geological and geochemical principles, many of which were described by
Wilson et al. (1973~.
In this report on natural sources, hydrocarbons of a petroleum
origin are the only ones considered. Biogenically produced hydrocar
43
OCR for page 44
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45
TABLE 2-1 Petroleum Tr anspor t at Sea
1971
1980
Ratio.
1980/197 1
O it movement at sea (mta)
Crude oil
Product oil
Total
World' s merchant fleet
Number of sh ips
Gross tonnage
Wor Id ' s tanker f feet
Number of sh ips
Total deadwe igh t tons
Average deadweight tons
1,100
255
1,355
55, 041
247,200,000
6, 292
169, 355, 000
26,900
1,319
269
1,588
73,832
419,911,000
7,112
339 ,802,000
47,800
1.19
1.05
1.16
1.34
1.70
1.13
2.01
1.78
loons, some of which have the same chemical structure as some PHC (e.g.,
n-alkanes and isoprenoid alkanes), are synthesized by marine organisms
(see Chapter 3, Chemical Methods section).
Petroleum hydrocarbons, considered here as liquid petroleum and tar
~ ,~ ~ _ , _ or more carbon
atoms), enter the marine environment naturally by means of two main
processes--submar ine seepage and erosion of sedimentary rocks.
Estimating the contribution of each of these is a formidable problem
for the following reasons:
(hydrocarbons and other organic compounds with five
1. Direct observation of submarine seeps is limited because the
seeps are not normally visible. This invisibility leads to inaccurate
estimates of seepage rates.
2. Submarine seeps flow intermittently, thus complicating both
detection and estimation of seepage rates. The estimate is an average
over geologic time, and in any particular year seepage events can exceed
this estimate by orders of magnitude.
3. The potential area of continental margins where submarine seeps
can occur is vast, whereas the areas of individual seepages are usually
small, making an adequate inventory impossible with current technology
and available monetary resources. In addition, the products of seepage
cannot always be distinguished from petroleum pollution.
4. There are no direct measurements of the amount of petroleum
entering the oceans by means of erosional processes, thus limiting the
accuracy of any estimate.
Natural Seeps
Wilson et al. (1973) combined seepage rates on land with information on
reported marine seeps, then extrapolated the data to the continental
OCR for page 46
46
margins, which they classified into areas of potentially high, medium,
and low seepage. They incorporated tectonic history, earthquake
activity, and sediment thickness in their appraisal. Five basic
assumptions were used in their estimates:
1. More seeps exist in offshore basins than have been observed.
2. Factors that determine the total seepage in an area {number of
seeps per unit area and the daily rate for each seep) are related to
the general geologic structure of the area and to the stage of
sedimentary basin evolution.
3. Within each structural type, the number of seeps and, to a
lesser extent, rate per seep are thought to depend primarily on the
area of exposed rock and not on rock volume. This assumption presumes
that there is suff icient sediment volume and organic matter for
matur at ion and gener at ion of petroleum.
4. Most mar ine seeps are clustered within the continental margins
where the thickness of sedimentary rocks, which provides the needed
source rocks for the seepage, exceeds a certain minimum.
5. Seepage rates are lognormally distributed.
Although the geologic relationships developed by Wilson et al.
(1973) that affect seepage rates are reasonable and seem to agree with
observations, the statistical arguments of the last assumption may be
questionable. On purely abstract grounds, an exponential distribution
of seepage rates is more likely than a lognormal distr ibution. While
oil field volumes are generally lognormally distributed, the actual
volumes of all oil accumulations (most of which are perhaps too small
to be produced and thereby cannot be classified as fields) are likely
to have an exponential distribution (Harbaugh and Ducastaing, 1981~.
The volumes of natural seepages are probably statistically distr ibuted
in a manner similar to the volumes of oil accumulations in general,
because seeps do not necessarily need sources as large as oil f ields .
Consider ing the cliff iculties encompassed in the other assumptions,
however, the form of the frequency distr ibution may be a minor matter.
Since Wilson et al. (1973, 1974) made their estimate, little new
information has become available that would alter their worldwide
estimates of marine seepage rates. Their compilations of 190 reported
submarine seeps were derived mostly from Johnson (1971) and Landes
(1973) and can be augmented by four newly identif fed seep areas (Scott
Inlet, Canada; Buchan Gulf, Canada; Australian North Coast; and Laguna
de Tamiahua, Mexico) . All identif fed submar ine seep areas are shown in
F igure 2-2; 54 individual submar ine seeps are represented by one dot
of f the Cal if ornia coast, and another 28 are so represented in the Gulf
of Alaska. Of the four recent reports (Levy, 1978; Levy and Ehrhardt,
1981; McKirdy and Horvath, 1976; and Geyer and Giammona, 1980), none
estimates rates of seepage.
The estimates available to Wilson et al. `1973) for Coal Oil Point
(Santa Barbara Channel) and Santa Monica Bay ranged from 0.0007 to 0.05
mta. The more recent estimate of Fischer (1978) for the entire Santa
Barbara Channel ranges from 0.002 to 0.03 mta, a span of values not
greatly different from earlier estimates.
OCR for page 47
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OCR for page 48
48
TABLE 2-2 Petroleum Resource Estimates
Source
Amount
Mill ions of
Metr ic Tons
Billions of
Barrels Reference
Offshore oil "tar" sands
Total offshore petroleum
resources
Total petroleum resources 1,000,000
in place
Proven oil reserves and
potential resources
offshore
Total proven reserves and
potential resources
onshore and offshore
World exploitable oil
(discovered 163,000 mt;
undiscovered 141,000 mt)
Large ~ tar n depos its
30,000
350, 000
14, 000
200
2,500
7, 200
100
86, 000630
304,0002,200
320, 0002, 100
Weeks (1965)
Weeks ~ 1965)
Hunt (1972)
Albers et al.
(1973}
Albers et al.
(1973)
Halbouty and
Moody ( 1980
Dema ison
(1977 ~
Geolog ical Impl icat ions of Seepage Rates
A compar ison of estimated seepage rates with the amount available for
seepage can be used to assess the maximum geologic time during which
seepages could be sustained.
Table 2-2 lists petroleum resource estimates for several categories
of petroleum and illustrates the wide range of resource estimates that
have been calculated. Table 2-3 illustrates the compar ison. The wide
range of assumed seepage rates includes the estimates of Wilson et al.
( 1973, 1974 ~ but extends downward to 0 .02 mta and upward to 10 mta. At
the low end, 10 ,000 mt is near the value of 14 ,000 mt of total proven
reserves and potential resources offshore as estimated by Albers et al.
(1973) . At the other end of the scale, Wilson et al. (1973, 1974)
accepted an estimate of 300,000 mt in place. Because this amount may
represent only l% of the petroleum mobilized from source beds, they
assumed that the amount available for seepage may be as much as
30 ,000 ,000 mt. This scale available for seepage has been augmented to
100,000,000 mt to attempt to include unknowns with regard to the amount
of petroleum that would have been available for seepage during geologic
time and will become available in the future dur ing the 1 if etimes of
the seepage.
Table 2-3 shows that to maintain petroleum seepage for a span of
geologic time of at least 50 million years (most of the Tertiary
period) requires that seepage rates be equal to or less than 2 mta, and
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49
TABLE 2-3 Maximum Lifetimes (Million Years) of World Oil Deposits
O il Available Assumed Seepage Rates (mta)
forSeepage (mt) 0.02 0.040.20 0.60 1.0 2.0 6.0 10
10,000 0.5 0.25.05 0.02 0.02 0.005 0.002 0.001
30,000 1.5 0.75.15 0.05 0.03 0.015 0.005 0.003
100,000 5 2.S0.5 0.2 O.1 0.05 0.02 0.01
300,000 15 7.51.5 0.5 0.3 0.15 0.05 0.03
1,000,000 50 25 5 2 1 0.5 0.2 0.1
3,000,000 150 75 15 5 3 1.5 0.5 0.3
10,000,000 500 250 50 20 10 5 2 1
30,000,000 1,500 750 150 50 30 15 5 3
100,000,000 5,000 2,500 500 200 100 50 20 10
at the same time the amount available for seepage must be equal to or
greater than 1,000,000 mt. If seepage is maintained for 500 million
years (most of the Phanerozoic), then seepage rates must be equal to or
less than 0.02 mta and the amount available for seepage must be equal
to or greater than 10,000,000 mt. The petroleum seepage rate that best
seems to accommodate the requirements of reasonable geologic time and
reasonable assumptions concerning availability for seepage is 0.2 mta
with an uncertainty both upward and downward of an order of magnitude.
Thus, the conclusion is reached that the average rate of petroleum
seepage over time ranges from 0.02 to 2.0 mta, with a best estimate of
0.2 mta. This value is lower by a factor of 3 than the best estimate
of Wilson et al. (1973, 1974) of 0.6 mta.
Erosional Inputs of Petroleum
The amount of petroleum that enters the marine environment by erosional
processes has not been estimated before. Previous work by Wilson et
al. (1973, 1974) considered only the marine input from natural seeps.
Any estimation of erosional input of petroleum into the oceans can only
be approximate.
There are at least three places where the erosional input of
petroleum into the oceans could be studied in detail. Weaver (1969)
showed examples of petroleum seeps at the beach and in the sea cliffs
facing the Santa Barbara Channel, where erosion presently is taking
place. Giammona (1980) described the Laguna de Tamiahua area where
there are onshore and offshore seeps. The Marine Pollution Subcom-
mittee of the Br itish National Committee on Oceanic Research (1980)
identif fed the Dorset coast of southern England as another place where
petroleum source rocks as well as petroleum-containing reservoir rocks
are exposed. They suggested this area for the study of natural seeps
and erosional processes affecting the distribution of petroleum in the
marine environment.
Because no direct information is available on erosional inputs of
petroleum into the oceans, an indirect approach must be taken. This
OCR for page 50
so
approach assumes that a portion of the organic carbon transported by
all r ivers is petroleum. Estimates of the organic carbon input into
the oceans by r ivers vary by nearly 2 orders of magnitude, from 30 to
1,000 mba, as summarized by Schlesinger and Clack (1981~. They
concluded , however, on the teas is of two approaches , that the amount o f
organic carbon transported by r ivers is 370-410 mta. Independently,
Meybeck (1981) reached a similar estimate of 400 mta.
In estimations of the organic carbon content of r ivers, no distinc-
tion has been made between carbon from modern biological sources, carbon
from pollution, and ancient carbon indigenous to the eroded sediment
being car r fed by the r ivers . This latter class of carbon is of interest
in estimating the eras tonal input of petroleum into the oceans .
The total organic matter content of rivers is divided about equally
between dissolved organic carbon and particulate organic carbon
(Ileybeck, 1981) . Meybeck further estimated that of the approximately
179 mta of particulate organic carbon that is transported by r ivers,
about 88 mta is ancient organic carbon. This ancient organic carbon is
f inely dispersed in Plastic and carbonate rock particles, eroded from
sedimentary rock formations on the continents (Ronov, 19761.
In ancient sedimentary rocks the amount of extractable organic
matter constitutes, on the average, about 6% of the total organic
matter tHunt, 19791. If the extractable fraction in sediment par ticles
in rivers is the same as that of source rocks, the amount in particu-
lates in r ivers would be 10.6 mta.
Most of the extractable organic mater Hal is d isper sed in sedimentary
rocks, but O. .596 of this mater ial is petroleum tHunt, 1972) . I f this
factor is applied to the extractable organic matter of sediment par-
ticles in r ivers, then the amount of petroleum transported from eroding
outcrops by r ivers to oceans is about O. .05 mta. This estimate may be
high, because loss of organic carbon by oxidation during river transport
and by sedimentation in estuar ies leading to the oceans was not con-
sidered because of lack of data on these processes. Because of the
numerous assumptions used to obtain this estimate, the uncertainty is
at least an order of magnitude.
In estimating rates of seepage of petroleum into the marine
environment, these rates have been compared with the amount assumed to
be available for seepage over geologic time (Table 2-3 ~ . Th is same
petroleum would be available for erosional processes over geologic
tune. The amount available is suff icient to sustain the estimated
rates of natural seepage as well as rates of erosion of petroleum for
an amount of time equivalent to the Tertiary per lad and probably longer .
OFFSHORE PRODUCTI ON
The amount of petroleum enter ing the mar ine environment from offshore
petroleum production is estimated to be from 0.04 to 0.07 mta. Of
these totals, ma jor spills (>7 metr ic tons) from platforms contr ibute
0.03-0.05 mta, minor spills (<7 metric tons) 0.003-0.004 mta, and
operational discharges O. . 007-0 .011 mta.
OCR for page 51
51
TABLE 2-4 Offshore Petroleum Production, 1979
Country
Pr oduct ion Rate
.
x 109
bbl/year x 106 mta
Saudi Arabia 1.03 147
United Kingdom 0 .57 81
United States 0.39 56
Venezuela 0.38 54
Other countries 2.24 320
TOTAL 4.61 658
These estimates for the release of petroleum into the marine
environment are lower, by about 30-50%, than the estimates generated
earlier (NRC, 1975~. Better data are available for operations, and
major spill incidents in the United States have been more comprehen-
sively documented since the earlier estimates were made. The available
international data suggest that reductions have also been experienced
outside the United States.
As reported by Burnet (1980), worldwide offshore petroleum produc-
tion totaled approximately 658 mta in 1979. Over 50% of the production
came from four countries: Saudi Arabia, the United Kingdom, the United
States, and Venezuela. These data, which are the latest available
published information, are summarized in Table 2-4. They are the basis
for all subsequent calculations of the current petroleum input to the
oceans from offshore petroleum production operations.
Operational (Produced Water) Discharges
In the United States, offshore produced water is normally discharged
into the ocean after being processed to minimize the entrained
petroleum content. Actual rates of discharge for produced water are
not currently available. However, until 1976, the U.S Geological
Survey (USGS) maintained records on these discharges from outer
continental shelf operations in the Gulf of Mexico. At that tine, 0.8
barrels of water were produced with every barrel of crude oil. This
ratio is assumed to be still valid, and the same ratio is assumed to
apply to all U.S. offshore production. This estimate is believed to be
conservative, because recent Bureau of Land Management (BLM) environmen-
tal impact statements for outer continental shelf (OCS) lease sales
assume a 0.6 water-to-crude-oil production ratio. The Department of
Environment, U.K. (1976} report concerning discharges from offshore
operations in U.K. waters stated: "The proportion of production water
in crude oil will initially be less than 1 percent but will increase to
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52
some 30 percent as the reservoir becomes depleted, particularly when
water in jection is used on an increasing scale. n This study assumed a
proportion of 10% averaged over the life of the U.K. fields. For other
countries an assumption of 30% was used. It should be noted that no
water is produced off the Saudi Arabian shore.
Produced water regulations in the United States require that the
daily maximum petroleum content not exceed 72 mg/L and that the monthly
average be less than 48 mg/L. The Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA, 1976) Development Document on which these guidelines are based
also includes the results of an in-depth statistical analysis of all
available data, which indicates that facilities meeting the above
limitations will achieve a long term average petroleum content of 25
mg/L or less. These figures, however, do not include the C6-C14
"volatile liquid" hydrocarbons, which are not determined by the solvent
extraction technique used for "oil and grease" analysis. Therefore, a
somewhat higher estimate of 35 mg/L hydrocarbons entering the oceans
from U.S. produced water discharges was used. Because this regime does
not include (1) upset and bypass situations in which higher discharge
1 evels are probably experienced and (2) the fact that state-of-the-art
equipment is not installed at all locations, a high estimated average
Is believed to be twice this level, 70 mg/L. A reasonable best
estimate is 50:20 mg/L volatile liquid" hydrocarbons and 30 mg/L
higher-molecular-weight hydrocarbons (>C14~.
Similar arguments for the U.K. offshore operations and those in
other countries (Table 2-5) lead to a range of 50-70 mg/L for the
estimated hydrocarbon content of produced waters.
Based on these assumptions, the volume of petroleum enter ing the
world's oceans from offshore produced water discharges is calculated to
be between 0.0075 and 0.0115 mta, with a best estimate of 0.0095 mba
(Table 2-6 ) .
Specific estimates were not made for deck drainage, drilling fluid
discharges , and other minor sources of petroleum (Schreiner, 1980 ~ .
These sources are probably accounted for within the 1 imits of conf idence
of the above number s .
Minor Spills
S ince 1971 the USGS has maintained a computer ized OCS events f ile for
Gulf of Mexico oil and gas operations (Danenberger, 19761. Included
are data on all crude oil spills . The USGS classif ies spills as minor
(7 metric tons or 50
barrels) . Table 2-7 summer izes the minor spi Its in the Gulf of Mexico
OCS for the 8-year per lad 1971-1978 . The average spillage rate for
this period was 0.000249 of total crude oil produced. The record for
minor spills in offshore Alaska is better. The Lower Cook Inlet
spillage rate for all spills from 1971 to 1980 is 0.0001% of total
crude oil produced (Wondzell, 19811.
Similar data for operations in other U.S. areas and outside the
United States are not readily available. Offshore operations are
moving into more severe environments, such as the arctic regions.
OCR for page 53
53
TABLE 2-5 Offshore Produced Water Effluent Limitations
Country
Oil and Grease Content Limit (mu/L)
Average Maximum
Abu Dhabi - 15
Australia 30 50
Denmark 40
Egypt - 60 (Mediterranean)
15 (Red Sea)
France - 20
Indonesia 30 _
Malaysia 100 (offshore) -
10 (coastal) -
Netherlands
Nigeria
Norway
Spain
-
75
25-30
40 (Atlantic)
60 (Mediterranean) 100
40
100
-
Trinidad 50 _
United Kingdom 40 {large facilities) no more than 4%
50 (small facilities) greater than 100 mg/L
United States 48 (monthly) 72
25 (long term)
Venezuela 35 _
NOTE: Limitations shown here are from various sources. They are either
existing government regulations, proposed government regulations
(which could change), or limitations imposed by authorities for
installations in operation in countries without regulations.
However, to balance this effect, there have been significant techno-
logical advances (such as warning systems and improved blowout
preventers) that are reducing the occurrence of spills of all sizes.
Average experience for all U.S. offshore operations probably is
comparable to the Gulf of Mexico average, so a range of 0.00021-0.00030%
is used for the United States. Another assumption is made that the
worldwide percentage is about twice that of the United States, or
0.00042-0.00060 (Table 2-8~. Clearly, there is uncertainty associated
with this assumption.
With these data a range of 0.0027-0.0038 mta has been calculated as
the estimate of petroleum entering the marine environment from minor
spillage from offshore drilling and production activities worldwide.
The best estimate is 0.003 mta, which is lower than the earlier NRC
(1975) estimate of 0.01 mta.
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78
TABLE 2-20 Selected Urban Runoff Studies
Location
Drainage
Area
(ha)
Number
of Storms
Studied
Reference
Seattle-- Wakeham (1917)
North Philadelphia616 Hunter et al. (1979)
North Philadelphia6165 Hunter et al. (1979)
North Philadelphia616 Whipple and
Hunter ( 19 7 9
Trenton A82 Wh ipple and
Hunter (1979)
Trenton B823 Tipple and
Hunter ( 1979
Los Angeles210,0001 Eganhouse and
Kaplan (1981, 1982)
Leon County, Fla. 357 1 Byrne et al . (1980
Narragansett Bay,
R.T . 167,000 21 Hoffman et al. (1982)
River Discharges
Reexamination of the global input of hydrocarbons to the oceans indi-
cates that the inclusion of a separate category for river discharges
may be improper because of double accounting of hydrocarbon input. The
ma jor sources of hydrocarbons in rivers are the untreated and treated
wastewater discharges, runoff {both urban and rural) , and spills. All
these sources are quantified and reported separately for coastal areas.
If an additional 110 million people discharge PHC into the interior
r ivers of the United States (at a rate of 6 .8 g/cap/d) and if 5% of
these PHCs eventually reach the oceans, then this yields an annual flux
of PHC from rivers to U.S. coastal waters of 0.013 mta. Assuming this
amount is one-third of the world total, the river discharge of PHC to
the ocean would be 0.04 mta.
OCEAN DUMPING
Some hydrocarbons are discharged into U.S. and world coastal regions in
association with municipal wastewater treatment plant sludge/underflow.
The sludge is generally discharged from dumping by barge or by dis-
charges through pipelines. In the United States, this sludge is
discharged by dumping in the New York Bight and by Pipeline on the West
Coast. In the New York Bight ~ approximately 7 x 10 wet tons of
sludge are discharged per year. This material contains approximately
2,000 ppm of oil and grease, of which about 4096 are hydrocarbons. This
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79
TABLE 2-21 Per Capita Estimates of PHC Contr ibutions in Urban Runof f
On it PHC
Contr ibution
Location (g/cap/d) Reference
Ph iladelph ia 0 . 0 3 ~ ipple and
and Trenton Hunter (1979
Narragansett Bay 2.7 Hoffman et al.
(1982 ~
Los Angelesa 1.9 Eganhouse and
Kaplan (1981)
Seattle 0.3 Wakeham (1977)
Swede ~0.3 NRC (1975)
BSingle storm extrapolated to annual runoff by author.
bTypical urban area (0.2 parking, 0.3 multifamily, and 0.6 single
family).
amounts to 0.006 mta of THC. In addition, the Los Angeles pipeline
discharges about 2,4SO tons of oil and grease annually through the 7
mile sludge outfall (Eganhouse and Kaplan, 1981~. This is estimated to
be 0.001 mta of TIC.
The annual worldwide discharge of wastewater sludge into the oceans
is approximately 16 million tons. Thus, applying a similar ratio to
that used for the United States, the total amount of hydrocarbons
discharged worldwide by ocean dumping is about O .02 mta.
Hydrocarbons are also released to the oceans from the dumping of
dredge spoils. Dredge spoils are river and channel sediments that have
been relocated by dredging and dumping operations. The hydrocarbons
that accompany these spoils are accounted for in other sections of this
report and are not included in the ocean dumping category.
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUI ION OF INPUTS
The input of petroleum hydrocarbons into the ocean is certainly not
distr ibuted evenly. The geographical distr ibution of the inputs from
each source is discussed below.
· Mar ine transportation (1.5 mta) . The input of PHC from this
source is concentrated along the pr incipal transportation routes and in
harbors and ports where oil tankers or other vessels are loaded or
unloaded. About half the transportation total is der ived from tanker
operations (0.7 mta). Most of this loss is probably at sea along the
prominent tanker routes from the Middle East to Europe, the American
OCR for page 80
80
continents, or the Far East. Another major source in this category is
tanker accidents (0.4 mta). These also tend to occur along the tanker
routes, but in more congested areas near ports or in narrow straits.
The third major source, that of bilge and fuel oils (0.3 mta), probably
follows a similar distribution pattern to that of the tanker operations.
· Offshore oil production (0.05 mta). This relatively minor
input occurs at offshore oil production facilities, and these tend to
be near coastlines. The largest offshore producing areas are the
Arabian Gulf, the North Sea, the Gulf of Mexico, offshore California,
offshore Malaysia and Indonesia, and the west coast of Africa.
· Refineries (0.1 mta). This input of PHC into the sea is con-
centrated near the coasts of countries that do most of the refining of
petroleum (e.g., the United States, Great Britain, Germany, France,
Japan, Canada, Mexico, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia).
· Nonrefinery wastes (0.2 mta). This input into the sea is
concentrated near the coasts of the more industrialized nations in the
world, such as the United States. the northern EuroDean countries and
Japan.
, _ , _ _ ,
· Municipal wastes (0.75 mta). This input of PHC is distributed
in much the same way as the nonrefinery industrial wastes. It would be
concentrated near the coasts of the more highly industrialized and
heavily populated nations. Best examples would again be the united
States, the northern European countries, and Japan.
· Urban runoff (0.12 mta). This input of PHC closely follows
the input from municipal wastes. The input would be primarily into
coastal areas of counts ies with high industrialization and large
populations.
· River runoff (0. 04 mta). This input is in coastal areas near
the mouths of large rivers, such as the MiSSiSSippi, the Rhine, the
Danube, the Saint Lawrence, and the Elbe.
· Natural sources (0.3 mta). Submarine seeps, at least those
identified thus far, seem to be associated with tectonically active
regions of the world and are usually near the coasts of continents.
Such areas are offshore California and Alaska, the Arabian Gulf and the
Red Sea, the northeast coast of South America, and the South China Sea.
· Atmosphere (0.05-0.5 mta). This input of PHC into the seas
would be primarily downwind of heavily industr ialized areas. Again,
the inputs are greatest near the coastlines, with concentrations
decreasing away from the coasts. The northwest Atlantic, the North
Sea, and the northwest Pacific (near Japan) would probably have
typically large atmospheric inputs of PHC.
Data are not available to estimate total PHC input by region except
in an extremely qualitative manner. If one looks at information on the
geographical distribution of each input, then one can say,
qualitatively, that coastal areas off the United States, Europe, and
Japan and the Arabian Gulf would probably have greater inputs.
OCR for page 81
81
SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The estimated range for total input of petroleum from all sources is
1.7-8.8 million mta. The best single-number estimate of total input is
3.2 mta. We believe that the range is a more accurate summary of the
state of knowledge than a single-number best estimate. Uncertainties
are particularly evident with certain sources, i.e., natural inputs
(seeps and erosion), transportation, municipal/industrial runoff, and
atmospheric inputs. There are also wide geographical gaps in informa-
tion on sources, especially in the southern hemisphere. Table 2-22
presents sources, probable ranges, and best estimates for sources. The
spread in probable range about the best estimate is a qualitative
measure of the faith in the best estimate. For example, the tanker
accident probable range is narrow (0.3-0.4 mta), so the best estimate
is probably good . On the other hand, the mar ine seep probable r ange is
wide (0.02-2.0 mta), indicating small reliability in the best estimate.
The 1975 NRC report gave only a single-number estimate of total
input of petroleum, namely, 6.1 mta. No range was given. This number
falls within the current estimated range of 1.7-8.8 mta. The difference
in the two single-number estimates, 6.1 mta in 1975 and the current 3.2
mta, does not necessarily reflect a significant decline in input but
indicates better estimation of individual inputs.
Although the amount of petroleum and petroleum products transported
by sea, as well as crude oil produced offshore, has increased during
the past 8 years, PHC input into the marine environment estimated at
the 1981 NRC workshop does not appear to have followed this trend.
This may be for the following reasons: (1) the individual input
estimates are more accurate due to improved analytical data on PHC
concentrations in effluent streams, (2) positive steps have been taken
to reduce operational and accidental release of petroleum into the sea,
and (3) double accounting of PHC inputs from sources has been reduced.
Double accounting arises when it becomes difficult to distinguish PHC
inputs from closely related sources (e.g., urban runoff, river runoff,
industrial and municipal wastes). Thus, there may be the tendency to
count the same PHC inputs twice or more times under different sources.
One source of PHC into the marine environment that was not estimated
was PHC released from pleasure craft, primarily in near-coastal marine
waters. Pleasure craft are primarily small inboard or outboard motor-
boats. While inputs from pleasure craft may be locally significant, we
believe that the total amount of this input would not be on the same
scale with the other inputs considered.
Major problems still remain in the estimation of PHC inputs into
the marine environment. Certainly, significant improvements have been
made in recent years in obtaining better analytical data on concentra-
tions of PHC entering the marine environment from varied sources.
However, additional work is still needed, particularly in the acqui-
sition of improved data on PHC inputs from the atmosphere, from
municipal and industrial waste sources, and from natural sources such
as marine seeps and erosion of terrestrial sediments.
Following is a list of recommended research programs or projects
that would address these problems:
OCR for page 82
82
TABLE 2-22 Input of Petroleum Hydrocarbons Into the Mar ine Environment
(mta ~
Sour ce Probable Range Best Estimatea
Natur al sources
Plar ine seeps 0 . 02-2 . O O .2
Sediment erosion 0 . 005-0 .5 0 .0 5
(Total natural sources) (0.025) - (2.5) (0.25)
Offshore production 0.04-0-.06 0.05
Tr anspor tat ion
Tanker operations 0.4-1.5 0.7
Dry-docking 0.02-0.05 0.03
Mar ine terminals 0 . 01-0 .03 0 .02
Bilge and fuel oils 0 . 2-0 .6 0 .3
Tanker acc idents 0 . 3-0 . 4 0 . 4
Nontanker accidents 0.02-0.04 0.02
(Total transportation) (0.95) - (2.62) (1.47)
Atmospher e 0 . 0 5-0 . 5 0 . 3
Municipal and industr ial
wastes and runoff
Municipal wastes 0 . 4-1 .5 0 .7
Refineries 0.06-0.6 0.1
Nonr ef ining
industr ial wastes 0 .1-0 .3 0 .2
Urban runoff 0.01-0.2 0.12
- River runoff 0.01-0.5 0.04
Ocean dumping 0 . 005-0 . 02 0 .0 2
(Total wastes and
runoff) (0 .585) - (3.12) (1.18)
TOTAL 1. 7-8 . 8 3 . 2
Ache total best estimate, 3.2 mta, is a sum of the individual best
estimates. A value of 0.3 was used for the atmospheric inputs to
obtain the total, although we well realize that this best estimate is
only a center point between the range limits and cannot be supported
r igorously by the data and calculations used for estimation of this
input.
1. Improved methods should be developed for large scale, areal
documentation of the continental margins to determine the extent of
submarine seepages of petroleum. A program should be undertaken to
gauge accurately flow rates for seeps of significantly different sizes,
including probable microseeps.
2. There should be continued monitor ing of all facilities dis-
charg~ng low levels of petroleum hydrocarbons dispersed or dispersed in
OCR for page 83
83
aqueous effluents (e.g., offshore platforms, refineries, and other
industrial plants and transportation units such as tankers and
terminals).
3. Rain samples collected from several locations on the ocean and
near sea coasts should be analyzed for PHC content. This work is
important since rain scavenging of atmospheric particles is believed to
be the major pathway for petroleum into the ocean from the atmosphere.
It is also necessary to determine reactions of, and changes occurring
in, various petroleum components as they are transported from sources
through the atmosphere across and into the oceans.
4. More applied investigations, including accurate measurements of
PHC, are needed to better define municipal, industrial, and runoff
inputs to the oceans. This is particularly needed in southern hemis-
phere countries. These investigations may lead to quantitative methods
for distinguishing petroleum hydrocarbons from oil and grease and
natural hydrocarbons found in municipal and industrial waste as well as
samples of runoff.
5. Data should be collected on the C2-C1O aliphatic hydrocarbons
in vapor, particulate, and rain samples from over the oceans, to relate
these to the distributions of other classes of organic compounds
present in petroleum.
6. Better solubility data are needed for n-alkanes and polynuclear
aromatic hydrocarbons to better ascertain the importance of rain
scavenging of gases and air-sea gas exchange processes to the contribu-
tion of the flux of atmospheric petroleum hydrocarbons to the ocean.
7. There is a need to determine the reactions and organic compound
class distributional changes that occur for the various organic com-
pounds in petroleum, as this material is transported from its source
through the atmosphere across the oceans.
8. Better solubility data are needed for n-alkanes, polynuclear
aromatic hydrocarbons, etc., to better ascertain the importance of rain
scavenging of gases and a~r-sea gas exchange processes to the contribu-
tion of the flux of atmospheric petroleum hydrocarbons to the ocean.
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.
Representative terms from entire chapter:
petroleum hydrocarbons
